An internal bus serves as the communication highway of the motherboard.

It links the different parts

of the computer to the CPU and the main memory. Its primary task is to send data and instructions
to the different parts within the motherboard, including the external bus.
The external type of motherboard bus, which is also known as the expansion bus, serves as the
interface for peripheral devices like hard disks, CD-ROM drives, and flash drives to getconnected to
the CPU. The shape of each interface is unique. This prevents plugging a device to a wrong port,
which could cause damage to the device while being connected to the CPU.

Motherboard A brief overview
Components and functions:

The motherboard of a typical desktop consists of a large printed circuit board. It holds electronic
components and interconnects, as well as physical connectors (sockets, slots, and headers) into
which other computer components may be inserted or attached.
Most motherboards include, at a minimum:
Sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors (CPUs) are installed.
Slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules
containing DRAM chips) .
A chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and
peripheral buses.
Non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the
system's firmware or BIOS .
A clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various
components.
Slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset) .
Motherboard A brief overview
Power connectors and circuits, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply
and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.

Form Factor

A motherboard by itself is useless, but a computer has to have one to operate. The motherboard's main
job is to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let everything else connect to it. Everything that
runs the computer or enhances its performance is either part of the motherboard or plugs into it via a
slot or port.


Photo courtesy Consumer Guide Products
A modern motherboard.
See more motherboard pictures.

The shape and layout of a motherboard is called the form factor. The form factor affects where
individual components go and the shape of the computer's case. There are several specific form factors
that most PC motherboards use so that they can all fit in standard cases.
The form factor is just one of the many standards that apply to motherboards. Some of the other
standards include:
The socket for the microprocessor determines what kind of Central Processing Unit
(CPU) the motherboard uses.
The chipset is part of the motherboard's logic system and is usually made of two parts --
the northbridge and the southbridge. These two "bridges" connect the CPU to other
parts of the computer.
The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) chip controls the most basic functions of the
computer and performs a self-test every time you turn it on. Some systems feature dual
BIOS, which provides a backup in case one fails or in case of error during updating.
The real time clock chip is a battery-operated chip that maintains basic settings and the
system time.
The slots and ports found on a motherboard include:
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)- connections for video, sound and video
capture cards, as well as network cards
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - dedicated port for video cards.
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) - interfaces for the hard drives
Universal Serial Bus or FireWire - external peripherals
Memory slots

MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS
The motherboard holds all the major logic components of the computer.
Here we are going to see with no particular order, some of these major motherboard components and their
function in a computer.

A motherboard showing some major components
CPU- Central Processing Unit
It is also known as themicroprocessor or the processor. It is the brain of the computer, and it is responsible
for fetching,decoding and executing program instructions as well as performing mathematical and logical
calculations.
The processor chip is identified by the processor type and the manufacturer; and this information is usually
inscribed on the processor chip e.g. Intel 386, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) 386, Cyrix 486, Pentium MMX,
(old processor types) Intel Core 2Duo, iCore7 and many more.
If the processor chip is not on the motherboard, you can identify the processor socket as socket 1 to Socket 8,
LGA 775 among others. This can help you identify the processor that fits in the socket. For example a 486DX
processor fits into Socket 3.
Main Memory / Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory or RAMmost commonly refers to computer chips that temporarily store dynamic
data when you are working with your computer to enhance the computer performance.
In other words, it is the working place of your computer where active programs and data are loaded so that
any time time the processor requires them, it doesn't have to fetch them from the hard disk which will take a
longer access time.
Random access memory is volatilememory, meaning it loses its contents once power is turned off. This is
different from non-volatile memory such as hard disks and flash memory, which do not require a power source
to retain data.
When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in Random Access Memory is returned back to
permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the next boot-up, RAM begins to fill with programs
automatically loaded at startup, a process called booting. Later on, the user opens other files and programs
that are still loaded in the memory.
BIOS- Basic Input Output System
BIOS is a term that stands for Basic Input/Output System. BIOS is a Read Only Memory which consists
of low-level software that controls the system hardware and acts as an interface between the operating
system and the hardware. Most people know the term BIOS by another namedevice drivers, or just drivers.
BIOS is essentially the link between the computer hardware and software in a system.
All motherboards include a small block of Read Only Memory (ROM) which is separate from the main system
memory used for loading and running software. On PCs, the BIOS contains all the code required to control the
keyboard, display screen, disk drives, serial communications, and a number of miscellaneous functions.
The system BIOS is a ROM chip on the motherboard used by the computer during the startup routine (boot
process) to check out the system and prepare to run the hardware. The BIOS is stored on a ROM chip because
ROM retains information even when no power is being supplied to the computer.

BIOS Chip

A labeled ASRock K7VT4A Pro Mainboard
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/ASRock_K7VT4A_Pro_Mainboard_Labeled_English.svg

CMOS Battery
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HP PAVILION DV2000 DV4000 V3000 V4000 3 PIN 23.22047.001 CMOS BATTERY CB10
Current Bid: $2.00

CMOS RAM - Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Random Access Memory
Motherboards also include a small separate block of memory made fromCMOS RAM chips which is kept alive
by a battery (known as a CMOS battery) even when the PCs power is off. This prevents reconfiguration when
the PC is powered on.
CMOS devices require very little power to operate.
The CMOS RAM is used to store basic Information about the PCs configuration for instance:-
Floppy disk and hard disk drive types
Information about CPU
RAM size
Date and time
Serial and parallel port information
Plug and Play information
Power Saving settings
The Other Important data kept in CMOS memory is the time and date, which is updated by a Real Time Clock
(RTC).

Cache Memory
It is a small block of high-speed memory (RAM) that enhances PC performance by pre-loading information
from the (relatively slow) main memory and passing it to the processor on demand.
Most CPUs have an internal cache memory (in-built in the processor) which is referred to as Level 1 cache
memory or primary cache memory. This can be supplemented by external cache memory fitted on the
motherboard. This is the Level 2 Cache memory or secondary cache.
In modern computers, we are having Level 1 and 2 cache memory build into the processor die. If a third cache
is implemented outside the die, it is referred to as the Level 3 (L3) cache.

L2 Cache on an old Motherboard

PCI Slots
Expansion Bus
This is an input/output pathway from the CPU to peripheral devices typically made up of a series of slots on the
motherboard. Expansion boards (cards) plug into the bus. PCI is the common expansion bus in a PC and other
hardware platforms. Buses carry signals, such as data, memory addresses, power, and control signals from
component to component.
Expansion buses enhance the PCs capabilities by allowing users to add missing features in their computers in
form of adapter cards that are slotted in expansion slots.
The different types of buses include PCI, ISA, and EISA expansion bus among others.
Chipsets
A chipset is a group of small circuits that coordinate the flow of data to and from key components of a PC. This
includes the CPU itself, the main memory, the secondary cache and any devices situated on the buses. The
chipset also controls data flow to and from hard disks, and other devices connected to the IDE channels. A
computer has got two main chipsets:-
The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling transfers between the
processor and the RAM, which is why it is located physically near the processor. It is sometimes called
the GMCH, forGraphic and Memory Controller Hub.
The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion controller) handles
communications between slower peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O Controller Hub). The
term bridge is generally used to designate a component which connects two buses.
Chipset manufacturers include SIS, VIA, ALI, OPTI among others.
CPU Clock
The clock synchronizes the operation of all parts of the PC and provides the basic timing signal for the CPU.
Using a quartz crystal, the CPU clock breathes life into the microprocessor by feeding it a constant flow of
pulses.
For example, a 200 MHz CPU receives 200 million pulses per second from the clock. A 2 GHz CPU gets two
billion pulses per second. Similarly, in any communications device, a clock may be used to synchronize the
data pulses between sender and receiver.

A "real-time clock," also called the "system clock," keeps track of the time of day and makes this data available
to the software. A "time-sharing clock" interrupts the CPU at regular intervals and allows the operating system
to divide its time between active users and/or applications.

Dip switch on an old motherboard.

Jumper pins with a cap on
Switches and Jumpers
DIP (Dual In-line Package) switches are small electronic switches found on the circuit board that can be turned
on or off just like a normal switch. They are very small and so are usually flipped with a pointed object such as
the tip of a screwdriver, bent paper clip or pen top. Care should be taken when cleaning near DIP switches as
some solvents may destroy them. Dip switches are obsolete as you will not find them in modern systems.
Jumper pins
Jumpers are small protruding pins on the motherboard. A jumper cap or bridge is used to interconnect or short
a pair of the jumper pins. When the bridge is connected to any two pins via a shorting link, it completes the
circuit and a certain configuration has been achieved.
Jumper cap
A metal bridge that closes an electrical circuit. Typically, a jumper consists of a plastic plug that fits over a pair
of protruding pins. Jumpers are sometimes used to configure expansion boards. By placing a jumper plug over
a different set of pins, you can change a board's parameters.



This is a Graphics Card for the AGP slot, called the
Accelerated Graphics Port, you can also get one for the
PCI slot, in case your motherboard does not have the AGP
slot.


This is a Sound Card for the PCI slot, most all Sound cards
are for the PCI slot.



This is a Network card for the PCI slot, used for a
Broadband connection, like cable or DSL.



This is a Ram Memory Chip, notice the notches on
the bottom, it can only go into the slot one way,
those notches have to line up with the ones in the
slot. Make sure it is seated all the way and the white
clips are clipped into the notches on the sides.

Computer Power Supply, this supplies the electricity
to all the parts in the computer. This is the only part
that holds electricity after you unplug the Power
Cord and should only be serviced by a Qualified
Tech.

This is a CPU the Central Processing Unit, this sends
all the info to the different parts of your computer.
This is the bottom of the CPU showing all the pins,
they fit into a slot on the Motherboard.

This sits on top of the CPU and draws heat up into
the fins of the Heat Sink, then the Fan pulls air up
and through the fins cooling them. That is how the
CPU is stays cool, otherwise it would over heat and
shut down the computer.


Types of RAM
The following are some common types of RAM:
SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but doesn't have a
capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.
DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells with a paired transistor and capacitorrequiring constant
refreshing.
FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through the
entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum
transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176 MBps.
EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the processing of the first bit
before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next
bit. It is about five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.
SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly improve
performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns,
reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence. SDRAM is
about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2
cache is approximately 528 MBps.
DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that is has higher bandwidth,
meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).
RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the previous DRAM architecture.
Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin
configuration to a standard DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus called the
Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they
operate at such high speeds, they generate much more heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat
Rambus chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are smaller versions of
DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook computers.
Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM memory module that plugs into a special
slot for use in notebook computers.
PCMCIA Memory Card: Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards of this type are not proprietary and
should work with any notebook computer whose system bus matches the memory card's configuration.
CMOS RAM: CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by your computer and some other devices to
remember things like hard disk settings -- see Why does my computer need a battery? for details. This memory uses a small
battery to provide it with the power it needs to maintain the memory contents.
VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory (MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used
specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators. The "multiport" part comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two
independent access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the RAM simultaneously.
VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats, many of which are proprietary. The amount of
VRAM is a determining factor in theresolution and color depth of the display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific
information such as3-D geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to be expensive, so today, many
graphics cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM) instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is cheaper.




Types of random access memory
Both static and dynamic RAM are considered volatile, as their state is lost or reset when power is removed from the system.
There are generally two broad categories of random access memory:
DRAM memories (Dynamic Random Access Module), Dynamic Random Access Memory is slower than SRAM
and needs to be refreshed many times every second. Each memory cell consists of a capacitor and a
transistor. DRAM is much less expensive than SRAM.
SRAM memories (Static Random Access Module), This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally
faster and requires less power than DRAM and, in modern computers, is often used as cache memory for the CPU.

DRAM types
The different types of DRAM are used for different applications as a result of their slightly varying properties. The
different types are summarised below:
Asynchronous DRAM: Asynchronous DRAM is the basic type of DRAM on which all other types are
based. Asynchronous DRAMs have connections for power, address inputs, and bidirectional data lines.

Although this type of DRAM is asynchronous, the system is run by a memory controller which is clocked,
and this limits the speed of the system to multiples of the clock rate. Nevertheless the operation of the
DRAM itself is not synchronous.

There are various types of asynchronous DRAM within the overall family:
o RAS only Refresh, ROR: This is a classic asynchronous DRAM type and it is refreshed by opening
each row in turn. The refresh cycles are spread across the overall refresh interval. An external
counter is required to refresh the rows sequentially.
o CAS before RAS refresh, CBR: To reduce the level of external circuitry the counter required for
the refresh was incorporated into the main chip. This became the standard format for refresh of
an asynchronous DRAM. (It is also the only form generally used with SDRAM).
FPM DRAM: FPM DRAM or Fast Page Mode DRAM was designed to be faster than conventional types of
DRAM. As such it was the main type of DRAM used in PCs, although it is now well out of date as it was
only able to support memory bus speeds up to about 66 MHz.
EDO DRAM: Extended Data Out DRAM was a form of DRAM that provided a performance increase over
FPM DRAM. Yet this type of DRAM was still only able to operate at speeds of up to about 66 MHz.

EDO DRAM is sometimes referred to as Hyper Page Mode enabled DRAM because it is a development of
FPM type of DRAM to which it bears many similarities. The EDO DRAM type has the additional feature that
a new access cycle could be started while the data output from the previous cycle was still present. This
type of DRAM began its data output on the falling edge of /CAS line. However it did not inhibit the output
when /CAS line rises. Instead, it held the output valid until either /RAS was dis-asserted, or a new /CAS
falling edge selected a different column address. In some instances it was possible to carry out a memory
transaction in one clock cycle, or provide an improvement from using three clock cycles to two dependent
upon the scenario and memory used.

This provided the opportunity to considerably increase the level of memory performance while also
reducing costs.
BEDO DRAM: The Burst EDO DRAM was a type of DRAM that gave improved performance of the straight
EDO DRAM. The advantage of the BEDO DRAM type is that it could process four memory addresses in one
burst saving three clock cycles when compared to EDO memory. This was done by adding an on-chip
address counter count the next address.

BEDO DRAM also added a pipelined to enable the page-access cycle to be divided into two components:
1. the first component accessed the data from the memory array to the output stage
2. the second component drove the data bus from this latch at the appropriate logic level
Since the data was already in the output buffer, a faster access time is achieved - up to 50%
improvement when compared to conventional EDO DRAM.

BEDO DRAM provided a significant improvement over previous types of DRAM, but by the time it was
introduced, SDRAM had been launched and took the market. Therefore BEDO DRAM was little used.
SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM is a type of DRAM that is much faster than previous, conventional forms of
RAM and DRAM. It operates in a synchronous mode, synchronising with the bus within the CPU.
RDRAM: This is Rambus DRAM - a type of DRAM that was developed by Rambus Inc, obviously taking its
name from the company. It was a competitor to SDRAM and DDR SDRAM, and was able to operate at much faster
speeds than previous versions of DRAM.


Types of SRAM
[edit]Non-volatile SRAM
Non-volatile SRAMs, or nvSRAMs, have standard SRAM functionality, but they save the data when the power supply is lost,
ensuring preservation of critical information. nvSRAMs are used in a wide range of situationsnetworking, aerospace, and
medical, among many others
[9]
where the preservation of data is critical and where batteries are impractical.
[edit]Asynchronous SRAM
Asynchronous SRAM are available from 4 Kb to 64 Mb. The fast access time of SRAM makes asynchronous SRAM
appropriate asmain memory for small cache-less embedded processors used in everything from industrial
electronics and measurement systems tohard disks and networking equipment, among many other applications. They are
used in various applications like switches and routers, IP-Phones, IC-Testers, DSLAM Cards, to Automotive Electronics.
[edit]By transistor type
Bipolar junction transistor (used in TTL and ECL) very fast but consumes a lot of power
MOSFET (used in CMOS) low power and very common today
[edit]By function
Asynchronous independent of clock frequency; data in and data out are controlled by address transition
Synchronous all timings are initiated by the clock edge(s). Address, data in and other control signals are associated
with the clock signals
[edit]By feature
ZBT (ZBT stands for zero bus turnaround) the turnaround is the number of clock cycles it takes to change access to
the SRAM from write to read and vice versa. The turnaround for ZBT SRAMs or the latency between read and write
cycle is zero.
syncBurst (syncBurst SRAM or synchronous-burst SRAM) features synchronous burst write access to the SRAM to
increase write operation to the SRAM
DDR SRAM Synchronous, single read/write port, double data rate I/O
Quad Data Rate SRAM Synchronous, separate read & write ports, quadruple data rate I/O
[edit]By flip-flop type
Binary SRAM
Ternary SRAM