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2015
Exam?
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam?
www.aamc.org/mcat2015exam
Table of Contents Page Number
Introduction
ii
Section 1: Biological and Biochemical
Foundations of Living Systems
1
Section 2: Chemical and Physical Foundations
of Biological Systems
38
Section 3: Psychological, Social, and Biological
Foundations of Behavior
67
Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills
(related to Sections 1-3)
98
Section 4: Critical Analysis and Reasoning
Skills
111
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam?
Introduction
This document draws from the online resource Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? at
www.aamc.org/mcat2015exam. It contains a complete description of the competencies you
are responsible for knowing on the MCAT
2015
exam. It describes the new exams content and
format. It also lists and discusses the new exams conceptual framework which is organized
around foundational concepts, content categories, and scientific inquiry and reasoning skills.
Also included are sample test questions that demonstrate how the competencies are tested on
the exam.
While the content is written for you, the prospective MCAT examinee, the information it
provides is likely to be useful to pre-health advisors, other baccalaureate faculty, medical
school admission officers, and medical schools.
How is the MCAT Exam Structured?
The MCAT exam has four test sections:
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills
The first three sections are organized around foundational concepts or big ideas in the
sciences. They reflect current research about the most effective ways for students to learn and
use science, emphasizing deep knowledge of the most important scientific concepts over
knowledge simply of many discrete scientific facts.
Leaders in science education say that some of the most important foundational concepts in the
sciences ask students to integrate and analyze information from different disciplines. In that
vein, questions in these sections will ask you to combine your scientific knowledge from
multiple disciplines with your scientific inquiry and reasoning skills. You will be asked to
demonstrate four different scientific inquiry and reasoning skills on the exam:
Knowledge of scientific concepts and principles
Scientific reasoning and problem solving
Reasoning about the design and execution of research
Data-based and statistical reasoning
The fourth section of the MCAT exam, Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills, will be similar to
many of the verbal reasoning tests you have taken in your academic career. It includes
passages and questions that test your ability to comprehend and analyze what you read. The
Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills section asks you to read and think about passages from
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam?
a wide range of disciplines in the social sciences and humanities, including those in population
health, ethics and philosophy, and studies of diverse cultures. Passages are followed by a
series of questions that lead you through the process of comprehending, analyzing, and
reasoning about the material you have read. This section is unique because it has been
developed specifically to measure the analytical and reasoning skills you will need to be
successful in medical school.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
What will the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Section Test?
The Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section asks you to solve problems by
combining your knowledge of biological and biochemical concepts with your scientific inquiry and
reasoning skills. This section tests processes that are unique to living organisms, such as growing and
reproducing, maintaining a constant internal environment, acquiring materials and energy, sensing and
responding to environmental changes, and adapting. It also tests how cells and organ systems within an
organism act independently and in concert to accomplish these processes, and it asks you to reason
about these processes at various levels of biological organization within a living system.
This section is designed to:
test introductory-level biology, organic chemistry, and inorganic chemistry concepts;
test biochemistry concepts at the level taught in many colleges and universities in first-semester
biochemistry courses;
test cellular and molecular biology topics at the level taught in many colleges and universities in
introductory biology sequences and first-semester biochemistry courses;
test basic research methods and statistics concepts described by many baccalaureate faculty as
important to success in introductory science courses; and
require you to demonstrate your scientific inquiry and reasoning, research methods, and statistics
skills as applied to the natural sciences.
Test Section Number of Questions Time
Biological and Biochemical
Foundations of Living Systems
59
(note that questions are a
combination of passage-based
and discrete questions)
95 minutes
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills
As a reminder, the scientific inquiry and reasoning skills that you will be asked to demonstrate on this
section of the exam are:
Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles
Demonstrating understanding of scientific concepts and principles
Identifying the relationships between closely-related concepts
Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving
Reasoning about scientific principles, theories, and models
Analyzing and evaluating scientific explanations and predictions
Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research
Demonstrating understanding of important components of scientific research
Reasoning about ethical issues in research
Data-Based and Statistical Reasoning
Interpreting patterns in data presented in tables, figures, and graphs
Reasoning about data and drawing conclusions from them
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
General Mathematical Concepts and Techniques
Its important for you to know that questions on the natural, behavioral, and social sciences sections
will ask you to use certain mathematical concepts and techniques. As the descriptions of the scientific
inquiry and reasoning skills suggest, some questions will ask you to analyze and manipulate scientific
data to show that you can
Recognize and interpret linear, semilog, and log-log scales and calculate slopes from data
found in figures, graphs, and tables
Demonstrate a general understanding of significant digits and the use of reasonable numerical
estimates in performing measurements and calculations
Use metric units, including converting units within the metric system and between metric and
English units (conversion factors will be provided when needed), and dimensional analysis
(using units to balance equations)
Perform arithmetic calculations involving the following: probability, proportion, ratio,
percentage, and square-root estimations
Demonstrate a general understanding (Algebra IIlevel) of exponentials and logarithms
(natural and base 10), scientific notation, and solving simultaneous equations
Demonstrate a general understanding of the following trigonometric concepts: definitions of
basic (sine, cosine, tangent) and inverse (sin
1
, cos
1
, tan
1
) functions; sin and cos values of 0,
90, and 180; relationships between the lengths of sides of right triangles containing angles of
30, 45, and 60
Demonstrate a general understanding of vector addition and subtraction and the right-hand rule
(knowledge of dot and cross products is not required)
Note also that an understanding of calculus is not required, and a periodic table will be provided
during the exam.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
References
During the actual exam, you will have access to the periodic table below while answering questions in
this section of the exam.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Li ving Systems Distribution of Questions by
Discipline, Foundational Concept, and Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skill
You may wonder how much biochemistry youll see on this section of the MCAT exam, how many
questions youll get about a particular foundational concept, or how the scientific inquiry and reasoning
skills will be distributed on your exam. The questions that you see are likely to be distributed in the
ways described below. These are the approximate percentages of questions youll see on a test for each
discipline, foundational concept, and scientific inquiry and reasoning skill.
*
Discipline:
First-semester biochemistry, 25%
Introductory biology, 65%
General chemistry, 5%
Organic chemistry, 5%
Foundational Concept:
Foundational Concept 1, 55%
Foundational Concept 2, 20%
Foundational Concept 3, 25%
Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skill:
Skill 1, 35%
Skill 2, 45%
Skill 3, 10%
Skill 4, 10%
*
These percentages have been approximated to the nearest 5% and will vary from one test to another for
a variety of reasons. These reasons include, but are not limited to, controlling for question difficulty,
using groups of questions that depend on a single passage, and using unscored field-test questions on
each test form.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Li ving Systems Framework of Foundational
Concepts and Content Categories
Foundational Concept 1: Biomolecules have unique properties that determine how they contribute to
the structure and function of cells and how they participate in the processes necessary to maintain life.
The content categories for this foundational concept include
1A. Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acids
1B. Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the protein
1C. Transmission of heritable information from generation to generation and the processes that
increase genetic diversity
1D. Principles of bioenergetics and fuel molecule metabolism
Foundational Concept 2: Highly-organized assemblies of molecules, cells, and organs interact to
carry out the functions of living organisms.
The content categories for this foundational concept include
2A. Assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within single cellular and multicellular
organisms
2B. The structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes and viruses
2C. Processes of cell division, differentiation, and specialization
Foundational Concept 3: Complex systems of tissues and organs sense the internal and external
environments of multicellular organisms, and through integrated functioning, maintain a stable
internal environment within an ever-changing external environment.
The content categories for this foundational concept include
3A. Structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and ways in which these systems
coordinate the organ systems
3B. Structure and integrative functions of the main organ systems
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
How Foundational Concepts and Content Categories Fit Together
The MCAT exam asks you to solve problems by combining your knowledge of concepts with your
scientific inquiry and reasoning skills. Figure 1 illustrates how foundational concepts, content
categories, and scientific inquiry and reasoning skills intersect to create test questions.
Foundational Concept 1 Foundational Concept 2
Content
Category
1A
Content
Category
1B
Content
Category
1C
Content
Category
2A
Content
Category
2B
Content
Category
2C
Skill 1
Skill 2
Skill 3
Skill 4
Each cell represents the point at which foundational
concepts, content categories, and scientific inquiry and
reasoning skills cross.
Test questions are written at the intersections of the
knowledge and skills.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Understanding the Foundational Concepts and Content Categories in the Biological and
Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Section
The following are detailed explanations of each foundational concept and related content categories tested in the
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems section. To help you prepare for the MCAT exam, we
provide content lists that describe specific topics and subtopics that define each content category for this section.
The same content lists are provided to the writers who develop the content of the exam. Here is an excerpt from
the content list.
EXCERPT FROM BIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF LIVING SYSTEMS
OUTLINE
Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BC) Topic
Description of fatty acids (BC) Subtopic
Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
Oxidation of fatty acids
o
o
Saturated fats
Unsaturated fats
Ketone bodies (BC)
Anabolism of fats (BIO)
Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
Metabolism of proteins (BIO)
The abbreviations in parentheses indicate the courses in which undergraduate students at many colleges and
universities learn about the topics and associated subtopics. The course abbreviations are
BC: first-semester biochemistry
BIO: two-semester sequence of introductory biology
GC: two-semester sequence of general chemistry
OC: two-semester sequence of organic chemistry
In preparing for the MCAT exam, you will be responsible for learning the topics and associated subtopics at the
levels at which they are taught at many colleges and universities in the courses listed in parentheses. A small
number of subtopics have course abbreviations indicated in parentheses. In those cases, you are responsible only
for learning the subtopics as they are taught in the course(s) indicated.
Using the excerpt above as an example,
You are responsible for learning about the topic Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins at the level at
which it is taught in a typical two-semester introductory biology sequence and in a typical first-semester
biochemistry course.
You are responsible for learning about the subtopics Anabolism of fats, Non-template synthesis:
biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides, and Metabolism of proteins only at the levels at which they are
taught in a typical two-semester sequence of introductory biology.
You are responsible for learning about the subtopics Description of fatty acids and Ketone bodies only at
the levels at which they are taught in a typical first-semester biochemistry course.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Remember that course content at your school may differ from course content at other colleges and universities.
The topics and subtopics described in this and the next two chapters may be covered in courses with titles that are
different from those listed here. Your pre-health advisor and faculty are important resources for your questions
about course content.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Foundational Concept 1
Biomolecules have unique properties that determine how they contribute to the structure and
function of cells, and how they participate in the processes necessary to maintain life.
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The unique chemical and structural properties of biomolecules determine the roles they play in cells.
The proper functioning of a living system depends on the many components acting harmoniously in
response to a constantly changing environment. Biomolecules are constantly formed or degraded in
response to the perceived needs of the organism.
Content Categories
Category 1A focuses on the structural and functional complexity of proteins, which is derived
from their component amino acids, the sequence in which the amino acids are covalently bonded,
and the three-dimensional structures the proteins adopt in an aqueous environment.
Category 1B focuses on the molecular mechanisms responsible for the transfer of sequence-
specific biological information between biopolymers which ultimately results in the synthesis of
proteins.
Category 1C focuses on the mechanisms that function to transmit the heritable information
stored in DNA from generation to generation.
Category 1D focuses on the biomolecules and regulated pathways involved in harvesting
chemical energy stored in fuel molecules, which serves as the driving force for all of the
processes that take place within a living system.
With these building blocks, medical students will be prepared to learn how the major biochemical
energy production pathways are regulated, how the synthesis and degradation of macromolecules
functions to maintain health, and how various forms of biochemical dysfunction result in disease.
Content Category 1A: Structure and function of proteins and their constituent amino acids
Macromolecules formed from amino acids adopt well-defined, three-dimensional structures with
chemical properties that are responsible for their participation in virtually every process occurring within
and between cells. The three-dimensional structure of proteins is a direct consequence of the nature of
the covalently-bonded sequence of amino acids, their chemical and physical properties, and the way in
which the whole assembly interacts with water.
Enzymes are proteins that interact in highly regio- and stereo-specific ways with dissolved solutes. They
either facilitate the chemical transformation of these solutes, or allow for their transport innocuously.
Dissolved solutes compete for protein-binding sites, and protein conformational dynamics give rise to
mechanisms capable of controlling enzymatic activity.
The infinite variability of potential amino acid sequences allows for adaptable responses to pathogenic
organisms and materials. The rigidity of some amino acid sequences makes them suitable for structural
roles in complex living systems.
Content in this category covers a range of protein behaviors which originate from the unique chemistry
of amino acids themselves. Amino acid classifications and protein structural elements are covered.
Special emphasis is placed on enzyme catalysis, including mechanistic considerations, kinetics, models
of enzyme-substrate interaction, and regulation. The topics and subtopics in this category are the
following:
Please Note
Topics that appear on multiple content
lists will be treated differently. Questions
will focus on the topics as they are
described in the narrative for the content
category.
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Amino Acids (BC, OC)
Description
o
o
o
Absolute configuration at the position
Amino acids as dipolar ions
Classifications
Acidic or basic
Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
Reactions
o
o
o
Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
Hydrolysis
Protein Structure (BIO, BC, OC)
Structure
o
o
o
o
1 structure of proteins
2 structure of proteins
3 structure of proteins; role of proline, cystine, hydrophobic bonding
4 structure of proteins (BIO, BC)
Conformational stability
o
o
o
Denaturing and folding
Hydrophobic interactions
Solvation layer (entropy) (BC)
Separation techniques
o Isoelectric point
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
o Electrophoresis
Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BIO, BC)
Binding (BC)
Immune system
Motors
Enzyme Structure and Function (BIO, BC)
Function of enzymes in catalyzing biological reactions
Enzyme classification by reaction type
Reduction of activation energy
Substrates and enzyme specificity
Active Site Model
Induced-fit Model
Mechanism of catalysis
o
o
o
Cofactors
Coenzymes
Water-soluble vitamins
Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
Control of Enzyme Activity (BIO, BC)
Kinetics
o
o
o
General (catalysis)
MichaelisMenten
Cooperativity
Feedback regulation
Inhibition types
o
o
o
o
Competitive
Non-competitive
Mixed (BC)
Uncompetitive (BC)
Regulatory enzymes
o
o
o
Allosteric enzymes
Covalently-modified enzymes
Zymogen
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Content Category 1B: Transmission of genetic information from the gene to the protein
Biomolecules and biomolecular assemblies interact in specific, highly-regulated ways to transfer
sequence information between biopolymers in living organisms. By storing and transferring biological
information, DNA and RNA enable living organisms to reproduce their complex components from one
generation to the next. The nucleotide monomers of these biopolymers, being joined by phosphodiester
linkages, form a polynucleotide molecule with a backbone composed of repeating sugar-phosphate
units and appendages of nitrogenous bases. The unique sequence of bases in each gene provides
specific information to the cell.
DNA molecules are composed of two polynucleotides that spiral around an imaginary axis, forming a
double helix. The two polynucleotides are held together by hydrogen bonds between the paired bases
and van der Waals interactions between the stacked bases. The pairing between the bases of two
polynucleotides is very specific, and its complementarity allows for a precise replication of the DNA
molecule.
The DNA inherited by an organism leads to specific traits by dictating the synthesis of the biomolecules
(RNA molecules and proteins) involved in protein synthesis. While every cell in a multicellular
organism inherits the same DNA, its expression is precisely regulated such that different genes are
expressed by cells at different stages of development, by cells in different tissues, and by cells exposed
to different stimuli.
The topics included in this category concern not only the molecular mechanisms of the transmission of
genetic information from the gene to the protein (transcription and translation), but also the
biosynthesis of the important molecules and molecular assemblies that are involved in these
mechanisms. The control of gene expression in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is also included.
Broadly speaking, the field of biotechnology uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives
thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. The biotechnological techniques
emphasized in this category, however, are those that take advantage of the complementary structure of
double-stranded DNA molecules to synthesize, sequence, and amplify them, and to analyze and
identify unknown polynucleotide sequences. Included within this treatment of biotechnology are those
practical applications which directly impact humans, such as medical applications, human gene
therapy, and pharmaceuticals.
Content in this category covers the biopolymers, including ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), proteins, and the biochemical processes involved in carrying out the transfer of biological
information from DNA. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Nucleic Acid Structure and Function (BIO, BC)
Description
Nucleotides and nucleosides
o
o
Sugar phosphate backbone
Pyrimidine, purine residues
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): double helix, WatsonCrick model of DNA structure
Base pairing specificity: A with T, G with C
Function in transmission of genetic information (BIO)
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
DNA denaturation, reannealing, hybridization
DNA Replication (BIO)
Mechanism of replication: separation of strands, specific coupling of free nucleic acids
Semi-conservative nature of replication
Specific enzymes involved in replication
Origins of replication, multiple origins in eukaryotes
Replicating the ends of DNA molecules
Repair of DNA (BIO)
Repair during replication
Repair of mutations
Genetic Code (BIO)
Central Dogma: DNA RNA protein
The triplet code
Codonanticodon relationship
Degenerate code, wobble pairing
Missense, nonsense codons
Initiation, termination codons
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Transcription (BIO)
Transfer RNA (tRNA); ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Mechanism of transcription
mRNA processing in eukaryotes, introns, exons
Ribozymes, spliceosomes, small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), small nuclear RNAs
(snRNAs)
Functional and evolutionary importance of introns
Translation (BIO)
Roles of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
Role and structure of ribosomes
Initiation, termination co-factors
Post-translational modification of proteins
Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization (BIO)
Chromosomal proteins
Single copy vs. repetitive DNA
Supercoiling
Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin
Telomeres, centromeres
Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes (BIO)
Operon Concept, JacobMonod Model
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Gene repression in bacteria
Positive control in bacteria
Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes (BIO)
Transcriptional regulation
DNA binding proteins, transcription factors
Gene amplification and duplication
Post-transcriptional control, basic concept of splicing (introns, exons)
Cancer as a failure of normal cellular controls, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes
Regulation of chromatin structure
DNA methylation
Role of non-coding RNAs
Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology (BIO)
Gene cloning
Restriction enzymes
DNA libraries
Generation of cDNA
Hybridization
Expressing cloned genes
Polymerase chain reaction
Gel electrophoresis and Southern blotting
DNA sequencing
Analyzing gene expression
Determining gene function
Stem cells
Practical applications of DNA technology: medical applications, human gene
therapy, pharmaceuticals, forensic evidence, environmental cleanup, agriculture
Safety and ethics of DNA technology
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Content Category 1C: Transmission of heritable information from generation to generation
and the processes that increase genetic diversity
The information necessary to direct life functions is contained within discrete nucleotide sequences
transmitted from generation to generation by mechanisms that, by nature of their various processes,
provide the raw materials for evolution by increasing genetic diversity. Specific sequences of
deoxyribonucleic acids store and transfer the heritable information necessary for the continuation of life
from one generation to the next. These sequences, called genes being part of longer DNA molecules
are organized, along with various proteins, into biomolecular assemblies called chromosomes.
Chromosomes pass from parents to offspring in sexually-reproducing organisms. The processes of
meiosis and fertilization maintain a species chromosome count during the sexual life cycle. Because
parents pass on discrete heritable units that retain their separate identities in offspring, the laws of
probability can be used to predict the outcome of some, but not all, genetic crosses.
The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for most of the genetic
variation that arises each generation. Mechanisms that contribute to this genetic variation include
independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, and random fertilization. Other mechanisms,
such as mutation, random genetic drift, bottlenecks, and immigration, exist with the potential to affect
the genetic diversity of individuals and populations. Collectively, the genetic diversity that results from
these processes provides the raw material for evolution by natural selection.
The content in this category covers the mechanisms by which heritable information is transmitted from
generation to generation, and the evolutionary processes that generate and act upon genetic variation.
The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Evidence that DNA is Genetic Material (BIO)
Mendelian Concepts (BIO)
Phenotype and genotype
Gene
Locus
Allele: single and multiple
Homozygosity and heterozygosity
Wild-type
Recessiveness
Complete dominance
Co-dominance
Incomplete dominance, leakage, penetrance, expressivity
Hybridization: viability
Gene pool
Meiosis and Other Factors Affecting Genetic Variability (BIO)
Significance of meiosis
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Important differences between meiosis and mitosis
Segregation of genes
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Independent assortment
Linkage
Recombination
o
o
o
o
Single crossovers
Double crossovers
Synaptonemal complex
Tetrad
Sex-linked characteristics
Very few genes on Y chromosome
Sex determination
Cytoplasmic/extranuclear inheritance
Mutation
o
o
o
o
o
General concept of mutation error in DNA sequence
Types of mutations: random, translation error, transcription error, base substitution,
inversion, addition, deletion, translocation, mispairing
Advantageous vs. deleterious mutation
Inborn errors of metabolism
Relationship of mutagens to carcinogens
Genetic drift
Synapsis or crossing-over mechanism for increasing genetic diversity
Anal ytic Methods (BIO)
HardyWeinberg Principle
Testcross (Backcross; concepts of parental, F1, and F2 generations)
Gene mapping: crossover frequencies
Biometry: statistical methods
Evolution (BIO)
Natural selection
o
o
o
o
Fitness concept
Selection by differential reproduction
Concepts of natural and group selection
Evolutionary success as increase in percent representation in the gene pool of the next
generation
Speciation
o
o
o
o
o
Polymorphism
Adaptation and specialization
Inbreeding
Outbreeding
Bottlenecks
Evolutionary time as measured by gradual random changes in genome
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Content Category 1D: Principles of bioenergetics and fuel molecule metabolism
Living things harness energy from fuel molecules in a controlled manner in order to sustain all of the
processes responsible for maintaining life. Cell maintenance and growth is energetically costly. Cells
harness the energy stored in fuel molecules, such as carbohydrates and fatty acids, and convert it into
smaller units of chemical potential known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The hydrolysis of ATP provides a ready source of energy for cells that can be coupled to other chemical
processes in order to make them thermodynamically favorable. Fuel molecule mobilization, transport,
and storage are regulated according to the needs of the organism.
The content in this category covers the principles of bioenergetics and fuel molecule catabolism. Details
of oxidative phosphorylation including the role of chemiosmotic coupling and biological electron
transfer reactions are covered, as are the general features of fatty acid and glucose metabolism.
Additionally, regulation of these metabolic pathways, fuel molecule mobilization, transport, and storage
are covered. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Principles of Bioenergetics (BC, GC)
Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
o
o
o
o
o
Free energy/Keq
Equilibrium constant
Relationship of the equilibrium constant and G
Concentration
Le Chteliers Principle
Endothermic/exothermic reactions
Free energy: G
Spontaneous reactions and G
Phosphoryl group transfers and ATP
o
o
ATP hydrolysis G << 0
ATP group transfers
Biological oxidation-reduction
o
o
o
Half-reactions
Soluble electron carriers
Flavoproteins
Carbohydrates (BC, OC)
Description
o
o
o
o
Nomenclature and classification, common names
Absolute configuration
Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
Epimers and anomers
Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
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Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Glycol ysis, Gluconeogenesis, and the Pentose Phosphate Pathway (BIO, BC)
Glycolysis (aerobic), substrates and products
o Feeder pathways: glycogen, starch metabolism
Fermentation (anaerobic glycolysis)
Gluconeogenesis (BC)
Pentose phosphate pathway (BC)
Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
Principles of Metabolic Regulation (BC)
Regulation of metabolic pathways (BIO, BC)
o Maintenance of a dynamic steady state
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Metabolism of glycogen
Regulation of glycogen synthesis and breakdown
o Allosteric and hormonal control
Analysis of metabolic control
Citric Acid Cycle (BIO, BC)
Acetyl-CoA production (BC)
Reactions of the cycle, substrates and products
Regulation of the cycle
Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
Metabolism of Fatty Acids and Proteins (BIO, BC)
Description of fatty acids (BC)
Digestion, mobilization, and transport of fats
Oxidation of fatty acids
o
o
Saturated fats
Unsaturated fats
Ketone bodies (BC)
Anabolism of fats (BIO)
Non-template synthesis: biosynthesis of lipids and polysaccharides (BIO)
Metabolism of proteins (BIO)
Oxidative Phosphorylation (BIO, BC)
Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, substrates and products, general features
of the pathway
Electron transfer in mitochondria
o
o
o
NADH, NADPH
Flavoproteins
Cytochromes
ATP synthase, chemiosmotic coupling
o Proton motive force
Net molecular and energetic results of respiration processes
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
19
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Regulation of oxidative phosphorylation
Mitochondria, apoptosis, oxidative stress (BC)
Hormonal Regulation and Integration of Metabolism (BC)
Higher level integration of hormone structure and function
Tissue specific metabolism
Hormonal regulation of fuel metabolism
Obesity and regulation of body mass
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
20
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Foundational Concept 2
Highly-organized assemblies of molecules, cells, and organs interact to
carry out the functions of living organisms.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
21
Cells are the basic unit of structure in all living things. Mechanisms of cell division provide not only for
the growth and maintenance of organisms, but also for the continuation of the species through asexual
and sexual reproduction. The unique micro-environment to which a cell is exposed during development
and division determines the fate of the cell by impacting gene expression and ultimately the cells
collection and distribution of macromolecules, and its arrangement of subcellular organelles.
In multicellular organisms, the processes necessary to maintain life are executed by groups of cells that
are organized into specialized structures with specialized functions both of which result from the
unique properties of the cells component molecules.
Content Categories
Category 2A focuses on the assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within single
cellular and multicellular organisms that function to execute the processes necessary to maintain
life.
Category 2B focuses on the structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes, and the
structure and life cycles of viruses.
Category 2C focuses on the processes of cell and nuclear division, and the mechanisms
governing cell differentiation and specialization.
With these building blocks, medical students will be prepared to learn about the morphological and
biochemical events that occur when somatic or germ cells divide, the mechanisms that regulate cell
division and cell death, and the characteristics that distinguish normal from abnormal growth and
development. These building blocks also prepare them to learn about the micro- and macroscopic
structures of cells, tissues, and organs that lead to their unique and integrated functions, and how
perturbations contribute to disease.
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Category 2A: Assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of cells within single cellular and
multicelluar organisms
The processes necessary to maintain life are executed by assemblies of molecules, cells, and groups of
cells, all of which are organized into highly-specific structures as determined by the unique properties of
their component molecules. The processes necessary to maintain life require that cells create and
maintain internal environments within the cytoplasm and within certain organelles that are different
from their external environments.
Cell membranes separate the internal environment of the cell from the external environment. The
specialized structure of the membrane, as described in the fluid mosaic model, allows the cell to be
selectively permeable and dynamic, with homeostasis maintained by the constant movement of
molecules across the membranes through a combination of active and passive processes driven by
several forces, including electrochemical gradients.
Eukaryotic cells also maintain internal membranes that partition the cell into specialized regions. These
internal membranes facilitate cellular processes by minimizing conflicting interactions and increasing
surface area where chemical reactions can occur. Membrane-bound organelles localize different
processes or enzymatic reactions in time and space.
Through interactions between proteins bound to the membranes of adjacent cells, or between membrane-
bound proteins and elements of the extracellular matrix, cells of multicellular organisms organize into
tissues, organs, and organ systems. Certain membrane-associated proteins also play key roles in
providing identification of tissues or recent events in the cells history for purposes of recognition of
self versus foreign molecules.
The content in this category covers the composition, structure, and function of cell membranes; the
structure and function of the membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotic cells; and the structure and
function of the major cytoskeletal elements. It covers the energetics of and mechanisms by which
molecules, or groups of molecules, move across cell membranes. It also covers how cellcell junctions
and the extracellular matrix interact to form tissues with specialized functions. Epithelial tissue and
connective tissue are covered in this category. The topics and subtopics in this category are the
following:
Plasma Membrane (BIO, BC)
General function in cell containment
Composition of membranes
o
o
o
Lipid components (BIO, BC, OC)
Phospholipids (and phosphatids)
Steroids
Waxes
Protein components
Fluid mosaic model
Membrane dynamics
Solute transport across membranes
o Thermodynamic considerations
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
22
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
o
o
o
Osmosis
Colligative properties; osmotic pressure (GC)
Passive transport
Active transport
Sodium/potassium pump
Membrane channels
Membrane potential
Membrane receptors
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Intercellular junctions (BIO)
o
o
o
Gap junctions
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Membrane-Bound Organelles and Defining Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)
Defining characteristics of eukaryotic cells: membrane bound nucleus, presence of organelles,
mitotic division
Nucleus
o
o
o
Compartmentalization, storage of genetic information
Nucleolus: location and function
Nuclear envelope, nuclear pores
Mitochondria
o
o
o
Site of ATP production
Inner and outer membrane structure (BIO, BC)
Self-replication
Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes
Endoplasmic reticulum
o
o
o
o
o
Rough and smooth components
Rough endoplasmic reticulum site of ribosomes
Double membrane structure
Role in membrane biosynthesis
Role in biosynthesis of secreted proteins
Golgi apparatus: general structure and role in packaging and secretion
Peroxisomes: organelles that collect peroxides
Cytoskeleton (BIO)
General function in cell support and movement
Microfilaments: composition and role in cleavage and contractility
Microtubules: composition and role in support and transport
Intermediate filaments, role in support
Composition and function of cilia and flagella
Centrioles, microtubule organizing centers
Tissues Formed From Eukaryotic Cells (BIO)
Epithelial cells
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
23
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Connective tissue cells
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
24
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Content Category 2B: The structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of prokaryotes and
viruses
The highly-organized assembly of molecules that is the cell represents the fundamental unit of structure,
function, and organization in all living organisms. In the hierarchy of biological organization, the cell is
the simplest collection of matter capable of carrying out the processes that distinguish living organisms.
As such, cells have the ability to undergo metabolism; maintain homeostasis, including ionic gradients;
the capacity to grow; move in response to their local environments; respond to stimuli; reproduce; and
adapt to their environment in successive generations.
Life at cellular levels arises from structural order and its dynamic modulation. It does so in response to
signals, thereby reflecting properties that result from individual and interactive features of molecular
assemblies, their compartmentalization, and their interaction with environmental signals at many spatial
and temporal scales.
The content in this category covers the classification, structure, growth, physiology, and genetics of
prokaryotes, and the characteristics that distinguish them from eukaryotes. Viruses are also covered
here. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Cell Theory (BIO)
History and development
Impact on biology
Classification and Structure of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)
Prokaryotic domains
o
o
Archaea
Bacteria
Major classifications of bacteria by shape
o
o
o
Bacilli (rod-shaped)
Spirilli (spiral-shaped)
Cocci (spherical)
Lack of nuclear membrane and mitotic apparatus
Lack of typical eukaryotic organelles
Presence of cell wall in bacteria
Flagellar propulsion, mechanism
Growth and Physiology of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)
Reproduction by fission
High degree of genetic adaptability, acquisition of antibiotic resistance
Exponential growth
Existence of anaerobic and aerobic variants
Parasitic and symbiotic
Chemotaxis
Genetics of Prokaryotic Cells (BIO)
Existence of plasmids, extragenomic DNA
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
25
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Transformation: incorporation into bacterial genome of DNA fragments from external medium
Conjugation
Transposons (also present in eukaryotic cells)
Virus Structure (BIO)
General structural characteristics (nucleic acid and protein, enveloped and nonenveloped)
Lack organelles and nucleus
Structural aspects of typical bacteriophage
Genomic content RNA or DNA
Size relative to bacteria and eukaryotic cells
Viral Life Cycle (BIO)
Self-replicating biological units that must reproduce within specific host cell
Generalized phage and animal virus life cycles
o
o
o
Attachment to host, penetration of cell membrane or cell wall, and entry of viral genetic
material
Use of host synthetic mechanism to replicate viral components
Self-assembly and release of new viral particles
Transduction: transfer of genetic material by viruses
Retrovirus life cycle: integration into host DNA, reverse transcriptase, HIV
Prions and viroids: subviral particles
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
26
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Content Category 2C: Processes of cell division, differentiation, and specialization
The ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind is the characteristic that best distinguishes living
things. In sexually reproducing organisms, the continuity of life is based on the processes of cell division
and meiosis.
The process of cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle. The progress of eukaryotic cells through
the cell cycle is regulated by a complex molecular control system. Malfunctions in this system can result
in unabated cellular division, and ultimately the development of cancer.
In the embryonic development of multicellular organisms, a fertilized egg gives rise to cells that
differentiate into many different types of cells, each with a different structure, corresponding function,
and location within the organism. During development, spatialtemporal gradients in the interactions
between gene expression and various stimuli result in the structural and functional divergence of cells
into specialized structure, organs, and tissues. The interaction of stimuli and genes is also explained by
the progression of stem cells to terminal cells.
The content in this category covers the cell cycle; the causes, genetics, and basic properties of cancer;
the processes of meiosis and gametogenesis; and the mechanisms governing cell specialization and
differentiation. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Mitosis (BIO)
Mitotic process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, interphase
Mitotic structures
o
o
o
o
Centrioles, asters, spindles
Chromatids, centromeres, kinetochores
Nuclear membrane breakdown and reorganization
Mechanisms of chromosome movement
Phases of cell cycle: G0, G1, S, G2, M
Growth arrest
Control of cell cycle
Loss of cell cycle controls in cancer cells
Biosignalling (BC)
Oncogenes, apoptosis
Reproductive System (BIO)
Gametogenesis by meiosis
Ovum and sperm
o
o
o
Differences in formation
Differences in morphology
Relative contribution to next generation
Reproductive sequence: fertilization; implantation; development; birth
Embryogenesis (BIO)
Stages of early development (order and general features of each)
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
27
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
o
o
o
o
o
Fertilization
Cleavage
Blastula formation
Gastrulation
First cell movements
Formation of primary germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
Neurulation
Major structures arising out of primary germ layers
Neural crest
Environmentgene interaction in development
Mechanisms of Development (BIO)
Cell specialization
o
o
o
Determination
Differentiation
Tissue types
Cellcell communication in development
Cell migration
Pluripotency: stem cells
Gene regulation in development
Programmed cell death
Existence of regenerative capacity in various species
Senescence and aging
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
28
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Foundational Concept 3
Complex systems of tissues and organs sense the internal and external environments of
multicellular organisms, and through integrated functioning, maintain a stable internal
environment within an ever-changing external environment.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
29
As a result of the integration of a number of highly specialized organ systems, complex living things are
able to maintain homeostasis while adapting to a constantly changing environment and participating in
growth and reproduction. The interactions of these organ systems involves complex regulatory
mechanisms that help maintain a dynamic and healthy equilibrium, regardless of their current state and
environment.
Content Categories
Category 3A focuses on the structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems, and
the ways in which the systems work together to coordinate the responses of other body systems
to both external and internal stimuli.
Category 3B focuses on the structure and functions of the organ systems circulatory,
respiratory, digestive, immune, lymphatic, muscular, skeletal, and reproductive and the ways
these systems interact to fulfill their concerted roles in the maintenance and continuance of the
living organism.
With these building blocks, medical students will be prepared to learn how the coordinated interactions
of organ systems explain how the human body functions in health and in disease. They will also be
prepared to learn how the principles of feedback control explain homeostatic and reproductive systems
maintenance of the internal environment, how perturbations in these systems may result in disease, and
how homeostasis can be changed by disease.
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Content Category 3A: Structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and
ways in which these systems coordinate the organ systems
The nervous and endocrine systems work together to detect external and internal signals, transmit and
integrate information, and maintain homeostasis. They do all of this by producing appropriate responses
to internal and external cues and stressors. The integration of these systems both with one another, and
with the other organ systems, ultimately results in the successful and adaptive behaviors that allow for
the propagation of the species.
Animals have evolved a nervous system that senses and processes internal and external information that
is used to facilitate and enhance survival, growth, and reproduction. The nervous system interfaces with
sensory and internal body systems to coordinate physiological and behavioral responses ranging from
simple movements and small metabolic changes to long-distance migrations and social interactions. The
physiological processes for nerve signal generation and propagation involve specialized membranes
with associated proteins that respond to ligands and/or electrical field changes, signaling molecules and,
by extension, the establishment and replenishment of ionic electrochemical gradients requiring ATP.
The endocrine system of animals has evolved to produce chemical signals that function internally to
regulate stress responses, reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth, and various
individual and interactive behaviors. The integrated contributions of the nervous and endocrine systems
to bodily functions are exemplified by the process whereby the signaling of neurons regulates hormone
release, and by the targeting of membrane or nuclear receptors on neurons by circulating hormones.
The content in this category covers the structure, function, and basic aspects of nervous and endocrine
systems, and their integration. The structure and function of nerve cells is also included in this category.
The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Nervous System: Structure and Function (BIO)
Major Functions
o
o
High level control and integration of body systems
Adaptive capability to external influences
Organization of vertebrate nervous system
Sensor and effector neurons
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems: antagonistic control
Reflexes
o
o
Feedback loop, reflex arc
Role of spinal cord and supraspinal circuits
Integration with endocrine system: feedback control
Nerve Cell (BIO)
Cell body: site of nucleus, organelles
Dendrites: branched extensions of cell body
Axon: structure and function
Myelin sheath, Schwann cells, insulation of axon
Nodes of Ranvier: propagation of nerve impulse along axon
Synapse: site of impulse propagation between cells
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
30
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Synaptic activity: transmitter molecules
Resting potential: electrochemical gradient
Action potential
o
o
Threshold, all-or-none
Sodium/potassium pump
Excitatory and inhibitory nerve fibers: summation, frequency of firing
Glial cells, neuroglia
Electrochemistry (GC)
Concentration cell: direction of electron flow, Nernst equation
Biosignalling (BC)
Gated ion channels
o
o
Voltage gated
Ligand gated
Receptor enzymes
G protein-coupled receptors
Lipids (BC, OC)
Description; structure
o
o
Steroids
Terpenes and terpenoids
Endocrine System: Hormones and Their Sources (BIO)
Function of endocrine system: specific chemical control at cell, tissue, and organ level
Definitions of endocrine gland, hormone
Major endocrine glands: names, locations, products
Major types of hormones
Neuroendrocrinology relation between neurons and hormonal systems
Endocrine System: Mechanisms of Hormone Action (BIO)
Cellular mechanisms of hormone action
Transport of hormones: blood supply
Specificity of hormones: target tissue
Integration with nervous system: feedback control
Regulation by second messengers
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
31
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Category 3B: Structure and integrative functions of the main organ systems
Animals use a number of highly-organized and integrated organ systems to carry out the necessary
functions associated with maintaining life processes. Within the body, no organ system is an island.
Interactions and coordination between organ systems allow organisms to engage in the processes
necessary to sustain life. For example, the organs and structures of the circulatory system carry out a
number of functions, such as transporting:
nutrients absorbed in the digestive system;
gases absorbed from the respiratory system and muscle tissue;
hormones secreted from the endocrine system; and
blood cells produced in bone marrow to and from cells in the body to help fight disease.
The content in this category covers the structure and function of the major organ systems of the body
including the respiratory, circulatory, lymphatic, immune, digestive, excretory, reproductive, muscle,
skeletal, and skin systems. Also covered in this category is the integration of these systems and their
control and coordination by the endocrine and nervous systems. The topics and subtopics in this
category are the following:
Respiratory System (BIO)
General function
o
o
Gas exchange, thermoregulation
Protection against disease: particulate matter
Structure of lungs and alveoli
Breathing mechanisms
o
o
Diaphragm, rib cage, differential pressure
Resiliency and surface tension effects
Thermoregulation: nasal and tracheal capillary beds; evaporation, panting
Particulate filtration: nasal hairs, mucus/cilia system in lungs
Alveolar gas exchange
o
o
Diffusion, differential partial pressure
Henrys Law (GC)
pH control
Regulation by nervous control
o CO2 sensitivity
Circulatory System (BIO)
Functions: circulation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, ions and fluids, removal of metabolic
waste
Role in thermoregulation
Four-chambered heart: structure and function
Endothelial cells
Systolic and diastolic pressure
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
32
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Arterial and venous systems (arteries, arterioles, venules, veins)
o
o
Structural and functional differences
Pressure and flow characteristics
Capillary beds
o
o
o
Mechanisms of gas and solute exchange
Mechanism of heat exchange
Source of peripheral resistance
Composition of blood
o
o
o
Plasma, chemicals, blood cells
Erythrocyte production and destruction; spleen, bone marrow
Regulation of plasma volume
Coagulation, clotting mechanisms
Oxygen transport by blood
o
o
o
Hemoglobin, hematocrit
Oxygen content
Oxygen affinity
Carbon dioxide transport and level in blood
Nervous and endocrine control
Lymphatic System (BIO)
Structure of lymphatic system
Major functions
o
o
o
o
Equalization of fluid distribution
Transport of proteins and large glycerides
Production of lymphocytes involved in immune reactions
Return of materials to the blood
Immune System (BIO)
Innate (non-specific) vs. adaptive (specific) immunity
Adaptive immune system cells
o
o
T-lymphocytes
B-lymphocytes
Innate immune system cells
o
o
Macrophages
Phagocytes
Tissues
o
o
o
o
Bone marrow
Spleen
Thymus
Lymph nodes
Concept of antigen and antibody
Antigen presentation
Clonal selection
Antigen-antibody recognition
Structure of antibody molecule
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
33
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Recognition of self vs. non-self, autoimmune diseases
Major histocompatibility complex
Digestive System (BIO)
Ingestion
o
o
Saliva as lubrication and source of enzymes
Ingestion; esophagus, transport function
Stomach
o
o
o
o
Storage and churning of food
Low pH, gastric juice, mucal protection against self-destruction
Production of digestive enzymes, site of digestion
Structure (gross)
Liver
o
o
o
Structural relationship of liver within gastrointestinal system
Production of bile
Role in blood glucose regulation, detoxification
Bile
o
o
Storage in gall bladder
Function
Pancreas
o
o
Production of enzymes
Transport of enzymes to small intestine
Small Intestine
o
o
o
o
o
Absorption of food molecules and water
Function and structure of villi
Production of enzymes, site of digestion
Neutralization of stomach acid
Structure (anatomic subdivisions)
Large Intestine
o
o
o
Absorption of water
Bacterial flora
Structure (gross)
Rectum: storage and elimination of waste, feces
Muscular control
o Peristalsis
Endocrine control
o
o
Hormones
Target tissues
Nervous control: the enteric nervous system
Excretory System (BIO)
Roles in homeostasis
o
o
Blood pressure
Osmoregulation
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
34
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
o
o
Acidbase balance
Removal of soluble nitrogenous waste
Kidney structure
o
o
Cortex
Medulla
Nephron structure
o
o
o
o
o
o
Glomerulus
Bowmans capsule
Proximal tubule
Loop of Henle
Distal tubule
Collecting duct
Formation of urine
o
o
o
o
Glomerular filtration
Secretion and reabsorption of solutes
Concentration of urine
Counter-current multiplier mechanism
Storage and elimination: ureter, bladder, urethra
Osmoregulation: capillary reabsorption of H2O, amino acids, glucose, ions
Muscular control: sphincter muscle
Reproductive System (BIO)
Male and female reproductive structures and their functions
o
o
o
Gonads
Genitalia
Differences between male and female structures
Hormonal control of reproduction
o
o
o
o
Male and female sexual development
Female reproductive cycle
Pregnancy, parturition, lactation
Integration with nervous control
Muscle System (BIO)
Important functions
o
o
o
Support: mobility
Peripheral circulatory assistance
Thermoregulation (shivering reflex)
Structure of three basic muscle types: striated, smooth, cardiac
Muscle structure and control of contraction
o
o
o
o
o
T-tubule system
Contractile apparatus
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Fiber type
Contractile velocity of different muscle types
Regulation of cardiac muscle contraction
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
35
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Oxygen debt: fatigue
Nervous control
o
o
o
o
Motor neurons
Neuromuscular junction, motor end plates
Sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation
Voluntary and involuntary muscles
Specialized Cell - Muscle Cell (BIO)
Structural characteristics of striated, smooth, and cardiac muscle
Abundant mitochondria in red muscle cells: ATP source
Organization of contractile elements: actin and myosin filaments, crossbridges, sliding filament
model
Sarcomeres: I and A bands, M and Z lines, H zone
Presence of troponin and tropomyosin
Calcium regulation of contraction
Skeletal System (BIO)
Functions
o
o
o
Structural rigidity and support
Calcium storage
Physical protection
Skeletal structure
o
o
o
Specialization of bone types, structures
Joint structures
Endoskeleton vs. exoskeleton
Bone structure
o
o
Calcium/protein matrix
Cellular composition of bone
Cartilage: structure and function
Ligaments, tendons
Endocrine control
Skin System (BIO)
Structure
o
o
Layer differentiation, cell types
Relative impermeability to water
Functions in homeostasis and osmoregulation
Functions in thermoregulation
o
o
o
o
Hair, erectile musculature
Fat layer for insulation
Sweat glands, location in dermis
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation in surface capillaries
Physical protection
o
o
Nails, calluses, hair
Protection against abrasion, disease organisms
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
36
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Hormonal control: sweating, vasodilation, and vasoconstriction
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
37
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
What will the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section test?
The Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section asks you to solve problems by
combining your knowledge of chemical and physical foundational concepts with your scientific inquiry
and reasoning skills. This section tests your understanding of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical
functions of human tissues, organs, and organ systems. It also tests your knowledge of the basic
chemical and physical principles that underlie the mechanisms operating in the human body and your
ability to reason about and apply your understanding of these basic chemical and physical principles to
living systems.
This section is designed to:
test introductory-level biology, organic and inorganic chemistry, and physics concepts;
test biochemistry concepts at the level taught in many colleges and universities in first-semester
biochemistry courses;
test cellular and molecular biology topics at the level taught in many colleges and universities in
introductory biology sequences and first-semester biochemistry courses;
test basic research methods and statistics concepts described by many baccalaureate faculty as
important to success in introductory science courses; and
require you to demonstrate your scientific inquiry and reasoning, research methods, and statistics
skills as applied to the natural sciences.
Test Section Number of Questions Time
Chemical and Physical
Foundations of Biological
Systems
59
(note that questions are a
combination of passage-based
and discrete questions)
95 minutes
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
38
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills
As a reminder, the scientific inquiry and reasoning skills that you will be asked to demonstrate on this
section of the exam are:
Knowledge of Scientific Concepts and Principles
] =10
14
at 25C, 1 atm)
Definition of pH: pH of pure water
Conjugate acids and bases (e.g., NH4
+
and NH3)
Strong acids and bases (e.g., nitric, sulfuric)
Weak acids and bases (e.g., acetic, benzoic)
o
o
o
Dissociation of weak acids and bases with or without added salt
Hydrolysis of salts of weak acids or bases
Calculation of pH of solutions of salts of weak acids or bases
Equilibrium constants Ka and Kb: pKa, pKb
Buffers
o
o
Definition and concepts (common buffer systems)
Influence on titration curves
Ions in Solutions (GC, BC)
Anion, cation: common names, formulas and charges for familiar ions (e.g., NH4
+
ammonium,
PO4
3
phosphate, SO4
2
sulfate)
Hydration, the hydronium ion
Solubility (GC)
Units of concentration (e.g., molarity)
Solubility product constant; the equilibrium expression Ksp
Common-ion effect, its use in laboratory separations
o
o
o
Complex ion formation
Complex ions and solubility
Solubility and pH
Titration (GC)
Indicators
Neutralization
Interpretation of the titration curves
Redox titration
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
58
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Content Category 5B: Nature of molecules and intermolecular interactions
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms. If the result of such interactions is
not a network solid, then the covalently bonded substance will be discrete and molecular.
The shape of molecules can be predicted based on electrostatic principles and quantum mechanics since
only two electrons can occupy the same orbital. Bond polarity (both direction and magnitude) can be
predicted based on knowledge of the valence electron structure of the constituent atoms. The strength of
intermolecular interactions depends on molecular shape and the polarity of the covalent bonds present.
The solubility and other physical properties of molecular substances depend on the strength of
intermolecular interactions.
The content in this category covers the nature of molecules and includes covalent bonding, molecular
structure, nomenclature, and intermolecular interactions. The topics and subtopics in this category are
the following:
Covalent Bond (GC)
Lewis Electron Dot formulas
o
o
o
Resonance structures
Formal charge
Lewis acids and bases
Partial ionic character
o
o
Role of electronegativity in determining charge distribution
Dipole Moment
and bonds
o
o
o
o
Hybrid orbitals: sp
3
, sp
2
, sp and respective geometries
Valence shell electron pair repulsion and the prediction of shapes of molecules (e.g.,
NH3, H2O, CO2)
Structural formulas for molecules involving H, C, N, O, F, S, P, Si, Cl
Delocalized electrons and resonance in ions and molecules
Multiple bonding
o
o
Effect on bond length and bond energies
Rigidity in molecular structure
Stereochemistry of covalently bonded molecules (OC)
o Isomers
o
o
Structural isomers
Stereoisomers (e.g., diastereomers, enantiomers, cis/trans isomers)
Conformational isomers
Polarization of light, specific rotation
Absolute and relative configuration
Size-exclusion
Ion-exchange
Affinity
Racemic mixtures, separation of enantiomers (OC)
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
61
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Content Category 5D: Structure, function, and reactivity of biologically-relevant molecules
The structure of biological molecules forms the basis of their chemical reactions including
oligomerization and polymerization. Unique aspects of each type of biological molecule dictate their
role in living systems, whether providing structure or information storage, or serving as fuel and
catalysts.
The content in this category covers the structure, function, and reactivity of biologically-relevant
molecules including the mechanistic considerations that dictate their modes of reactivity. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:
Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids (BC, BIO)
Nucleotides and nucleosides: composition
o
o
Sugar phosphate backbone
Pyrimidine, purine residues
Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA; double helix
Chemistry (BC)
Other functions (BC)
Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins (OC, BC)
Amino acids: description
o
o
o
o
Absolute configuration at the position
Dipolar ions
Classification
Acidic or basic
Hydrophilic or hydrophobic
Synthesis of -amino acids (OC)
Strecker Synthesis
Gabriel Synthesis
Peptides and proteins: reactions
o
o
o
Sulfur linkage for cysteine and cystine
Peptide linkage: polypeptides and proteins
Hydrolysis (BC)
General Principles
o
o
o
o
Primary structure of proteins
Secondary structure of proteins
Tertiary structure of proteins
Isoelectric point
The Three-Dimensional Protein Structure (BC)
Conformational stability
o
o
Hydrophobic interactions
Solvation layer (entropy)
Quaternary structure
Denaturing and Folding
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
62
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Non-Enzymatic Protein Function (BC)
Binding
Immune system
Motor
Lipids (BC, OC)
Description, Types
o
o
o
Storage
Triacyl glycerols
Free fatty acids: saponification
Structural
Phospholipids and phosphatids
Sphingolipids (BC)
Waxes
Signals/cofactors
Fat-soluble vitamins
Steroids
Prostaglandins (BC)
Carbohydrates (OC)
Description
o
o
o
o
Nomenclature and classification, common names
Absolute configuration
Cyclic structure and conformations of hexoses
Epimers and anomers
Hydrolysis of the glycoside linkage
Keto-enol tautomerism of monosaccharides
Disaccharides (BC)
Polysaccharides (BC)
Al dehydes and Ketones (OC)
Description
o
o
Nomenclature
Physical properties
Important reactions
o
o
o
Nucleophilic addition reactions at C=O bond
Acetal, hemiacetal
Imine, enamine
Hydride reagents
Cyanohydrin
Oxidation of aldehydes
Reactions at adjacent positions: enolate chemistry
redox centers
Pol ycyclic and Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds (OC, BC)
Biological aromatic heterocycles
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
64
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Content Category 5E: Principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics
The processes that occur in living systems are dynamic, and they follow the principles of chemical
thermodynamics and kinetics. The position of chemical equilibrium is dictated by the relative energies
of products and reactants. The rate at which chemical equilibrium is attained is dictated by a variety of
factors: concentration of reactants, temperature, and the amount of catalyst (if any).
Biological systems have evolved to harness energy, and utilize it in very efficient ways to support all
processes of life, including homeostasis and anabolism. Biological catalysts, known as enzymes, have
evolved to allow all of the relevant chemical reactions required to sustain life to occur both rapidly and
efficiently, and under the narrow set of conditions required.
The content in this category covers all principles of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics including
enzymatic catalysis. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Enzymes (BC, BIO)
Classification by reaction type
Mechanism
o
o
o
o
Substrates and enzyme specificity
Active site model
Induced-fit model
Cofactors, coenzymes, and vitamins
Kinetics
o
o
o
o
General (catalysis)
MichaelisMenten
Cooperativity
Effects of local conditions on enzyme activity
Inhibition
Regulatory enzymes
o
o
Allosteric
Covalently modified
Principles of Bioenergetics (BC)
Bioenergetics/thermodynamics
o
o
Free energy/Keq
Concentration
Phosphorylation/ATP
o
o
ATP hydrolysis G <<0
ATP group transfers
Biological oxidationreduction
o
o
o
Half-reactions
Soluble electron carriers
Flavoproteins
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
65
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions Thermochemistry, Thermodynamics (GC, PHY)
Thermodynamic system state function
Zeroth Law concept of temperature
First Law conservation of energy in thermodynamic processes
PV diagram: work done =area under or enclosed by curve (PHY)
Second Law concept of entropy
o
o
Entropy as a measure of disorder
Relative entropy for gas, liquid, and crystal states
Measurement of heat changes (calorimetry), heat capacity, specific heat
Heat transfer conduction, convection, radiation (PHY)
Endothermic/exothermic reactions (GC)
o
o
Enthalpy, H, and standard heats of reaction and formation
Hess Law of Heat Summation
Bond dissociation energy as related to heats of formation (GC)
Free energy: G (GC)
Spontaneous reactions and G (GC)
Coefficient of expansion (PHY)
Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization
Phase diagram: pressure and temperature
Rate Processes in Chemical Reactions - Kinetics and Equilibrium (GC)
Reaction rate
Dependence of reaction rate on concentration of reactants
o
o
Rate law, rate constant
Reaction order
Rate-determining step
Dependence of reaction rate upon temperature
o
o
Activation energy
o
o
o
o
Category 6A focuses on the detection and perception of sensory information.
Category 6B focuses on cognition, including our ability to attend to the environment, think about
and remember what we experience, and use language to communicate with others.
Category 6C focuses on how we process and experience emotion and stress.
These are the building blocks medical students need in order to learn about the ways in which cognitive
and perceptual processes influence their and others understanding of health and illness.
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 6A: Sensing the environment
Psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors affect our sensation and perception of the world. All
sensory processing begins with first detecting a stimulus in the environment through sensory cells,
receptors, and biological pathways.
After collecting sensory information, we then interpret and make sense of it. Although sensation and
perception are distinct functions, they are both influenced by psychological, social, and biological
factors and therefore become almost indistinguishable in practice. This complexity is illuminated by
examining human sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
The content in this category covers sensation and perception across all human senses. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:
Sensory Processing (PSY, BIO)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Sensation
Threshold
Webers Law (PSY)
Signal detection theory (PSY)
Sensory adaptation
Psychophysics
Sensory receptors
Sensory pathways
Types of sensory receptor
Vision (PSY, BIO)
Structure and function of the eye
Visual processing
Visual pathways in the brain
Parallel processing (PSY)
Feature detection (PSY)
Hearing (PSY, BIO)
Structure and function of the ear
Auditory processing (e.g., auditory pathways in the brain)
Sensory reception by hair cells
Other Senses (PSY, BIO)
Somatosensation (e.g., pain perception)
Taste (e.g., taste buds/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals)
Smell
Olfactory cells/chemoreceptors that detect specific chemicals
Pheromones (BIO)
Olfactory pathways in the brain (BIO)
Kinesthetic sense (PSY)
Vestibular sense
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
76
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Perception (PSY)
Bottom-up/Top-down processing
Perceptual organization (e.g., depth, form, motion, constancy)
Gestalt principles
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
77
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 6B: Making sense of the environment
The way we think about the world depends on our awareness, thoughts, knowledge, and memories. It is
also influenced by our ability to solve problems, make decisions, form judgments, and communicate.
Psychological, sociocultural, and biological influences determine the development and use of these
different yet convergent processes.
Biological factors underlie the mental processes that create our reality, shape our perception of the
world, and influence the way we perceive and react to every aspect of our lives.
The content in this category covers critical aspects of cognitionincluding consciousness, cognitive
development, problem solving and decision making, intelligence, memory, and language. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:
Attention (PSY)
Selective attention
Divided attention
Cognition (PSY)
Information-processing model
Cognitive development
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Piagets stages of cognitive development
Cognitive changes in late adulthood
Role of culture in cognitive development
Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development
Biological factors that affect cognition (PSY, BIO)
Problem solving and decision making
Types of problem solving
Barriers to effective problem solving
Approaches to problem solving
Heuristics and biases (e.g., overconfidence, belief perseverance)
Intellectual functioning
Theories of intelligence
Influence of heredity and environment on intelligence
Variations in intellectual ability
Consciousness (PSY)
States of consciousness
Alertness (PSY, BIO)
Sleep
Stages of sleep
Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles
Sleep and circadian rhythms (PSY, BIO)
Dreaming
Sleepwake disorders
Hypnosis and meditation
Consciousness-altering drugs
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
78
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
o
o
Types of consciousness-altering drugs and their effects on the nervous system and
behavior
Drug addiction and the reward pathway in the brain
Memory (PSY)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Encoding
Process of encoding information
Processes that aid in encoding memories
Storage
Types of memory storage (e.g., sensory, working, long-term)
Semantic networks and spreading activation
Retrieval
Recall, recognition, and relearning
Retrieval cues
The role of emotion in retrieving memories (PSY, BIO)
Processes that aid retrieval
Forgetting
Aging and memory
Memory dysfunctions (e.g., Alzheimers disease, Korsakoffs syndrome)
Decay
Interference
Memory construction and source monitoring
Changes in synaptic connections underlie memory and learning (PSY, BIO)
Neural plasticity
Memory and learning
Long-term potentiation
Language (PSY)
Theories of language development (e.g., learning, Nativist, Interactionist)
Influence of language on cognition
Brain areas that control language and speech (PSY, BIO)
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
79
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 6C: Responding to the world
We experience a barrage of environmental stimuli throughout the course of our lives. In many cases,
environmental stimuli trigger physiological responses, such as an elevated heart rate, increased
perspiration, or heightened feelings of anxiety. How we perceive and interpret these physiological
responses is complex and influenced by psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors.
Emotional responses, such as feelings of happiness, sadness, anger, or stress are often born out of our
interpretation of this interplay of physiological responses. Our experience with emotions and stress not
only affects our behavior, but also shapes our interactions with others.
The content in this category covers the basic components and theories of emotion and their underlying
psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors. It also addresses stress, stress outcomes, and stress
management. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Emotion (PSY)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Components of the endocrine system
Effects of the endocrine system on behavior
Behavioral genetics
Genes, temperament, and heredity
Adaptive value of traits and behaviors
Interaction between heredity and environmental influences
Influence of genetic and environmental factors on the development of behaviors
Experience and behavior (PSY)
Regulatory genes and behavior (BIO)
Genetically based behavioral variation in natural populations
Human physiological development (PSY)
Prenatal development
Motor development
Developmental changes in adolescence
Personality (PSY)
Theories of personality
Psychoanalytic perspective
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
82
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
o
o
o
o
o
Humanistic perspective
Trait perspective
Social cognitive perspective
Biological perspective
Behaviorist perspective
Situational approach to explaining behavior
Psychological Disorders (PSY)
Factors that influence motivation
o
o
o
o
Instinct
Arousal
Drives (e.g., negative feedback systems) (PSY, BIO)
Needs
Theories that explain how motivation affects human behavior
o
o
o
Drive reduction theory
Incentive theory
Other theories (e.g., cognitive, need-based)
Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior (e.g., hunger, sex drive, substance
addiction)
Attitudes (PSY)
o
o
o
Social facilitation
Deindividuation
Bystander effect
Social loafing
Social control (SOC)
Peer pressure (PSY, SOC)
Conformity (PSY, SOC)
Obedience (PSY, SOC)
Group Decision-making Processes (PSY, SOC)
Group polarization (PSY)
Groupthink
Normative and Non-normative Behavior (SOC)
Social norms (PSY, SOC)
Sanctions (SOC)
Folkways, mores, and taboos (SOC)
Anomie (SOC)
Deviance
Perspectives on deviance (e.g., differential association, labeling theory, strain theory)
Aspects of collective behavior (e.g., fads, mass hysteria, riots)
Socialization (PSY, SOC)
Agents of socialization (e.g., the family, mass media, peers, workplace)
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
84
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 7C: Attitude and behavior change
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience. There are a number
of different types of learning, which include habituation as well as associative, observational, and social
learning.
Although people can learn new behaviors and change their attitudes, psychological, environmental, and
biological factors influence whether those changes will be short-term or long-term. Understanding how
people learn new behaviors, change their attitudes, and the conditions that affect learning helps us
understand behavior and our interactions with others.
The content in this category covers learning and theories of attitude and behavior change. This includes
the elaboration likelihood model and social cognitive theory. The topics and subtopics in this category
are the following:
Habituation and Dishabituation (PSY)
Associative Learning (PSY)
Modeling
Biological processes that affect observational learning
o
o
Mirror neurons
Role of the brain in experiencing vicarious emotions
Applications of observational learning to explain individual behavior
Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change (PSY)
Category 8A focuses on the notion of self and identity formation.
Category 8B focuses on the attitudes and beliefs that affect social interaction.
Category 8C focuses on the actions and processes underlying social interactions.
These are the building blocks medical students need to learn about interacting and collaborating with
patients, their families, and other health professionals, as well as the factors that influence patient
provider interactions.
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 8A: Self-identity
The self refers to the thoughts and beliefs we have about ourselves. Our notion of self is complex and
multifaceted. It includes gender, racial, and ethnic identities, as well as beliefs about our ability to
accomplish tasks and exert control over different situations.
Our notion of self develops over time and is shaped by a variety of factors, including society, culture,
individuals and groups, and our unique experiences. How we view ourselves influences our perceptions
of others, and by extension, our interactions with them.
The content in this category covers the notions of self-concept and identity, along with the role of self-
esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in the development of self-concept. Identity formation,
including developmental stages and the social factors that affect identity formation, is also covered here.
Theories are included to provide historical context for the field of identity formation. The topics and
subtopics in this category are the following:
Self-Concept, Self-identity, and Social Identity (PSY, SOC)
o
o
The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity (PSY)
Different types of identities (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, class)
Formation of Identity (PSY, SOC)
Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)
Influence of social factors on identity formation
Influence of individuals (e.g., imitation, looking-glass self, role-taking)
Influence of groups (e.g., reference group)
Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
87
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 8B: Social thinking
Social thinking refers to the ways in which we view others and our environment, as well as how we
interpret others behaviors. A variety of factorspersonality, environment, and culturefactor into the
beliefs and attitudes we develop.
Our beliefs and attitudes about others and the environment also shape the way we interact with each
other. To interact with others, we need to interpret different aspects of a situation, including our
perception of ourselves, the behavior of others, and the environment.
The content in this category covers our attitudes about others and how those attitudes develop, including
how perceptions of culture and environment affect attributions of behavior. It also covers how our
attitudes about different groupsprejudice, stereotypes, stigma, and ethnocentrism may influence our
interactions with group members. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Attributing Behavior to Persons or Situations (PSY)
o
o
o
o
Attributional processes (e.g., fundamental attribution error, role of culture in attributions)
How self-perceptions shape our perceptions of others
How perceptions of the environment shape our perceptions of others
Prejudice and Bias (PSY, SOC)
Processes that contribute to prejudice
Power, prestige, and class (SOC)
The role of emotion in prejudice (PSY)
The role of cognition in prejudice (PSY)
Stereotypes
Stigma (SOC)
Ethnocentrism (SOC)
Ethnocentrism vs. cultural relativism
Processes Related to Stereotypes (PSY)
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Stereotype threat
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
88
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 8C: Social interactions
Humans are social beings by nature. Though the sentiment is simple, the actions and processes
underlying and shaping our social interactions are not.
The changing nature of social interaction is important for understanding the mechanisms and processes
through which people interact with each other, both individually and within groups. A variety of
factorsenvironment, culture, and biologyaffect how we present ourselves to others and how we treat
them. For example, perceptions of prejudice and stereotypes can lead to acts of discrimination, whereas
positive attitudes about others can lead to the provision of help and social support.
The content in this category covers the mechanisms of self-presentation and social interaction including
expressing and detecting emotion, impression management, communication, the biological
underpinning of social behavior, and discrimination. The topics and subtopics in this category are the
following:
Elements of Social Interaction (PSY, SOC)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Status (SOC)
Types of status (e.g., achieved, ascribed)
Role
Role conflict and role strain (SOC)
Role exit (SOC)
Groups
Primary and secondary groups (SOC)
In-group vs. out-group
Group size (e.g., dyads, triads) (SOC)
Networks (SOC)
Organizations (SOC)
Formal organization
Bureaucracy
Characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy
Perspectives on bureaucracy (e.g., iron law of oligarchy, McDonaldization)
Self-presentation and Interacting with Others (PSY, SOC)
Expressing and detecting emotion
The role of gender in the expression and detection of emotion
The role of culture in the expression and detection of emotion
Presentation of self
Impression management
Front stage vs. back stage self (Dramaturgical approach) (SOC)
Verbal and nonverbal communication
Animal signals and communication (PSY, BIO)
Social Behavior (PSY)
Attraction
Aggression
Attachment
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
89
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
o
o
o
o
o
Altruism
Social support (PSY, SOC)
Biological explanations of social behavior in animals (PSY, BIO)
Foraging behavior (BIO)
Mating behavior and mate choice
Applying game theory (BIO)
Altruism
Inclusive fitness (BIO)
Discrimination (PSY, SOC)
Individual vs. institutional discrimination (SOC)
The relationship between prejudice and discrimination
How power, prestige, and class facilitate discrimination (SOC)
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
90
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Foundational Concept 9
Cultural and social differences influence well-being.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
91
Social structure and demographic factors influence peoples health and well-being. Knowledge about
basic sociological theories, social institutions, culture, and demographic characteristics of societies is
important to understand how these factors shape peoples lives and their daily interactions.
Foundational Concept 9 focuses on social variables and processes that influence our lives.
Content Categories
Category 9A focuses on the link between social structures and human interactions.
Category 9B focuses on the demographic characteristics and processes that define a society.
Medical students will build upon these concepts, learning about the ways in which demographics and
social factors influence health care and are determinants of health outcomes. Knowledge of these
concepts will prepare students to learn about the ways in which patients backgrounds and experiences
influence their expectations of the healthcare system, interactions with healthcare providers, and
responses to treatment.
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 9A: Understanding social structure
Social structure organizes all human societies. Elements of social structure include social institutions
and culture. These elements are linked in a variety of ways and shape our experiences and interactions
with othersa process that is reciprocal.
The content in this category provides a foundation for understanding social structure and the various
forms of interactions within and among societies. It includes theoretical approaches to studying society
and social groups, specific social institutions relevant to student preparation for medical school, and the
construct of culture. The topics and subtopics in this category are the following:
Theoretical Approaches (SOC)
Education
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Hidden curriculum
Teacher expectancy
Educational segregation and stratification
Family (PSY, SOC)
Forms of kinship (SOC)
Diversity in family forms
Marriage and divorce
Violence in the family (e.g., child abuse, elder abuse, spousal abuse) (SOC)
Religion
Religiosity
Types of religious organizations (e.g., churches, sects, cults)
Religion and social change (e.g., modernization, secularization, fundamentalism)
Government and economy
Power and authority
Comparative economic and political systems
Division of labor
Health and medicine
Medicalization
The sick role
Delivery of health care
Illness experience
Social epidemiology
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
92
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Culture (PSY, SOC)
Age
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Aging and the life course
Age cohorts (SOC)
Social significance of aging
Gender
Sex versus gender
The social construction of gender (SOC)
Gender segregation (SOC)
Race and ethnicity (SOC)
The social construction of race
Racialization
Racial formation
Immigration status (SOC)
Patterns of immigration
Intersections with race and ethnicity
Sexual orientation
Demographic Shifts and Social Change (SOC)
Theories of demographic change (i.e., Malthusian theory and demographic transition)
Population growth and decline (e.g., population projections, population pyramids)
Fertility, migration, and mortality
Fertility and mortality rates (e.g., total, crude, age-specific)
Patterns in fertility and mortality
Push and pull factors in migration
Social movements
Relative deprivation
Organization of social movements
Movement strategies and tactics
Globalization
Factors contributing to globalization (e.g., communication technology, economic
interdependence)
Perspectives on globalization
Social changes in globalization (e.g., civil unrest, terrorism)
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
94
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Urbanization
o
o
o
Industrialization and urban growth
Suburbanization and urban decline
Gentrification and urban renewal
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
95
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Foundational Concept 10
Social stratification and access to resources influence well-being.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
96
Social stratification and inequality affect all human societies, and shape the lives of all individuals by
affording privileges to some and positioning others at a disadvantage.
Foundational Concept 10 focuses on the aspects of social inequality that influence how we interact with
one another, as well as how we approach our health and the healthcare system.
Content Category
Category 10A focuses on a broad understanding of social class, including theories of
stratification, social mobility, and poverty.
In medical school, students will learn the ways in which social stratification influences health care and
how social inequality can be a determinant of health. Knowledge of these concepts will prepare students
to learn about the ways by which patients social class and living conditions affect their access to health
care, interactions with providers, and health outcomes.
Whats on the MCAT
2015
Exam? Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
Content Category 10A: Social inequality
Barriers to the access of institutional resources exist for the segment of the population that is
disenfranchised or lacks power within a given society. Barriers to access might include language,
geographic location, socioeconomic status, immigration status, and racial/ethnic identity.
Institutionalized racism and discrimination are also factors which prevent some groups from obtaining
equal access to resources. An understanding of the barriers to the access of institutional resources,
informed by perspectives such as social justice, is essential to address health and healthcare disparities.
The content in this category covers spatial inequality, the structure and patterns of social class, and
health disparities in relation to class, race/ethnicity, and gender. The topics and subtopics in this
category are the following:
Spatial Inequality (SOC)
Residential segregation
Neighborhood safety and violence
Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks)
Social Class (SOC)
Humanities, 50%
Social Sciences, 50%
*These percentages have been approximated to the nearest 5% and will vary from one test to another for
a variety of reasons. These reasons include, but are not limited to, controlling for question difficulty,
using groups of questions that depend on a single passage, and using unscored field-test questions on
each test form.
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
112
Whats on the MCAT2015 Exam? Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills
What is the Content of the Passages in the Critical Anal ysis and Reasoning Skills
Section?
Passages in the Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills section are excerpted from the kinds of books,
journals, and magazines that college students are likely to read. Passages from the social sciences and
humanities disciplines might present interpretations, implications, or applications of historical accounts,
theories, observations, or trends of human society as a whole, specific population groups, or specific
countries.
Of these two types of passages (social sciences and humanities), social sciences passages tend to be
more factual and scientific in tone. For example, a social sciences passage might discuss how basic
psychological and sociological assumptions help scholars reconstruct patterns of prehistoric civilizations
from ancient artifacts. Humanities passages often focus on the relationships between ideas and are more
likely to be written in a conversational or opinionated style. Therefore, you should keep in mind the tone
and word choice of the author in addition to the passage assertions themselves. Humanities passages
might describe the ways art reflects historical or social change or how the philosophy of ethics has
adapted to prevailing technological changes.
Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills passages come from a variety of humanities and social sciences
disciplines.
Humanities
Passages in the humanities are drawn from a variety of disciplines, including (but not limited to):
Architecture
Art
Dance
Ethics
Literature
Music
Philosophy
Popular Culture
Religion
Theater
Studies of Diverse Cultures
1
1
Depending on the focus of the text, a Studies of Diverse Cultures passage could be classified as belonging to either the
Humanities or Social Sciences
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
113
Whats on the MCAT2015 Exam? Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills
Social Sciences
Social sciences passages are also drawn from a variety of disciplines, including (but not limited to):
Anthropology
Archaeology
Economics
Education
Geography
History
Linguistics
Political Science
Population Health
Psychology
Sociology
Studies of Diverse Cultures
2
What Kinds of Anal ysis Skills does the Critical Anal ysis and Reasoning Skills Section
Require?
2
Depending on the focus of the text, a Studies of Diverse Cultures passage could be classified as belonging to either the
Humanities or Social Sciences
2014 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission.
114
Whats on the MCAT2015 Exam? Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills
The Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills section assesses three broad critical analysis and reasoning
skills. Questions in this section will ask you to determine the overall meaning of the text, to summarize,
evaluate, and critique the big picture, and to synthesize, adapt, and reinterpret concepts you processed
and analyzed. The questions following Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills passages lead you through
this complex mental exercise of finding meaning within each text and then reasoning beyond the text to
expand the initial meaning. The analysis and reasoning skills on which you will be tested mirror those
that mature test takers use to make sense of complex materials. The skills assessed in the Critical
Analysis and Reasoning Skills section are represented below, and each skill is explained in the following
sections.
Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills
Foundations of Comprehension