1

Volume 5, Issue 1, 2012

Dry-Season Farming and Agrochemical Misuse in Upper East Region of Ghana: Implication and
Way Forward

Joseph K. Laary, Lecturer, Department of Ecological Agriculture, Bolgatanga Polytechnic, jlaary@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract

This study was conducted in four districts of the Upper East region of Ghana to determine different agrochemical
products sold to farmers, and the extent to which farmers use them on their crops, especially during dry season.
The results showed that all kinds of highly hazardous, adulterated, and inappropriate chemical products are sold by
dealers to farmers. Some of the agrochemicals sold to farmers had their labels scraped off; some were expired,
while others had been transferred into different containers. Some of the agrochemical products the farmers
currently use on their crops have been banned by the relevant government authorities because of their persistent,
toxic, and poisonous nature. A good number of the farmers (74%) who buy the agrochemicals are illiterates, most
of who do not protect themselves, and are unaware of dangers of exposure during handling, formulation, and
application of agrochemicals. Fruits and vegetables are harvested within days after last agrochemical application,
regardless of health implications. Most of the farmers (89%) know only synthetic chemicals and the few who know
other alternatives do not see their importance or are not interested. There is therefore the need for farmer education
and participatory practices on safe usage of agrochemicals to safeguard humans, other beneficial life-forms, and
the environment.

Keywords: Farmer, Agrochemical misuse, Education, Participatory practices, Environment.

Introduction

The Upper East Region is located at the extreme north-eastern portion of Ghana. About 89% of its communities are
predominantly rural, with a population density of about 100 people/Km
2
area. Agriculture is the dominant economic
activity, employing 80% of the active population, who are mostly illiterates. The vegetation of the region is Guinea-
Savanna, with unimodal rainfall distribution, which gives a single 5-6 months rainy (growing) season between
April/May and September/October, and 6-7 months long dry season from October to April (MOFA, 2008).

The long dry season from October to April is associated with dry harmattan winds with low humidity and low night
temperatures, making the area suitable for the growing of horticultural crops like tomatoes, garden eggs, pepper,
onions, watermelons, okra and other leafy vegetables under irrigation (MOFA, 2008).

The region though can boast of two major irrigation projects -Tono and Vea- for all year round farming, majority of the
farmers in the region use dug-out dams, rivers, streams, and with few using hand-dug wells to support dry season
farming. The dry season farming is therefore concentrated mostly in communities near these water bodies, where
crops and vegetables are cultivated along their banks (ACDEP, 2010).

The cultivation of these crops and vegetables is also accompanied by the application of agrochemicals. Farmers
are increasingly relying on inorganic agriculture mainly because, the soils are poor, and indigenous crop varieties
have almost been replaced by improved high yielding varieties which are heavy nutrient miners. Most of the crops
cultivated are short duration crops, among which are vegetables that are most frequently grown in season when
farming is limited to few areas surrounding water bodies. The crops are also quite susceptible to many insect
species, which may not only feed but also reproduce on them. So the farmer seems to have no choice but to treat
crops and protect them against insect species and diseases using agrochemicals. Agrochemicals are crop
protection products or agents used to control plants or weeds, diseases, insects or animals that are undesirable or
harmful to man, and/or also to promote the growth and development of crops. The commonly used agrochemicals
in Ghana are insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, fumigants, fertilizers and growth regulators (Ntow, 2004; PAR,
2000).

Most agrochemicals are toxic and can pose danger to human health (WHO, 2008); hence, their use is highly
regulated internationally, nationally and regionally, with regulations and conventions (PAR, 2000; FAO/WHO, 2001).
As a result of dangers associated with agrochemicals, consumers of agricultural products, especially in Europe and
the Americas are advocating for chemical-free food products for guaranteed health and long lives. Organic
agriculture is thus of late gaining much popularity.
2
It is threatening however that, agrochemicals such as Atrazine, Aldrin, DDT, Paraquat, Alachlor, among others that
have been banned for decades in the European Union (EU) and United States of America (USA) are still used
extensively in many developing countries (Machipisa, 1996; IUPAC, 2008) by local farmers to control pests and
diseases of field crops and food products. These local farmers also have little or no knowledge on how, what, when
and how often to apply agrochemicals on their crops; the consequence of which is the destruction of entire crops
fields, polluting water bodies and putting human health and environment at risk (Ntow, 2004).

Incidentally, many farmers who use these agrochemicals do not know much about the dangers associated with
them and hence end up tasting to determine their potency and also failing to protect themselves during their
formulation and application. Though some stored farm produce are treated with few agrochemicals, most of them
are frequently applied on field crops especially in the dry season along the banks of water bodies such as dams and
rivers, which subsequently ends up polluting and aiding their drying up.

As a result of continuous application of agrochemicals, the fertility status of farm lands is getting worse year after
year; many insects and their predators are destroyed, and others have evolved resistant strains (Tanzubil, 1997).
It is also worth noting that, despite the incessant use of agrochemical products by farmers, 20-40% of potential food
production is still lost every year to pests and diseases (Obeng-Ofori, 1998). Therefore, an adequate reliable food
supply cannot be guaranteed with the use of agrochemical products alone.

Many farmers in Ghana and in many other developing countries are of late relying heavily on agrochemicals in their
quest to produce food crops and vegetables, especially during the dry season (Amoah, et al., 2005; Ntow, 2004;
PAR, 2000). It is against this background that a study was conducted in the Upper East Region of Ghana to
determine the extent and purpose for which farmers use agrochemicals on their crops and other food products, with
a view to suggesting possible interventions to minimizing over-dependence on agrochemicals.

Methodology

This study was recently conducted through farmer group discussions, markets and agro-input shops surveys, and
farmer interviews.

Farmer group discussions were conducted in selected communities of Bawku Municipality, Garu-Tempane,
Kasena-Nankana and Talansi-Nabdam Districts of the Upper East Region of Ghana. This was to obtain general
information on where farmers acquire agrochemicals and on which season agrochemicals are mostly applied on
their crops. Many of the groups members mentioned markets and agro-input shops as places they mostly buy their
agrochemicals; and, dry season as the most predominant season for agrochemical application.

Ten markets and four agro-input shops were then selected at random from among the four districts and visited, to
identify the various types of agrochemicals they deal in and to also find out dealers levels of knowledge on the
usage, formulation, and application of those agrochemical products. Eight dry season farming communities were
then randomly selected from the districts. In each of the eight selected communities, ten dry season farmers were
selected at random amongst lists of dry season farmers and interviewed face to face using a structured
questionnaire. Eighty dry season farmers were interviewed in all four selected districts.

The interview was mainly focused on types of agrochemicals they buy, where they buy them, level of protection,
and on crops those agrochemicals were often applied. Some of the interviewed farmers were also visited in their
farms or gardens to observe where they were and to find out what, how and when agrochemicals are applied on
those crop fields. In almost all cases, farmers dry season crops and vegetables were found growing proximity to
water bodies like rivers, dug-out dams and hand-dug wells. Data collected from the survey was analyzed in SPSS.

Results

The Market Survey

In the market survey, various kinds of agrochemical products including herbicides, insecticides, fungicides,
fumigants, fertilizers and plant growth regulators or hormones were found with agrochemical dealers. There were
also many improved but determinate vegetable seeds found with both market and agro-input dealers.

Some of the agrochemicals found with market dealers had their labels scraped off; others were expired and/or
banned, whilst others were transferred into different containers. Those that had their labels scraped off or
transferred into different containers were difficult to identify. The agrochemical products found with dealers and
identified are shown in Table 1.


3

Table 1: Agrochemical Products Found with Market and Agro-input Dealers


Herbicides/Weedicides

Insecticides/Pesticides

Fungicides

Fumigants
Hormones/
Growth
Regulators

Non-Selective

Roundup (Glyphosate)
Gramoxone
Sarosate(Glyphosate/Isopropylamine)
Kalach (Glyphosate acid)
Raundo(Glyphosate/Isopropylamine)
Paraquat*
Alachlor*
Atrazine*
Gramoquat
Glyfos (Glyphosate/Isopropylamine)
Glyphader 75 (Glyphosate acid)

Selective

Calliherbe (Amin salt)
Chemostom (Pendimenthalin)
Anna (Amin salt)
Amino 72 (Dimethylamine salt)
Stam F-34 (Propanil)
Condax-5 (Bensulfuran-methyl)

Deltamethrin
Furadan (Carbofuran)*
Karate (Lambda Cyhalothrin)
Kombat (Lambda Cyhalothrin)
Wreko(Lamda Cyhalothrin)
Kilsect (Lamda Cyhalothrin)
Sumitox (Sulphanate/Ethelene)
Mektin (Abamectin)
Polytrine (Cypermethrin)
Dimex (Dimethoate)
DDT*
Chlorpyrifos (Dursban/Reldan)
Lindane (Gamalin 20)*
Propoxur*
Aldrin*
Bioresmethrin (Pyrethroid)
Actellic (Pyrimiphos-methyl)
Super Guard (Dust)
Dieldrin*
HCB*
Master Insect (Lambda
Cyhalon)
Diazol (Organo-phosphorus)
Conti-Halothrin (Cyhalothrin)


Captan (Captafol)*
Formaldehyde
Topsin-M
(MethylThiophanate)
Funguran-othops
Kocide (Cupper
Sulphate)
Conti-zeb/Manco-zeb
Foko (Manco-zeb)
Champion
Nodox Super 75
Ridomilphi

Pellets

Gastoxin
Phostoxin
Protex
Gastox
(Aluminium
phosphate)

Dust/powder

Baby Nayoka
Wander 77
Commando
Indiana Medi

Liquids

Sidalco
Golden Harvest
Harvest More
Phostrogen
Super Grow
Mono
Ammonium
phosphate
(MAP)

Fertilizers

N:P:K
Sulphate of
Ammonia (SA)
Urea

Surfactant

Bionet


* Banned Chemicals (Source: Amoah et al., 2005; Carl, 1991; Machipisa, 1996; Ntow, 2004)


Most of the farmers buy their agrochemicals and vegetable seeds from the market (Fig 1). These farmers are however rarely given advice or
instructions by the dealers on how to handle and use the agrochemicals when buying them because, most of the market dealers know little, or
nothing about the agrochemical products they sell to farmers.


The Farm survey

It was observed in the farm survey that the problem associated with agrochemical application was further compounded by the fact that farmers who
mostly buy these agrochemicals know virtually nothing on the possible dangers associated with their use. This is probably due to the fact that most
(74%) of the farmers cannot read or write (Fig 2).
4



Fig 1: Sources Farmers Buy their Seeds and Agrochemicals




Fig 2: Literacy Levels of Interviewed Farmers


As a result, how to take precautionary measures during formulation and application of these chemicals are not
known (Fig 3). Therefore, apart from the possibility of using an expired product, most of them may not formulate the
agrochemicals well before applying them and may therefore not achieve the desired results from their application.

Farmers mainly use the agrochemical products on vegetables like watermelon, tomatoes, onions, garden eggs,
aubergines, okra, cabbage, lettuce, and other leafy vegetables. Only few non-vegetable crops like cotton, tobacco,
soybean, cowpea, are also applied with agrochemicals (Fig 4).

The aim of farmers for applying agrochemicals on their crops is either to enhance growth or control pests and
diseases that threaten the survival and yield potential of their crops (Hill and Waller, 1982). Various pests and
disease symptoms were mentioned by the farmers and identified with them on their crops. Identified pests and
diseases farmers believe may cause or are causing damage to their crops which warrant their control with
heavy doses of agrochemicals are shown in Table 2.

N = 80
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
O
w
n

F
r
i
e
n
d
M
a
r
k
e
t
A
g
r
o
-
i
n
p
u
t

s
h
o
p
C
o
m
m
u
n
i
t
y

d
e
a
l
e
r
M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n

o
n
e

s
o
u
r
c
e
N
o
n
e

o
f

t
h
e
m
Sources
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s






Seeds
Chemicals
N = 80
74%
19%
7%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Can only read Can read and
write
Cannot read and
write
Literacy level
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s
5



Fig 3: Level of Protection during Chemical Formulation and Application



Fig 4: Crops on which Farmers Apply Agrochemicals



Table 2: Percentage Response of Farmers on most Important Pests and Diseases they Apply Agrochemicals to
Control during Vegetative, Flowering and Fruiting Stages of their Vegetables

Name of
Insect Pest
Vegetative
(%)
Flowering
(%)
Fruiting
(%)
Name of
Disease
Symptom
Vegetative
(%)
Flowering
(%)
Fruiting
(%)
Caterpillars
Mealy bugs
Grasshoppers
Leaf miners
Bees
Butterfly
Fruit fly
Whitefly
Soil pests
No pests

Total
14
3
54
18
0
4
0
2
5
0

100
4
1
15
2
28
2
2
42
2
2

100
5
22
3
1
18
6
12
5
3
25

100
Leaf curl
Leaf spot
Dumping off
Flower/
Fruit drop
Fruit rot
No diseases




Total
48
14
20

2
1
15




100
7
11
2

18
2
60




100
1
1
0

10
23
65




100


N = 80
2%
8%
4% 4%
8%
74%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
None Only
hands
Only
face
Hands
and face
Whole
body
No
answer
Level of protection
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s
N = 80
3%
12%
85%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Vegetables Others None
Crops
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s
6
In most cases, farmers target more than one insect pest or disease symptom during chemical application. Some
farmers believe that any insect, including bees found on crop field at flowering and fruiting stages are causing or
likely to cause flower and/or fruit abortion and are equally targeted with pesticides. It is not only field crops pests,
but stored produce pests are also treated with agrochemicals.

In other to control insect pests and diseases of most importance to the farmer, several applications of
agrochemicals are made on crops and vegetables like watermelon, tomatoes, and onions before harvest (Table 3).
The multiple applications is partly due to the low chemical concentrations rate, adulteration, misapplication,
ineffective and/or expired chemicals farmers use in some cases, as observed during the survey.

It is however quite threatening to apply agrochemicals for such a number of times before harvesting, not forgetting
of the fact that some of these vegetables are mostly eaten raw or slightly cooked (Ntow, 2004; Amoah, et al., 2005).
Even more threatening is that, farmers can harvest their produce for sale few days after last chemical application
(Fig 5), even though some of the chemical products used by these farmers have residues which can be retained on
crops and vegetables for extended periods (Kleter, et al., 2008). Research also has it that, there is gradual
cumulative evidence of increasing human vulnerability to agrochemicals and chemically applied food products
(Amoah et al., 2005; Ntow, 2004; Smith, et al., 1999).

Table 3: Percentage Response of Farmers on the Number of Times they Apply Chemicals on Tomatoes,
Watermelon, and Onions before Harvest

Number of times Tomatoes
(%)
Watermelon
(%)
Onions
(%)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13-15

Total

19
2
8
44
12
7
1
0
0
3
2
0
0
2

100

1
3
3
11
8
2
7
23
8
1
16
2
7
8

100

21
4
7
48
5
10
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0

100



Fig 5: Periods Farmers Start Harvesting their Vegetables after Last Chemical Application

N = 80
14%
17%
46%
23%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1 2 3 4
Number of weeks
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s

7
Whilst some farmers have reasons necessitating such numerous chemical applications, majority (54%) of them do
not know why they keep applying agrochemicals (Fig 6). To them, treating the crop continuously with agrochemicals
is a common practice to maximize yield and attract good market prices; because both leaves and fruits will be free
of insect and disease infestation and will be more appealing and attractive to the consumer.


Fig 6: Farmers Reasons for Continuous Application of Agrochemicals


Farmers also know little about other alternatives to synthetic chemicals (Fig 7), as synthetic chemicals are known
and/or thought to be the most potent, rapid and reliable means of reducing pest and disease incidence on food
crops. As a result, those who know other alternatives to synthetic chemicals are either not interested in such
alternatives or do not appreciate their benefits or importance.

Unlike synthetic chemicals, botanicals are often not available in the market; hence, farmers are over relying and
depending on synthetic chemical products to produce food crops and vegetables for consumption and for income.

Fig 7: Farmers Awareness of other Alternatives to Inorganic Chemicals


N = 80
54%
3%
6%
15%
3%
19%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
N
o
t

p
o
t
e
n
t
e
n
o
u
g
h
N
o
t

w
e
l
l
f
o
r
m
u
l
a
t
e
d
/
s
p
r
a
y
e
d
I
n
s
e
c
t
s

n
o
t
d
y
i
n
g
I
n
s
e
c
t
s

f
l
y
a
w
a
y

a
n
d
r
e
t
u
r
n
D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
n
s
e
c
t
s
c
a
m
e

N
o

r
e
a
s
o
n
Reasons
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s

N = 80
3%
8%
89%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Plant extracts Synthetic
chemicals
No answer
Awareness
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
a
r
m
e
r
s
8

Discussion

Unlike in the past, traditional options have been reduced or eliminated, resources are lacking, soils are poor, and
illiterate farmers predominate in farming communities in developing countries such as Ghana. These farmers have
little or no knowledge on how to improve the soil or reduce pest and disease infestations without using
agrochemicals, and may not even know there are dangers associated with agrochemicals. Though there may be
existing evidence of associated dangers of agrochemical misuse, such evidence is hardly believed to be associated
with agrochemicals, because their effects are gradual and seldom noticed. As a result, farmers rarely take caution
during handling, formulation and application of these agrochemicals, and these acts put the farmers and the
consumers health at risk (Smith, et al., 1999).

The numerous and continuous application of agrochemicals by farmers on crops before harvest (Table 3) even if
some reasons (Fig 6) necessitate such applications, may not be of any benefit to the farmer. Apart from investing
much labor and other resources, agrochemicals are expensive and are also beyond the reach of most farmers. In
addition to this, the yields from crops grown on farmers soils year after year seldom make inorganic chemical
application economically viable (Reinders, 2007).

The continuous use of agrochemicals may also seem to be controlling pests and diseases and probably increasing
crop yields each year, but in reality, yields are decreasing. The economic returns or the net income accruable to the
farmer, based on the gross income and expenditure on agrochemicals alone may not be anything to write home
about. However, farmers cannot quantify this and take caution on the number of agrochemical applications they
have to make before harvesting their farm produce. Although farmers seems not to be interested or do not
appreciate the benefits of other alternatives to inorganic chemicals, other alternatives should be considered, since
inorganic chemical use under this prevailing farming system is not an attractive option.

In the Upper East Region of Ghana, as well as in other regions of the Country, agrochemical usage should be a
focus for developing agricultural extension policies that seek to help farmers avoid, minimize, or adapt chemical-
free farming practices for the benefit of every one. There is no regulatory measure that could fully achieve its
intended purpose without active participation and support of all stakeholders. Developing countries such as Ghana,
should involve stakeholders in implementing measures to reduce risk associated with agrochemical application.
Apart from farmers, communities must also be prepared to accept a change and assist in minimizing agrochemical
misuse. To prevent or reduce harmful effect of agrochemicals, farmers must be ready to learn and practice good
farm management.

To achieve this, adequate support and effective extension services must be put in place. Farmers should also be
well organized for effective farmer participatory learning practices. The gradual cumulative evidence of increasing
human vulnerability to agrochemicals and chemically applied food products (Amoah et al., 2005; Ntow, 2004; Smith,
et al., 1999) should also call for significant policy response and action on several fronts in developing countries.
Prior action to mitigate associated problems with continuous use of agrochemicals and to also boost farmers
capacity to cope with or prepare for change from chemical to chemical-free farming practices makes more sense as
a long term measure.

Safety considerations pertaining directly to the use of agrochemicals should include education and training
programs that relay how chemical products can be used safely and efficiently, whilst avoiding expired or banned
chemical products. It is again critical for farmers to be educated on ways to avoid some of the inherent risks of
sometimes harmful or toxic chemicals they often handle. They should also show keen interest in learning about
agrochemical products, their effects and how to effectively formulate and apply them to increase productivity without
much health implications. End-users (consumers) of agricultural produce should learn about the dangers of
agrochemical misuse and also take keen interest to know much about what they eat (Groth, et al., 2000).

Possibility of change in the near future may need short-term prevention and management measures to reduce
farmers use of agrochemicals to the lowest level possible (Adger, et al., 2001). So there is the need for a concept
of integrated approach to areas of safe and responsible use of inorganic and organic chemicals, as an integrated
pest management strategy to reduce if not entirely, the risk associated with sole reliance on inorganic chemicals.
This could be done in a gradual process through farmer participatory approaches aimed at introducing to farmers
the possible alternatives to inorganic chemicals. It should be a gradual process because too fast a rate of change
may exceed the capacity of the farmer to adopt. It will also help facilitate effective intervention strategies to
improving farmers knowledge base on dangers associated with agrochemicals and possible alternatives to
inorganic chemicals.

Every human generation therefore has an obligation to preserve the natural and agricultural heritage for its
successors, so that todays production does not reduce or hinder the capacity of the future generation to produce
what is necessary for life (FAO, 2002). So, while hungry mouths may depend on any means possible, detrimental or
not, to obtain food and income for sustenance of their livelihood, natural resources must be protected and
preserved for posterity through some of the following measures:
9

Stakeholder training program involving farmers and agrochemical dealers on acceptable agrochemicals and
their formulations and usage should be organized regularly by relevant government agencies;
Farmers should be educated to desist from growing food crops along the banks of water bodies and applying
agrochemicals on them;
Farmers should be educated on dangers of agrochemicals and encouraged to desist from harvesting,
consuming or selling farm produce that have been applied with agrochemicals less than a month old.
Depending on the extent of pest and disease infestation on a crop, agrochemicals should not be applied
beyond 1-3 times on an infested crop.
Farmers should be educated on timely planting of resistant but vigorous varieties to help minimize pest and
disease incidence on crops;
The use of soil friendly practices such as composting and leguminous cover cropping should be encouraged,
instead of herbicides to prevent growth of unwanted plants (weeds) in crop fields; and
Different plant products (leaves, seeds, oils and ash) can be used to protect crops and foodstuffs against insect
pest damage. So in an attempt to control pests, farmers could use botanicals such as neem (Azadirachta
indica, Juss) extracts, since it is very effective against several insects and mite species (Obeng-Ofori, 1998;
Tanzubil, 1997).

Conclusion

The extent of use, level of education and protection, and reasons of farmers for relying heavily on agrochemicals to
protect crops and vegetables which could be eaten raw or slightly cooked, presupposes that the farmer as well as
the consumer is likely to be exposed to various forms of agrochemical substances. The continuous application of
agrochemicals pollutes water bodies thereby posing health hazards to humans, animals, and wildlife. The insects
could also gradually evolve resistant strains to pesticides and in the long run become pests to man. Reduction in
the impact of agrochemical dangers will therefore depend mostly on skills, information, and education.

The focus should therefore be an increase investment and awareness creation through sound extension services
on management of farm environment and reduction in agrochemical use by farmers. Priorities in developing
countries like Ghana should therefore go to policies that will reduce the vulnerability of the poor farmer to dangers
of agrochemicals, as part of general strategies towards poverty reduction, food security, and sustainable agriculture
development.

This can be made possible through education and farmer participatory practices, and gradually integrating inorganic
and organic agriculture towards reducing farmers over reliance on agrochemicals. Though reduction in the use of
agrochemicals can have biodiversity benefit, for sustainable and stable crop production, organic agriculture is more
appropriate. Apart from producing chemical-free foods in the long run, the environment and its natural resources as
well as farmers and consumers could be saved or protected for posterity.

Acknowledgements

I thank Mr. Solomon Atigah and Madam Liticia Sampoa Apam of Presbyterian Agriculture Station (PAS), Garu, and
Mr. Jonathan Agawini of Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) for assisting me in various ways during my
preliminary surveys. I am also grateful to Prof. K. Ofori of University of Ghana, Prof. B. Tanzubil of Bolgatanga
Polytechnic, and Dr. W. Dogbe of SARI for their contributions and also reading through the manuscript.


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Adger, N., Kelly, M. & Bentham, G. (2001). New Indicators of Vulnerability and Adaptive Capacity. Paper
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