Chanchal Lalwani - Edexcel

Unit 5: Physics from Creation to

Collapse
Volume:

Surface area of sphere: 4r
2
Age of universe:

Planets orbit stars, and their mass is very tiny in comparison to the star!
Therefore, centre of mass is towards the star.
Doppler shift is larger for greater speeds!
Peak wavelength of a star can be determined from its spectrum
The greater the luminosity, the longer the period of pulsation of a
Cepheid Variable Star
Luminosity = Power output measured at star
Flux = Power per unit area measured at Earth, depends on distance from
star
A Main Sequence star is one that is fusing hydrogen as fuel
Peak energy radiation from the Earth : Infrared

Astronomical units
1 ly = Distance travelled in a vacuum in 1 year by light
o Light has only been able to travel to us for a time equal to
the age of the universe

Standard candles
Object must have a standard/known luminosity OR luminous
properties independent of its position
It can be used to calculate distances
Radiation flux is measured
Use of inverse square law
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Object must be commonly found in the universe

They re used to find distances to stars that are very far away
because:
A distant star does not seem to move against the
background/with respect to an even more distant star
Angle between star and distant star does not
change/differences in angle are too small to measure as the
earth moves over 6 months
The H-R diagram
Most massive stars:
They have the highest temperature
They are the most luminous
They fuse H into He at the highest rate
Because they have the largest gravitational forces
Run out of fuel quicker

Two stars appear equally bright Why do they not need to be the
same distance from the observer?
Could be different sizes; So larger one could be further away
Could be different temperatures; So hotter one could be further
away
Different luminosities; So more luminous one could be further
away

How to use H-R diagram to calculate the sizes of stars:
Determine the stars
temperature from Wiens law
Determine its luminosity from
the H-R diagram
Then calculate r using Stefans
law

Trigonometric parallax
The relative movement of
these nearby stars if observed
because:
Chanchal Lalwani - Edexcel

o The Earth is orbiting around the sun
o So relative to the fixed background stars, nearby stars
appear to move due to trigonometric parallax
The star is viewed from two positions at 6 month intervals Or the
star is viewed from opposite ends of its orbit diameter about the
Sun
The change in angular position of the star relative to fixed/distant
stars is measured
The diameter/radius of the Earths orbit about the Sun must be
known and trigonometry is used to calculate the distance to the
star

Binary star
A star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their
common centre of mass
Brighter star is called the primary star, and the other is its
companion star
To find the orbital time for their system:
1. Find the magnitude of the force between them
2.

3. You can use the mass and radius of any of the stars!
4. Once you calculate w, use T =

to find T
5. Do question 18 from June 2011!

Supernova
Hydrogen burning ceases as the fuel is used up
Star collapses, it contracts
Outer layers are blown off
Their future:
o Neutron star if mass core remnant is greater than 1. 4 solar
masses
o Black hole if mass core remnant is greater than 2. 5 solar
masses
Red giant
Cool large surface area
High luminosity

Chanchal Lalwani - Edexcel

White dwarf
Dead star, i. e. no longer any fusion
Small, dense & hot
Consisting of products of fusion such as carbon / oxygen /
nitrogen
If mass core remnant is less than 1. 4 solar masses, it turns into a
white dwarf
Future: Cools gradually until no longer visible

How energy is released
Nuclear fusion
When hydrogen nuclei combine to form helium
There is mass deficit
This mass is converted into energy, E=mc
2


Doppler Effect
When star contracts, its moving away from the observer
Wavelength increases, frequency decreases
Redshift: Radiation is received with a longer wavelength
compared to that emitted from the receding source. This indicates
that distant galaxies are moving apart, hence the universe is
expanding! Evidence for the big bang is provided. The velocity of
galaxy is proportional to distance, which means that the galaxy
which is furthest out moves the fastest.

Dark matter
Dark matter has mass but does not emit e-m radiation
Dark matter proposed when observations of galaxies indicated
that they must contain more matter than could be seen
The existence of dark matter will increase the average density of
the
universe
This may make it more likely that the universe is closed It ll end
in a Big Crunch

Ultimate fate of the universe
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Uncertainty exists because of:
Difficulty in making accurate measurements of distances to
galaxies
Hubble constant has a large uncertainty
Age = 1/H may not be valid as gravity is changing the expansion
rate
Because of the existence of dark matter, values of the average
density/mass of the universe have a large uncertainty
Therefore, measurements of the critical density of the Universe
have a large uncertainty

How the ultimate fate of the Universe is associated with the Hubble
constant
Fate of universe depends on the density of the universe
Theres a link between gravity and density
Hubble constant is changing due to gravitational forces
Fission and Fusion
Fission Fusion
Chain reaction can be set up
In a chain reaction, the total
energy released can be very
large
Very high reaction rates
release a lot of energy
Process:
Small nuclei fuse to produce
a larger nucleus
Mass of the fused nucleus <
total mass of initial nuclei
Energy is released since E =
mc
2
, and binding energy per
nucleon increases

Conditions:
Very high temperatures
(>10
7
K) to overcome
electrostatic repulsion
between nuclei and allow
nuclei to come close enough
for them to fuse
Very high densities needed
to give a sufficient collision
rate

Difficult to replicate:
Very high temperatures lead
to confinement problems
Contact with container
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causes temperature to fall
and fusion to cease
Very strong magnetic fields
are required


Fission vs. Fusion
Hydrogen fuel for fusion is virtually unlimited whereas fission
relies upon uranium, i. e. a relatively limited resource
Fusion results in few radioactive products, but radioactive
products produced in fission present significant disposal
problems
For a given mass of fuel, the energy released by fusion is greater
than the energy released by fission

Binding energy per nucleon
Iron is the peak of the graph
If nuclei were to be formed with A>56, the binding energy per nucleon
would decrease
This would require a net input of energy

Interesting question
P05, Q19c)iv):
o Find out how much % of the 17. 5 MeV KE both Helium and
the neutron have:
o MNvN = mava (due to conservation of momentum)
o VN = mava/mN = 4va since an alpha particle has mass 4u,
whereas a neutron has mass u
o

= 4
o EN =