AMDG

Francis Feingold
PHIL 871
Dr. Tobias Hoffmann
4/7/1!
T"#$I%# &ITHI# TH" &ILL' $(%T)$ A#D A*)I#A$ %# A#G"LI( $I#
1. Introduction
T+o,g+ -+e sin of -+e angels mig+- seem a- firs- glance an arcane and e.o-ic -o/ic -+a- /,s+es -+e
bo,ndaries of 0+a- o,r limi-ed in-ellec-s can gras/1 i- in fac- in2ol2es a 3,es-ion of 2i-al in-eres- -o an4
/+iloso/+ical ,nders-anding of +,man freedom' +o0 is an irra-ional c+oice /ossible 0i-+in -+e 2er4 domain of
reason i-self5 T+o,g+ akrasia1 -+e corr,/-ion of -+e /rac-ical 6,dgmen- d,e -o -+e infl,ence of -+e sense a//e-i-es1
is i-self none -oo l,cid a conce/-1 i- a- leas- gi2es ,s an in-,i-i2e e./lana-ion of -+e motive for -+e corr,/- 6,dgmen-.
For e.am/le1 i- is eas4 -o ,nders-and -+a- -+e reason why m4 ra-ional a--en-ion is di2er-ed from -+e good of s-a4ing
+eal-+4 and is -,rned ins-ead -o -+e lesser good of sensor4 s-im,la-ion is beca,se m4 sense a//e-i-e70+ic+ is
some+o0 con6oined -o -+e 0ill in i-s desires and delig+-s7desires -+e -as-e of ice cream. T+e g,il-1 in -+is case1 is
clearl4 fo,nded in m4 0ill8s c+oice -o +eed i-s 9lo0er: inclina-ion -o sa-isf4 -+e sense a//e-i-e ra-+er -+an i-s
9+ig+er: inclina-ion -o /,rs,e -+e good of reason; a lo0er motive is /referred -o a +ig+er one. <,- +o0 is one -o
e./lain -+e sin of /,rel4 in-ellec-,al beings1 0+ere -+ere sim/l4 are no sense a//e-i-es -o conflic- 0i-+ -+e 0ill8s
inclina-ion -o /,rs,e -+e good of reason5 Ho0 are 0e -o a--rib,-e g,il- -o an angel1 if angelic sin is mo-i2a-ed b4
-+e 2er4 same inclina-ion 9-o0ards -+e good of reason: as angelic 6,s-ice5 &e do no- blame -+ose 0+o do -+e
0rong -+ing for -+e rig+- reason1 b,- ra-+er /i-4 -+em for -+eir mis-a=e; 4e- -+e angels a: can ma=e no mis-a=e1 and
b: seem inca/able in an4 case of ac-ing o,- of an4 mo-i2a-ion sa2e >-+e rig+- one1? i.e. -+e /,rs,i- of -+e ra-ionall4
a//re+ended good. Ho0 is one -o acco,n- for -+is a//aren- con-radic-ion5 &e 0ill +ere e.amine -0o famo,s
a--em/-s -o sol2e -+is /roblem' -+a- of $-. T+omas A3,inas and -+a- of <l. D,ns $co-,s. Firs- -+e core elemen-s of
A3,inas8 -+eor4 0ill be laid o,-1 and an a//aren- fla0 in -+e reasoning 0ill be disc,ssed1 namel4 -+e a//aren- lac=
of a /la,sible motivation for -+e angels -o fail -o com/le-e -+eir delibera-ion before ma=ing -+eir c+oice 9and -+,s
-o sin 0i-+o,- direc-l4 2iola-ing -+e command of -+eir inerran- /rac-ical in-ellec-:. T+en 0e 0ill -,rn -o $co-,s and
+is a--em/- -o g,ard agains- -+is /roblem b4 +a2ing reco,rse -o a 0ill com/osed of no- one b,- -0o f,ndamen-al

inclina-ions 9-+e affectio commodi and -+e affectio iustitiae:; and I 0ill see= -o s+o0 -+a- -+is sol,-ion is indeed
consis-en-1 and moreo2er -+a- i- fi-s in remar=abl4 0ell 0i-+ -+e broader T+omis-ic ,nders-anding of sin in general.
2. A=rasia in Aquinas
To /in/oin- 0+ere -+e diffic,l-4 0i-+ A3,inas8 -+eor4 mig+- lie1 0e m,s- firs- la4 o,- -+e f,ll s-reng-+ of
i-s arc+i-ec-,re1 0+ic+ is formidable gi2en -+e diffic,l-4 of -+e s,b6ec- and -+e seeming con-radic-ions be-0een -+e
/remises on 0+ic+ i- is based. %n -+e one +and1 $-. T+omas o//oses in-ellec-,al de-erminism in no ,ncer-ain
-erms1 since -+is 0o,ld elimina-e -+e gro,nds for moral acco,n-abili-4'
$ome +a2e +eld -+a- -+e +,man 0ill is necessaril4 mo2ed -o c+oose -+ings. <,- -+e4 did no- +old -+a-
-+e 0ill is coerced1 since onl4 some-+ing from an e.-ernal so,rce1 no- e2er4-+ing necessar41 is coerced.
And so also some necessar4 mo2emen-s are na-,ral b,- no- coerced. For 0+a- is coerced is as con-rar4 -o
0+a- is na-,ral as -o 0+a- is 2ol,n-ar41 since -+e so,rce of bo-+ -+e na-,ral and -+e 2ol,n-ar4 is in-ernal1
and -+e so,rce of 0+a- is coerced is e.-ernal.
<,- -+is o/inion is +ere-ical. For i- -a=es a0a4 -+e reason for meri- and demeri- in +,man ac-s1 as i-
does no- seem meri-orio,s or demeri-orio,s for /ersons -o do necessaril4 0+a- -+e4 co,ld no- a2oid doing.
I- is also -o be co,n-ed among -+e oddes- /+iloso/+ical o/inions1 since i- is no- onl4 con-rar4 -o fai-+ b,-
also s,b2er-s all -+e /rinci/les of moral /+iloso/+4.
1
In o-+er 0ords1 no- onl4 is -+e +,man 0ill free from -+e con-rol of an4 o-+er agen-1 b,- i- is free also from an4
necessi-4 im/osed b4 any other powers intrinsic to man1 of 0+ic+ -+e in-ellec- is of co,rse -+e /rime e.am/le.
And 4e-1 a- -+e same -ime A3,inas is adaman- -+a- -+ere is ne2er discord be-0een -+e 0ill and -+e final
/rac-ical 6,dgmen- of -+e in-ellec-' >c+oice res,l-s from -+e decision or 6,dgmen- 0+ic+ is1 as i- 0ere1 -+e
concl,sion of a /rac-ical s4llogism1?

and >a 6,dgmen- abo,- -+is /ar-ic,lar ob6ec- of o/era-ion +ere and no0 can
ne2er be con-rar4 -o o,r a//e-i-e.?
@
As a res,l-1 -+ere can be no e2il c+oice 0+en 0e are f,ll4 a0are of -+e -r,e
9/ar-ic,lar: good1 for s,c+ a0areness can onl4 res,l- in a -r,e /rac-ical s4llogism; and since a /rac-ical s4llogism1
if carried -+ro,g+1 canno- fail -o inform -+e mo2emen- of -+e 0ill1 i- follo0s -+a- -+e c+oice of -+e 0ill -+a- is made
in f,ll a0areness of -+e good is necessarily rig+-. Hence a bad /rac-ical s4llogism 9i.e. one -+a- does no- -a=e -+e
>+ig+er r,le? or1 in more commonAsense -erms1 -+e >bigger /ic-,re? in-o considera-ion:
4
is /ossible onl4 if -+e
in-ellec- fails in i-s a0areness of -+e -r,e good and ins-ead s,bs-i-,-es a considera-ion of a merel4 a//aren- good'
>From a correc- a//e-i-e for -+e las- end -+e inordina-e desire for some-+ing co,ld no- follo0 ,nless reason 0ere -o
1
$-. T+omas A3,inas1 De Malo 9+ereaf-er DM:1 3. BI1 ar-. 11 -rans. Cic+ard Cegan 9#e0 Dor=' %.ford )ni2ersi-4 Press1 !!@:.

ST IAII1 3. 1@1 ar-. @ 9-rans. Fa-+ers of -+e "nglis+ Dominican Pro2ince1 1E47:.
@
De eritate 9+ereaf-er D:1 3. 41 ar-. .
4
(f. DM1 3. 1F1 ar-. .
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-a=e as referable -o -+e end some-+ing 0+ic+ is no- so referable.?
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Ho0 are 0e -o reconcile -+ese /assages5 For if 0e are con-en- sim/l4 -o insis- 9as A3,inas seems -o: -+a-
-+e 0ill errs sim/l4 beca,se1 and onl4 insofar as1 -+e in-ellec- is in error1
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and allo0 -+e ma--er -o remain -+ere1 0e
no- onl4 +a2e e.cl,ded -+e /ossibili-4 of a sinf,l inerran- being' 0e also +a2e e.cl,ded -+e /ossibili-4 of +,man
g,il-1 since a deficienc4 of o,r in-ellec- lies o,-side of o,r /o0er -o e2en recogniHe1 le- alone remed4 9for if -+e
lig+- of o,r in-ellec- fails1 b4 0+a- lig+- s+all 0e see -o res-ore i-5:. (learl41 -+erefore 0e m,s- be on o,r g,ard in
a--rib,-ing -o A3,inas a belief -+a- -+e freedom of -+e 0ill is sim/l4 derived from -+e freedom of -+e in-ellec-1 and
some dis-inc-ions are in order. T+e 0ill8s freedom is indeed >deri2a-i2e? in -+a-1 0ere i- no- for -+e ,ni2ersali-4 of
-+e in-ellec-8s =no0ledge1 0e 0o,ld be in -+e same condi-ion as -+e br,-e animals; i- is onl4 beca,se o,r in-ellec-
can s+o0 ,s -+e /ar-ic,lar good as a limi-ed /ar-ici/a-ion in -+e ,ni2ersal good -+a- 0e are a- liber-4 -o ei-+er -,rn
-o0ards 0+a- i- +as of real goodness1 or -o -,rn a0a4 from -+e in+eren- deficienc4 and limi-a-ion of -+a-
goodness.
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I- is in -+is sense -+a- -+e 6,dgmen- of -+e /rac-ical in-ellec- can ne2er a--ain -o -+e cer-i-,de of
s/ec,la-i2e science1 b,- m,s- al0a4s remain f,ndamen-all4 contin!ent1 o/en -o con-raries; and in -+is sense -+e
con-ingenc4 of -+e 0ill8s o/era-ion is roo-ed in -+e con-ingenc4 of -+e o/era-ion of -+e /rac-ical in-ellec-.
8
T+e
0ill8s freedom is also deri2a-i2e from -+a- of -+e in-ellec- in -+a- -+e specification of -+e 0ill8s ac-7-+a- 0+ic+
gi2es i- i-s form or >con-en-1? ma=ing i- an ac- of a gi2en >s/ecies? s,c+ as almsAgi2ing1 res-i-,-ion1 or ad,l-er47
comes -o i- from -+e ob6ec- /resen-ed b4 -+e in-ellec- in -+e /rac-ical s4llogism. In o-+er 0ords1 -+e ac- of c+oice
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D 3. 1 ar-. F. (f. Tobias Hoffmann1 >A3,inas and In-ellec-,al De-erminism' T+e Tes- (ase of Angelic $in1? Archiv f"r #eschichte
der $hilosophie 8E 9!!7:1 1E.
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ST IAII1 3. 771 ar-. ' >$ince -+e ob6ec- of -+e 0ill is a good or an a//aren- good1 i- is ne2er mo2ed -o an e2il1 ,nless -+a- 0+ic+ is no-
good a//ear good in some res/ec- -o -+e reason; so -+a- -+e 0ill 0o,ld ne2er -end -o e2il1 ,nless -+ere 0ere ignorance or error in -+e reason.?
(f. also e.g. S%#1 <=. 41 c+. E@1 IIFA7.
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ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. .
8
(f. DM BI.1' >T+e form of a -+ing of na-,re is a form indi2id,a-ed b4 ma--er1 and so also -+e inclina-ions res,l-ing from -+e form are
de-ermined -o one -+ing1 b,- -+e ,nders-ood form is ,ni2ersal and incl,des man4 indi2id,al -+ings. And so since ac-,ali-ies regard sing,lar
-+ings1 and none of -+em e.+a,s-s -+e /o-en-iali-4 of -+e ,ni2ersal1 inclina-ions of -+e 0ill remain inde-ermina-el4 dis/osed -o man4 -+ings.?
(f. also ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. ' >$ince lac= of an4 good 0+a-e2er is a nonAgood1 conse3,en-l41 -+a- good alone 0+ic+ is /erfec- and lac=ing in
no-+ing1 is s,c+ a good -+a- -+e 0ill canno- no-A0ill i-' and -+is is Ha//iness. &+ereas an4 o-+er /ar-ic,lar goods1 in so far as -+e4 are lac=ing
in some good1 can be regarded as nonAgoods' and from -+is /oin- of 2ie01 -+e4 can be se- aside or a//ro2ed b4 -+e 0ill1 0+ic+ can -end -o
one and -+e same -+ing from 2ario,s /oin-s of 2ie0.? %r again1 cf. ST I1 3. 81 ar-. ' >#o0 -+ere are some -+ings in-elligible 0+ic+ +a2e no-
a necessar4 connec-ion 0i-+ -+e firs- /rinci/les; s,c+ as con-ingen- /ro/osi-ions1 -+e denial of 0+ic+ does no- in2ol2e a denial of -+e firs-
/rinci/les. And -o s,c+ -+e in-ellec- does no- assen- of necessi-4. <,- -+ere are some /ro/osi-ions 0+ic+ +a2e a necessar4 connec-ion 0i-+ -+e
firs- /rinci/les' s,c+ as demons-rable concl,sions1 a denial of 0+ic+ in2ol2es a denial of -+e firs- /rinci/les. And -o -+ese -+e in-ellec- assen-s
of necessi-41 0+en once i- is a0are of -+e necessar4 connec-ion of -+ese concl,sions 0i-+ -+e /rinci/les; b,- i- does no- assen- of necessi-4
,n-il -+ro,g+ -+e demons-ra-ion i- recogniHes -+e necessi-4 of s,c+ connec-ion. I- is -+e same 0i-+ -+e 0ill. For -+ere are cer-ain indi2id,al
goods 0+ic+ +a2e no- a necessar4 connec-ion 0i-+ +a//iness1 beca,se 0i-+o,- -+em a man can be +a//4' and -o s,c+ -+e 0ill does no-
ad+ere of necessi-4.? D 3. 41 ar-. also em/+asiHes -+e correla-ion be-0een -+e ,ni2ersali-4 of -+e in-ellec-8s ob6ec- and -+e freedom of -+e
0ill1 con-ras-ing i- 0i-+ -+e /ar-ic,lari-4 of br,-e animals8 sense a//re+ension and -+e conse3,en- de-ermina-ion of -+eir a//e-i-es; and a
similar /oin- is made in ST I1 3. GE1 ar-. @' >%nl4 an agen- endo0ed 0i-+ an in-ellec- can ac- 0i-+ a 6,dgmen- 0+ic+ is free1 in so far as i-
a//re+ends -+e common no-e of goodness; from 0+ic+ i- can 6,dge -+is or -+e o-+er -+ing -o be good. (onse3,en-l41 0+ere2er -+ere is
in-ellec-1 -+ere is freeA0ill.?
4
m,s- necessaril4 be -o0ards -+e ob6ec- /resen-ed in -+e concl,sion of -+e in-ellec-8s concomi-an- /rac-ical
s4llogism sim/l4 beca,se1 if i- 0ere di2orced -+erefrom1 -+e ac- of c+oice 0o,ld be an em/-4 ac- 0i-+ no con-en-
and no direc-ion1 a c+oice of no-+ing; i- 0o,ld be no- onl4 irra-ional 9as all sin is: b,- ac-,all4 ,nin-elligible1
lac=ing a na-,re or >s/ecies.?
E
T+e 0ill8s freedom is not deri2ed1 +o0e2er1 in -+e f,r-+er sense -+a- i- is -+e in-ellec- -+a- s/ecifies or
de-ermines which ob6ec- i- 0ill be -+a- s/ecifies -+e 0ill. As Pa-ric= Lee no-es1 -+ere is a dangero,s ambig,i-4 in
sa4ing -+a- -+e >in-ellec- s/ecifies -+e 0ill1? since -+is can easil4 be -a=en 9and1 +e -+in=s1 in fac- +as been -a=en b4
man4 T+omis-s in -r4ing -o dis-ance -+emsel2es from 2ol,n-arism:
1!
as gi2ing -+e las- 0ord -o -+e in-ellec- in -+e
manner 6,s- described. $,c+ a -+eor4 0o,ld fall afo,l of -+e em/+a-ic condemna-ion ci-ed abo2e from De Malo
BI.11 beca,se i- 0o,ld bind -+e 0ill -o some-+ing o,-side o,r /o0er -o con-rol' -+e errors of o,r in-ellec-1 0+ic+1
-+o,g+ indeed con-ingen- and in-rinsic1 are no- free b,- ra-+er s,b6ec- -o blind c+ance. Ca-+er1 Lee +olds -+a-
>A3,inas does no- mean -+a- one 0ills 0+a- +e 0ills onl4 beca,se of reason8s 6,dgmen-. In fac-1 in a si-,a-ion of
c+oice -+ere is no- 6,s- one order of reason; -+ere are man47as man4 as -+ere are al-erna-i2es for ac-ion. T+e /oin-
is -+a- 0+a-e2er is 0illed is 0illed according -o some order of reasonJ T+a- is1 A3,inas is no- sa4ing -+a- reason
s/ecifies which order 0ill be follo0ed1 b,- -+a- reason /ro2ides -+e orders of -+e /ar-ic,lar ob6ec-s -o bea-i-,de 9or
+a//iness:1 no ma--er 0+a- ob6ec- is e2en-,all4 c+osen.?
11
T+e 0a4 -+e 0ill accom/lis+es -+is is -+ro,g+ i-s /o0er
-o -,rn -+e considera-ion of -+e in-ellec- from one ob6ec- or >orderA-oA-+eAend? -o ano-+er. &e +a2e all e./erienced
-+e >/,ll? -o foc,s o,r -+o,g+-s on 0+a- /leases ,s1 and -o /,- ,n/leasan- or diffic,l- considera-ions o,- of o,r
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DM BI.1' >Po0ers are mo2ed in -0o 0a4s' in one 0a4 regarding -+e s,b6ec-; in a second 0a4 regarding -+e ob6ec-J T+e firs- =ind of
al-era-ion indeed belongs -o -+e 2er4 /erformance of -+e ac-1 namel41 -+a- i- be or no- be /erformed1 or /erformed be--er or 0orse. And -+e
second =ind of al-era-ion belongs -o s/ecif4ing -+e ac-1 since ob6ec-s s/ecif4 ac-s. And 0e need -o consider -+a- -+e s/ecifica-ion of ac-s in
-+ings of na-,re indeed comes from -+e -+ings8 forms.? (f. also ST IAII.E.1' >%n -+e o-+er +and1 -+e ob6ec- mo2es1 b4 de-ermining -+e ac-1
af-er -+e manner of a formal /rinci/le1 0+ereb4 in na-,ral -+ings ac-ions are s/ecified1 as +ea-ing b4 +ea-.? T+e references -o >formal
/rinci/le? and -o -+e e.am/le of +ea- clearl4 indica-e -+a- >s/ecifica-ion? +ere sim/l4 means gi2ing -+e ans0er -o -+e 3,es-ion >0+a- is i-5?1
for -+a- is /recisel4 0+a- form does.
If one 0ere -o ob6ec- -+a-1 al-+o,g+ -+e ac- of -+e 0ill m,s- indeed be a c+oice of a ra-ionall4 a//re+ended good1 i- need no- be -+e good
/resen-ed b4 -+e las- /rac-ical s4llogism b,- co,ld ins-ead be a differen- good ob6ec-1 -+e ans0er 0o,ld be sim/l4 -+a- -+e /rac-ical s4llogism
is o,r longA0inded ling,is-ic 0a4 of s/elling o,- -+e 0ill8s mo2emen- -o0ards a//re+ended goodness. T+e 0+ole s4llogism1 and no- 6,s- a
freeAfloa-ing conce/-1 needs -o be /resen- in order for -+e 0ill -o mo2e -o0ards -+e ob6ec- under the aspect of its 9/ar-ic,lar 2arie-4 of:
!oodness; and i- +as -o be -+e last /rac-ical s4llogism1 ra-+er -+an a /rior one1 beca,se -+e >s4llogism? or a//re+ensionAofAgoodness m,s- of
necessi-4 be concomitant 0i-+ -+e ac- of c+oice -+a- i- informs. Here1 as in all -+e -+ornies- iss,es of /+iloso/+41 0e m,s- al0a4s be mindf,l
of -+e limi-a-ions of o,r +,man =no0ledge b4 >com/osi-ion and di2ision1? =no0ing -+a- 0+a- 0e m,s- /erforce se/ara-e in o,r minds is in
fac- one in reali-4.
1!
Pa-ric= Lee1 >T+e Cela-ion <e-0een In-ellec- and &ill in Free (+oice According -o A3,inas and $co-,s1? The Thomist 4E 91E8G:1
@11 n. .
11
Ibid.1 @@GA@@F. To ar-ic,la-e -+e /osi-ion -+is 0a4 co,ld lead -o conf,sion1 since i- mig+- gi2e -+e im/ression -+a- -+e in-ellec- does no-
compare -+e orders and /rono,nce 6,dgmen- on 0+ic+ of -+em is be--er o2erall70+ic+ i- cer-ainl4 does. Ho0e2er1 -+e /oin- is -+a- -+e
inclina-ion -o follo0 rig+- reason is onl4 one of -+e inclina-ions of -+e 0ill; 0e also +a2e a- leas- a com/e-ing inclina-ion -o follo0 o,r sense
a//e-i-es 9cf. ibid.1 @@E:1 and -+ese com/e-ing inclina-ions are /recisel4 -+e fo,nda-ion for akrasia. &+e-+er o,r com/e-ing inclina-ions are
limi-ed -o -+ese -0o1 or 0+e-+er -+ere is a -+ird 9as $co-,s +olds:1 remains -o be seen.
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mind;
1
-+is >/,ll? -o -+in= in -+e direc-ion of o,r inclina-ions lies1 for A3,inas1 a- -+e +ear- of -+e /roblem of
akrasia1 and -+e famo,s >s4llogism of fo,r /ro/osi-ions? -+a- +e borro0ed from Aris-o-le is b,il- aro,nd -+is
/+enomenon.
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To sa41 -+en1 -+a- one sins o,- of /assion or akrasia is -o sa4 sim/l4 -+a- -+e 0ill1 b4 2ir-,e of i-s
/o0er -o mo2e -+e in-ellec-1
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4ields -o -+e sense a//e-i-e8s >dri2e? -o foc,s o,r a--en-ion 9bo-+ ra-ional and
sensi-i2e1 since -+e former is ne2er /resen- 0i-+o,- -+e la--er: on -+e /leas,rable ob6ec-; and 0+ile -+e firs- /remise
of -+e s4llogism of rig+- reason1 e.g. >+eal-+ is good Ki.e. /er-ains -o m4 0+ole goodL1? is s-ill /roffered b4 -+e
in-ellec- -o -+e 0ill alon! 0i-+ -+e /ar-iall4 -r,e s4llogism >Pleas,rable ac-i2i-4 is good1 and ea-ing a second /iece
of ca=e is /leas,rable and -+erefore good1? -+e 0ill7follo0ing -+e inclina-ion of -+e sense a//e-i-e ra-+er -+an i-s
o0n /ro/er1 b,- c,rren-l4 no- e.ercised1 inclina-ion -o ac- based ,/on -+e >0+ole /ic-,re?
1G
7=ee/s onl4 -+e
>/leas,rable? s4llogism in -+e foregro,nd1 -+,s allo0ing -+e /ar-ic,lar /remise of -+e >bigA/ic-,re? s4llogism -o
be >corr,/-ed.?
1F
$-. T+omas e./lains -+is b4 /oin-ing o,- -+a- a//e-i-e is al0a4s direc-ed -o /ar-ic,lars1
17
so -+e
0ill can s0a4 o,r a0areness of -+e /ar-ic,lar /remise7e.g.1 >ea-ing a second /iece of ca=e is ,n+eal-+4?7in a
0a4 in 0+ic+ i- canno- con-rol o,r a0areness of -+e ,ni2ersal /remise -+a- +eal-+ is good.
18
I- is /recisel4 in -+is
s0a4 o2er o,r a0areness 90+ic+ goes -oge-+er 0i-+ -+e 0ill8s abili-4 -o refrain from c+oosing ,n-il -+e desired
considera-ion lies before i-: -+a- -+e famo,s >freedom of e.ercise? -+a- A3,inas a--rib,-es -o -+e 0ill consis-s.
1E
1
(f. ST IAII1 3. 771 ar-. 1 and .
1@
&icomachean 'thics BII.@; DM III.E ad 7; ST IAII1 3. 771 ar-. ad 4.
14
D 3. 1 ar-. 1; ST I1 3. 81 ar-. 4.
1G
(f. Lee1 @@E' ><,- -+e /ers/ec-i2e of ri!ht reason deno-es -+e 0+ole /ers/ec-i2e 9no- a ,-ili-arian s-andard1 b,- -+e lo2e of God and
neig+bor and -+e res/ec- for -+e +,man goods -+is en-ails:.T+is /ers/ec-i2e is no- e3,al -o -+e o-+ers. Hence one can sa41 if all -+e al-erna-i2es
e.ce/- one are con-rar4 -o rig+- reason1 -+a-1 a(solutely s/ea=ing1 -+e morall4 good al-erna-i2e is -+e bes- and -+e o-+ers are onl4 a//aren-
goods? 9em/+asis in original:.
1F
$ee n. 11 abo2e.
17
D 3. 41 ar-. ' >A//e-i-e is concerned 0i-+ a /ar-ic,lar ob6ec- of o/era-ion1 0+ereas -+e 6,dgmen- of reason is some-imes concerned
0i-+ some-+ing ,ni2ersal1 and -+is is a- -imes con-rar4 -o o,r a//e-i-e.? (f. also DM 3. @1 ar-. E' >Mno0ledge regards ,ni2ersals. And 4e-
,ni2ersal =no0ledge is -+e so,rce of ac-s onl4 as connec-ed -o /ar-ic,lars1 since acts re!ard particulars? 9em/+asis mine:; ST I1 3. 8!1 ar-.
ad ' >T+e in-ellec-,al a//e-i-e1 -+o,g+ i- -ends -o indi2id,al -+ings 0+ic+ e.is- o,-side -+e so,l1 4e- -ends -o -+em as s-anding ,nder -+e
,ni2ersal.?
18
$-. T+omas8 leng-+4 e./lana-ion in DM 3. @1 ar-. E ad 7 claims -+a-1 0+ereas -+e 2ir-,o,s and 2icio,s man bo-+ +a2e sim/l4 an
ordinar4 @A/ro/osi-ion s4llogism 9e.g. >Ma-erial /ossessions are good7s-ealing from -+is man gi2es me ma-erial /ossessions7s-ealing from
-+is man is good?:1 -+e con-inen- and incon-inen- man bo-+ ,se a s4llogism 0i-+ four /ro/osi-ions. "ssen-iall41 -+is means -+a- -+e la--er bo-+
s-ar- o,- 0i-+ no- one b,- two ,ni2ersal /remises in -+eir in-ellec-,al a0areness 9e.g. (oth >Ma-erial /ossessions are good? and >in6,s-ice is
e2il?70+ereas i- 0o,ld ne2er occ,r -o -+e -r,l4 co2e-o,s man1 for e.am/le1 -o en-er-ain -+e la--er /ro/osi-ion in +is conscio,sness:1 b,- -+en
/roceed -o e./lici-l4 dra0 o,- -+e /ar-ic,lar im/lica-ions of onl4 one of -+ese ,ni2ersal /remises1 de/ending on 0+ic+ inclina-ion -+e 0ill
follo0s' i-s o0n /ro/er inclina-ion -o follo0 ri!ht reason 9-+e s4llogism /ro/osed b4 reason as con-aining -+e whole /ic-,re:1 or -+e
inclina-ion comm,nica-ed -o i- b4 -+e inclina-ion of -+e sensi-i2e a//e-i-e. T+e e./ression Cegan ,ses in +is -ransla-ion for -+is com/le-ion of
-+e /rac-ical s4llogism 0i-+ a 9single: /ar-ic,lar /remise and concl,sion is >-o s,bs,me and concl,de ,nder? -+e ,ni2ersal /ro/osi-ion; -+e
La-in is >assumere et concludere su( Kprimo or secundoL.? T+e o-+er /ar-ic,lar /remise1 -+e one -+a- fell ,nder -+e re6ec-ed ,ni2ersal
/remise1 is ignored or corr,/-ed1 or /er+a/s 0e s+o,ld sa4 sim/l4 >no- made e./lici-1? a- leas- no- a- -+e momen- of c+oice; and -+e reason
for -+is is sim/l4 no- -raceable be4ond -+e 0ill8s o0n ,nfe--ered abili-4 -o >0eig+? i-s com/e-ing inclinations.
1E
ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. ' >T+e 0ill is mo2ed in -0o 0a4s' firs-1 as -o -+e e.ercise of i-s ac-; secondl41 as -o -+e s/ecifica-ion of i-s ac-1
deri2ed from -+e ob6ec-. As -o -+e firs- 0a41 no ob6ec- mo2es -+e 0ill necessaril41 for no ma--er 0+a- -+e ob6ec- be1 it is in man)s power not to
think of it1 and conse3,en-l4 no- -o 0ill i- ac-,all4? 9em/+asis mine:. (f. also ST IAII1 3. E1 ar-. 11 and DM1 3. F1 ar-. ,n. Da2id Gallag+er
F
T+is in2ol2es1 +o0e2er1 claiming -+a- i- is -+e 0ill -+a- +as -+e >las- 0ord1? a- leas- in -+e case of akrasia.
T+is is +o0 0e can de/ar- from ri!ht reason; for e2en af-er -+e in-ellec- +as 0eig+ed -0o differen- limi-ed1
incom/a-ible goods and fo,nd -+a- -+e >/ers/ec-i2e? from 0+ic+ one is bes- is more im/or-an- -+an -+e o-+er1 i-
s-ill /resen-s -+is s4llogism 9of rig+- reason: alon!side a more limi-ed s4llogism -+a-1 ra-+er -+an 0eig+ing
>/ers/ec-i2es1? sim/l4 /resen-s one 9e.g. -+e >/ers/ec-i2e? of -+e a//e-i-e for food:7-+,s lea2ing i- -o -+e 0ill -o
de-ermine i-self ei-+er in accord 0i-+ i-s o0n /ro/er inclina-ion -o follo0 ri!ht reason1 or 0i-+ -+e inclina-ion i- 9so
-o s/ea=: >borro0s? from -+e sense a//e-i-e -o follo0 0+a- 0e mig+- call >sensi-i2e reason1? -+e s4llogism 0+ose
ma6or /remise is -+e inclina-ion of -+e sense a//e-i-e 9>-as-4 -+ings are good?:. Indeed1 i- seems -+a- 0+a- se-s -+ese
differen- >/ers/ec-i2es? a/ar- are /recisel4 -+e ends of -+e 0ill8s differen- inclina-ions1 namel4 -+e sensi-i2e and
-+e ra-ional 9or 0+ole: good; and -+a- -o 0eig+ -+ese /ers/ec-i2es is no- -+erefore a ma--er of 0eig+ing means 9-+e
-as= of delibera-ion: b,- ends.
!
De- i- is cr,cial -o no-e -+a- in (oth cases reason informs -+e 0ill8s c+oice 0i-+ i-s
/rac-ical s4llogism1 -+,s /reser2ing -+e c+oice from ,nin-elligible1 em/-4 >con-en-lessness.? A- -+e same -ime1
freedom is also /reser2ed beca,se i- remains in -+e 0ill8s /o0er -o de-ermine 0+ic+ /rac-ical s4llogism 0ill be >in
foc,s? a- -+e momen- of c+oice1 0+ic+ is sim/l4 -o sa4 -+a- i- is in -+e 0ill8s /o0er -o de-ermine 0+ic+ s4llogism
0ill inform -+e c+oice.
1
#or is -+is merel4 a ma--er of dis/osi-ional s-reng-+ or >m,scleA/o0er? on -+e /ar- of -+e
gi2es s-rong s,//or- -o -+is /osi-ion in +is e.cellen- ar-icle >Free (+oice and Free N,dgmen- in T+omas A3,inas1? Archiv f"r #eschichte der
$hilosophie 7F 91EE4:' 47A771 es/. F7AFE and 7FA77. (f. also Tobias Hoffmann1 >A3,inas and In-ellec-,al De-erminism1? es/. 1@8A
1@E and 148A14E.
!
#one-+eless1 0e s+o,ld no-e -+a- -+ere is an im/or-an- ambig,i-4 in -+e no-ion of >/ers/ec-i2e?; for 0+ile i- ma4 refer -o -+e differen-
ob6ec-s of -+e 0ill8s inclina-ions 9-+e 0+ole good1 -+e goodAforAme1 -+e conc,/iscible good1 -+e irascible good1 e-c.:1 i- ma4 also refer -o -+e
differen- as/ec-s ,nder 0+ic+ eac+ one of -+e firs- -0o inclina-ions 9-+e ra-ional ones: ma4 be /,rs,ed. T+,s1 a sain- ma4 be mo-i2a-ed b4
/,re lo2e of God1 and +a2e -o c+oose be-0een -0o differen- goods 0+ic+ bo-+ allo0 +im -o ser2e God in differen- 0a4s; and i- seems
/la,sible -+a-1 e2en gi2en all circ,ms-ances1 -+ere ma4 be no-+ing -+a- ma=es one al-erna-i2e 9e.g. /ra4er: be--er overall -+an ano-+er 9e.g.
almsgi2ing:; con2ersel41 a 2icio,s man mo-i2a-ed b4 a /,re1 ,nAmodera-ed selfAlo2e ma4 s-ill lac= a 0a4 -o ran= -+e /rac-ice of one 2ice
ob6ec-i2el4 >+ig+er? -+an ano-+er a- an4 gi2en momen-. In s,c+ a case i- 0o,ld seem ,n/roblema-ic -o a//eal -o a random ac- of -+e 0ill as
-+e e./lana-ion of 0+4 one 0as c+osen ra-+er -+an -+e o-+er1 as o//osed -o a >0eig+ing of inclina-ions? of -+e =ind 0e +a2e been describing.
$,c+ a -+eor4 0o,ld seem -o fi- 0i-+ 0+a- A3,inas sa4s in ST I1 3. F1 ar-. 81 ad and @.
1
<ased ,/on 0+a- +as been said so far1 one mig+- 0onder 0+e-+er >+a//iness?7-+e complete good as s,c+7is -r,l4 -+e firs-
/rinci/le of all /rac-ical reasoning1 or onl4 -+e firs- /rinci/le of ri!ht 9i.e.1 moral: reason. T+is +as been -+e s,b6ec- of a +ea-ed con-ro2ers4
be-0een Cal/+ McInern4 on -+e one +and and Germain GriseH and No+n Finnis on -+e o-+er. T+e former +olds -+a- -+e 0ord >good? in -+e
/rinci/le -+a- >good is -o be /,rs,ed and e2il a2oided? 9ST IAII1 3. E41 ar-. : refers -o -+e complete good 9cf. >T+e Princi/les of #a-,ral
La01? American *ournal of *urisprudence G K1E8!L' 1A1G1 es/. 4AG:; -+e la--er main-ain -+a- -+e 0ord refers sim/l4 -o an4-+ing -+a- +as a
s+are in -+e ratio (oni1 e2er4-+ing -o 0+ic+ +,man beings na-,rall4 incline1 s,c+ as life1 food1 re/rod,c-ion1 -r,-+1 friends+i/1 e-c. 9cf. >T+e
<asic Princi/les of #a-,ral La0' A Ce/l4 -o Cal/+ McInern41? American *ournal of *urisprudence F K1E81L' 1A@1:. McInern48s /osi-ion
+olds -+a- -+ese la--er i-ems1 disc,ssed b4 A3,inas in e./laining -+e /rece/-s of -+e na-,ral la0 9and also in describing 0+a- is necessar4 for
+a//iness1 in ST IAII1 3. 41 ar-. G:1 are sim/l4 >/ar-ic,lariHa-ions? of -+e ,l-ima-e end1 limi-ed /ar-ici/a-ions in -+e com/le-e good 0+ic+ 0e
see= -o ac+ie2e beca,se of -+eir s+are in -+e com/le-e good -+a- 0e desire; 0+ereas GriseH and Finnis con-end -+a-1 for A3,inas1 -+ese -+ings
can be desired even apart from -+e no-ion of -+e com/le-e good1 sim/l4 as >good.? T+o,g+ s,c+ an in-er/re-a-ion 0o,ld +a2e -o defend i-self
agains- -+e man4 /assages in A3,inas 0+ere +e describes -+e firs-1 necessar4 inclina-ion of -+e 0ill as being direc-ed -o0ards (eatitudo 9cf.
&illiam Mars+ner1 >Does Prac-ical Ceason $-ar- 0i-+ Good or 0i-+ (om/le-e Good5? +aith , -eason F K!!1L' @@EA@781 for an able
-+o,g+ /er+a/s no- concl,si2e defense of -+e GriseH/Finnis /osi-ion:1 i- is clear +o0 GriseH and Finnis8 /osi-ion affec-s -+e /roblem of sin in
general1 and angelic sin in /ar-ic,lar' if -+e firs- /rinci/le in 0+ic+ all /rac-ical s4llogisms are roo-ed in2ol2es onl4 -+e ratio (oni and no-
(eatitudo1 -+en 0e need no- +old -+a- -+e in-ellec- 9mis-a=enl4: belie2ed a sin -o be a >s-e/ on -+e 6o,rne4? -o0ards +a//iness1 b,- sim/l4 -+a-
7
0ill1 0+ic+ con-inen- /eo/le +a2e and incon-inen- /eo/le do no-; on -+e con-rar41 A3,inas and o,r common
e./erience coincide in -elling ,s -+a- no- onl4 con-inen- b,- e2en 2ir-,o,s1 sain-l4 /eo/le some-imes fall1 and b4 no
means necessaril4 as a res,l- of a -i-anic1 o,-AofA-+eAordinar4 -em/-a-ion.

&+e-+er or no- 0e +a2e -+e rele2an-

2ir-,e or inborn inclina-ion1 i- is always in o,r /o0er 9o,-side of -+e <ea-ific Bision:
@
-o fall1 and con2ersel4 in -+e
case of 2ice.
4
.. An!elic Sin in Aquinas
T+,s1 -+e fa,l- of -+e 0ill in akrasia does indeed in2ol2e a fa,l- in -+e in-ellec-; b,- i- is a fa,l- no- of
forge-f,lness nor of ignorance in -+e s-ric- sense1 b,- of non/consideration1 0+ic+ brings abo,- a defec- in -+e
formal ob6ec- of -+e 0ill8s c+oice b,- 0+ic+ 0as efficiently in -,rn bro,g+- abo,- b4 -+e 0ill8s inclina-ion -o0ards
-+e formal ob6ec- of >sensi-i2e? ra-+er -+an rig+- reason. I- is -+is nonAconsidera-ion1 0+ic+ A3,inas also loosel4
refers -o as ignorance1
G
-+a- is c,l/able1 inasm,c+ as i- s+o0s con-em/- for -+e di2ine r,le; -+e /rinci/le seems -o
be -+e same as -+a- of sins of omission1
F
and i- is mo-i2a-ed b4 an inclina-ion in -+e 0ill -o0ards 0+a- I call
-+e in-ellec- 9correc-l4: belie2ed a sin -o +a2e a s+are in -+e ratio (oni7and -+,s1 in -+e case of -+e angels1 0e need no- a--rib,-e error -o an
inerran- in-ellec-. T+o,g+ i- is no- clear -o me -+a- GriseH8s /osi-ion is en-irel4 acc,ra-e1 i- none-+eless seems 9and I s,s/ec- McInern4 mig+-
agree: -+a- +e is rig+- a- leas- -o +old -+a- a /rac-ical s4llogism is no- in violation of i-s firs- /rinci/le 0+en -+e >/ar-ic,lariHa-ion? of -+e
com/le-e good -o0ards 0+ic+ i- is direc-ed +a//ens -o conflic- 0i-+ -+e 0+ole 9or a- leas- -+e grea-er s+are: of -+e com/le-e good1 b,- -+a-
ra-+er an a=ra-ic /rac-ical s4llogism of -+is sor- sim/l4 /resen-s a limi-ed -r,-+. K#<' GriseH +imself seems -o ma=e -+e same =ind of
dis-inc-ion 0i-+in -+e 0ord >means? -+a- McInern4 is ,sing in >To0ard a (onsis-en- #a-,ralALa0 "-+ics of Milling1? 8GO8FL

ST IAII1 3. 711 ar-. 4.

@
(f. ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. ; S%# <=. 41 c+. E@1 es/. IIFA7.
4
(f. <onnie Men-1 >A3,inas and &ea=ness of &ill1? $hilosophy and $henomenolo!ical -esearch 7G 9!!7:' 7!AE11 es/. 78 and 8FA
E!.
G
(f. ST IAII1 3. F1 ar-. 8 for a good descri/-ion of -+e sense in 0+ic+ delibera-e nonAconsidera-ion can be regarded as >ignorance1? and
in 0+a- res/ec- -+e ac- of 0ill -+a- follo0s from i- is 2ol,n-ar4 and in 0+a- res/ec- no-. (f. ST IAII.78.1 ad 1 for -+e sense in 0+ic+ $-. T+omas
sees an ac- of ac-,al malice as in2ol2ing ignorance.
F
(f. DM1 3. 1 ar-. 1 for a good e./lana-ion of +o0 failing -o ac-7if i- is -o be a sin7need no- be in itself a delibera-e ac- of c+oice1
b,- m,s- ne2er-+eless be caused b4 a delibera-e ac- of c+oice. T+,s1 I do no- need -o choose -o miss $,nda4 Mass in order -o be c,l/able
9-+o,g+ i- cer-ainl4 is in m4 /o0er -o ma=e i- an e./lici- c+oice:; I need onl4 choose -o /la4 -+e 2ideo game -+a- is =ee/ing me from Mass1 or
-o s-a4 o,- la-e a- -+e /ar-4 -+e nig+- before -+a- =ee/s me from 0a=ing ,/ in -ime 9a- leas- in an age before alarm cloc=s:. Ho0e2er1 -+ese
c+oices and -+e corres/onding negligence are no- c,l/able unless -+ere is a- leas- a +abi-,al or im/lici- a0areness of -+e r,le and of +o0 -+e
ac-i2e c+oice is in conflic- 0i-+ i-; onl4 on -+is condi-ion can -+ere +a2e been real contempt for God8s la0 9ibid.1 ad 1!:. In -+is res/ec- I
belie2e <onnie Men-8s o-+er0ise e.cellen- anal4sis is fla0ed1 inasm,c+ as s+e -a=es A3,inas -o be sa4ing -+a- s+eer1 ,nad,l-era-ed
forge-f,lness is s,fficien- -o ca,se c,l/abili-4 9>A3,inas and &ea=ness of &ill1? 8@:7a /oin- 0+ic+ Lee rig+-l4 dis/,-es 9>T+e Cela-ion
<e-0een In-ellec- and &ill1? @@8:.
%ne mig+- ob6ec- -+a-1 for A3,inas1 -+e nonAconsidera-ion is no- of i-self a sin1 since 0e are onl4 obliged -o consider -+e r,le at the time
of the choice 9DM1 3. 11 ar-. @:; -+e sin 0o,ld seem -o lie ra-+er in -+e /osi-i2e ac- of c+oice in fa2or of -+e a//aren- good1 made c,l/able b4
-+e circumstance of a considera-ion -+a- is deficien- and a- leas- +abi-,all4 or im/lici-l4 =no0n -o be s,c+ 9cf. Hoffmann1 >A3,inas and
In-ellec-,al De-erminism1? 1@E:. De- i- seems -+a- one co,ld cas- -+e ma--er e3,all4 0ell bo-+ 0a4s' on -+e one +and1 -+e sin is a 9/osi-i2e:
ac- of c+oice -+a- is c,l/able (ecause of -+e 9nega-i2e: lac= of conc,rren- considera-ion1 0+ile on -+e o-+er +and -+e sin is -+e 9nega-i2e:
fail,re -o consider -+e r,le1 0+ic+ is c,l/able (ecause -+e omission is conc,rren- 0i-+ -+e 9/osi-i2e: ac- of c+oice. In o-+er 0ords1 nei-+er
/osi-i2e ac- nor nega-i2e omission are c,l/able on -+eir o0n; i- is onl4 -+e con6,nc-ion of -+e -0o -+a- is c,l/able. <,- since e2il as s,c+ is
/ri2a-ion1 and onl4 /arasi-ic ,/on being1 i- seems more reasonable -o lodge -+e c,l/abili-4 in -+e logicall4 /rior defec- of considera-ion
9roo-ed1 as 0e sa01 in a defec-i2e ordering of -+e 0ill8s com/e-ing inclina-ions1 for 0+ic+ -+ere is no ,l-erior ca,se:. T+is defec- of
considera-ion1 li=e all sins of omission1 need no- 9-+o,g+ i- ma4: in2ol2e an e./lici- ac- of -+e 0ill commanding i- 9cf. ST IAII1 3. 1E1 ar-. for
-+e con-ras- be-0een >direc-l4? 2s. >indirec-l4? 2ol,n-ar4 ignorance:; b,- i- al0a4s a- leas- in2ol2es as i-s cause an ac- of -+e 0ill direc-ing -+e
in-ellec- -o consider an ob6ec- -+a- is a: good in a limi-ed sense b,- b: incom/a-ible 0i-+ -+e r,le of ac-ion1 in -+e /resence of c: an a- leas-
+abi-,al or im/lici- a0areness -+a- -+ere is a +ig+er r,le -o be considered /rior -o c+oice 9as in -+e case of -+e absorbing 2ideo game on a
8
>sensi-i2e reason? -+a- com/e-es 0i-+ -+e inclina-ion -o0ards rig+- reason.
7
<,- -+is 0+ole s-r,c-,re seems -o
colla/se 0+en 0e -,rn -o -+e case of -+e angels1 for in A3,inas8 2ie0 -+ere is sim/l4 no inclina-ion in -+em -o
com/e-e 0i-+ -+eir inclina-ion -o follo0 ri!ht reasonP A3,inas reasons -+a- 0+ere +,man beings1 b4 2ir-,e of -+e
d,ali-4 of -+eir na-,re1 +a2e a >na-,ral inclina-ion -o e2il in an absol,-e sense1? angels do no-; ra-+er1 >all -+eir
na-,ral inclina-ions are for good in an absol,-e sense.?
8
In o-+er 0ords1 0+ile 0e +a2e na-,ral inclina-ions -o
/ar-ic,lar1 immodera-e goods 9gl,--on41 fornica-ion1 e-c.:1 0+ic+ are -+e ca,se of akrasia1 an angel canno- +a2e a
na-,ral inclina-ion -o some-+ing immodera-e sim/l4 beca,se +e +as no na-,ral inclina-ions -o anythin! /ar-ic,lar1
b,- onl4 -o -+e (onum simpliciter. Hence +e main-ains -+a- angels can only be e2il >b4 -+eir 0ill?7i.e.1 0i-+o,- a
na-,ral inclina-ion -+ere-o.
T+is seems /roblema-ic. A3,inas8 sol,-ion -o -+is diffic,l-4 is -o a//eal -o -0o dis-inc-ions' 1: a
dis-inc-ion be-0een r,les of ac-ion1 and : -+e dis-inc-ion be-0een -+e ob6ec- and -+e circ,ms-ances of a moral ac-.
&i-+ regard -o -+e former dis-inc-ion1 +e claims -+a- e2il on -+e le2el of conscio,s 9/erce/-ionAbased1 as o//osed -o
a roc=8s: desire can onl4 res,l- 0+en -+ere are -0o a//licable r,les of ac-ion1 one of 0+ic+ s,/ersedes -+e o-+er.
T+,s an animal canno- +a2e e2il desires beca,se i- +as no r,le +ig+er -+an -+a- of i-s sense a//e-i-es; nor can God1
beca,se His sole r,le is His 2er4 being. <,- +,man beings1 A3,inas claims1 +a2e three r,les of ac-ion' a: -+e r,le
of sense a//e-i-e; b: -+e r,le of reason; and c: -+e r,le of 0isdom1 or di2ine la0. $in1 +e claims1 can occ,r for ,s
ei-+er 0+en -+e 0ill allo0s -+e r,le of sense a//e-i-e -o s,/ersede -+e r,le of reason1 or 0+en i- allo0s -+e r,le of
reason -o s,/ersede -+e di2ine r,le; b,- for angels1 0+o lac= -+e firs- r,le1 sin co,ld onl4 occ,r in -+e second 0a4.
T+e second dis-inc-ion of ob6ec- 2s. circ,ms-ances is correla-i2e -o -+e firs-' A3,inas claims -+a-1 0+ereas +,mans
can 0ill 0+a- is malum simpliciter and >lac=ing -+e form of good1 as i- 0ere1? i.e. con-rar4 -o -+e r,le of reason
9-+e e.am/les gi2en are -+ef- and fornica-ion1 0+ic+ are in-rinsicall4 e2il ob6ec-s:1 angels can sin onl4 b4 0illing
!ood ob6ec-s 9in accord 0i-+ -+e r,le of reason: in -+e 0rong way 9in 2iola-ion of God8s r,le:. T+e +,man
analoga-e +e gi2es for -+is second case is someone 0+o desires -o /ra4 90+ic+ is a good ob6ec-1 in accord 0i-+ -+e
r,le of reason: b,- in a 0a4 >no- according -o -+e ordina-ion of God8s r,le? 90+ic+ 0o,ld cons-i-,-e 2i-ia-ing
$,nda4 morning:. (ondi-ions a: and b: seem -o mee- A3,inas8 re3,iremen- -+a- -+e good be -+e accidental and -+e deficient ca,se of e2il1
res/ec-i2el4 9DM1 3. 11 ar-. @:; condi-ion c: is necessar4 -o /reser2e -+e as/ec- of c,l/abili-41 of >con-em/-? for -+e r,le 9as o//osed -o s+eer
forge-f,lness:. For a good descri/-ion of -+e direc- and indirec- roles /la4ed b4 in-ellec- and 0ill in -+e differen- as/ec-s of a defec-i2e c+oice1
cf. Lee1 @@7A@@8.
7
In ST IAII1 3. 711 ar-. ad @1 A3,inas e2en seems -o +old -+a- all 2ice is akrasia1 a follo0ing of -+e firs- /rinci/les of sense a//e-i-e
ra-+er -+an of rig+- reason' >-+e /resence of 2ices and sins in man is o0ing -o -+e fac- -+a- +e follo0s -+e inclina-ion of +is sensi-i2e na-,re
agains- -+e order of +is reason.?
8
DM1 3. 1F1 ar-. .
E
circ,ms-ances:;
E
and on -+e angelic le2el1 A3,inas s/ec,la-es -+a- angelic sin in2ol2ed desiring bea-i-,de 9an
e.cellen- ob6ec-: b,- 0i-+o,- -+e +el/ of grace 9circ,ms-ances con-rar4 -o -+e di2ine r,le:.
@!
#o01 -+is sol,-ion is ,nsa-isfac-or4 on -0o gro,nds. Firs-1 -+e dis-inc-ion be-0een ob6ec- and
circ,ms-ances is a +ig+l4 -en,o,s -o ser2e as fo,nda-ion for so cr,cial a doc-rine as -+a- of nonAa=ra-ic sin.
Fornica-ion1 af-er all1 ma4 be considered as a (onum simpliciter 9-+e /+4sical e./ression of -+e lo2e be-0een man
and 0oman: 2i-ia-ed b4 ,nfor-,na-e circ,ms-ances 9-+e lac= of a marriage bond:; con2ersel41 -o /ra4 b,- no-
according -o God8s r,le 9e.g.1 no- in accord 0i-+ -+e <re2iar4: co,ld be -a=en as an ac- 0+ose ob6ec- is malum
simpliciter1 namel4 disobedience -o la0f,l a,-+ori-4. A- an4 ra-e i- is clear -+a- in bo-+ cases -+ere is an elemen- of
real1 ob6ec-i2e goodness in -+e ob6ec-1 0+ic+ mo2es -+e sinner -o ignore -+e concomi-an- disorder 9lo2e 0i-+o,-
marriage1 /ra4er 0i-+o,- obedience:; and in bo-+ cases1 if -+e concomi-an- disorder 0ere remo2ed1 -+e desire for
-+a- elemen- of real goodness in -+e ob6ec- 0o,ld remain and 0o,ld be blameless. Hence i- seems -+a- bo-+ a=ra-ic
and >s/iri-,al? sin aim a- 0+a- is in fac- malum simpliciter1 b,- -+a- bo-+ do so ,nder -+e as/ec- of (onum
secundum quid1 and -+a- -+erefore angelic sin does no- differ grea-l4 from ordinar4 +,man sin in -+is res/ec-.
$econdl41 and more im/or-an-l41 -+e analog4 be-0een -+e firs- /air of >r,les? 9r,le of sense and r,le of reason: and
-+e second /air 9r,le of reason and -+e di2ine la0: brea=s do0n in a 2er4 im/or-an- res/ec-' for 0+ile -+e r,le of
sense does no-1 as such1 command ,s -o obser2e -+e r,le of reason1 -+e r,le of reason1 as such1 does indeed
command ,s -o obser2e 0+a- +as been re2ealed -o ,s of -+e di2ine la0 9in -+a- -o dis-r,s- Tr,-+ Himself is
eminen-l4 ,n0ise:.
@1
Hence A3,inas8 resor- -o -+e dis-inc-ion be-0een na-,re and s,/erAna-,re seems ,n+el/f,l
+ere1
@
for 0+ile a di2ine ordinance 0o,ld indeed be >o/a3,e? -o -+e angel in -erms of i-s content1 i- 0o,ld be
3,i-e selfAe2iden- -+a- 0+a-e2er /roceeds from -+e 0onum Ipsum canno- b,- be (onum simpliciter. T+,s -o
disobe4 -+e di2ine la0 is also -o disobe4 reason1 0+ereas -o disobe4 reason nei-+er is1 nor indeed can be1 -o
disobe4 sense; for -+e onl4 motive -o disobe4 reason is /recisel4 -o obe4 sense.
And -+is brings ,s bac= -o o,r original diffic,l-41 s-ill ,nans0ered' -+e /roblem of c,l/able mo-i2e. If an
E
DM 3. 1F1 ar-. 1 ad 1 and ad 4; ST I1 3. F@1 ar-. 1 ad 4.
@!
DM 3. 1F1 ar-. @.
@1
%b2io,sl4 -+is -o,c+es on -+e /roblem of di2ine fai-+ and mo-i2es of credibili-41 0+ic+ ,nfor-,na-el4 is far -oo com/le. an
iss,e -o disc,ss +ere. &e m,s- be con-en- sim/l4 -o sa4 -+a-1 +o0e2er li--le 0e ma4 gras/ -+e ra-ionale of di2ine doc-rine and di2ine
command1 0e s-ill canno- fail -o gras/ -+e ra-ionale of trustin! -+a- doc-rine and o(eyin! -+a- command.
@
(f. DM 3. 1F1 ar-. @' >%nl4 -+ings in 0+ic+ /o-en-iali-4 can be dis-ing,is+ed from ac-,ali-41 no- -+ings -+a- are al0a4s ac-,al1
can +a2e e2il1 as -+e Metaphysics sa4s. <,- all angels 0ere ins-i-,-ed s,c+ -+a- -+e4 immedia-el4 a- -+e momen- of -+eir crea-ion +ad
e2er4-+ing /ro/er -o -+eir na-,re1 al-+o,g+ -+e4 +ad /o-en-iali-4 for s,/erna-,ral goods -+a- -+e4 co,ld ob-ain -+ro,g+ GodQs grace.
And so 0e concl,de -+a- -+e de2ilQs sin regarded some-+ing s,/erna-,ral1 no- some-+ing belonging -o -+e order of na-,re.?
1!
angel is -r,l4 mo-i2a-ed sim/l4 b4 -+e inclina-ion -o -+e (onum simpliciter1 and +as no inclina-ion -o0ards
an4-+ing -+a- is in fac- e2il 90+ic+ 0o,ld incl,de s/iri-,al /ride as 0ell as -+ef- and fornica-ion:1 -+en i- seems -+a-
-+e onl4 mo-i2e for nonAconsidera-ion of -+e r,le 90+e-+er of reason or di2ine:1 is gone; for -+e inclina-ion -o -+e
(onum simpliciter seems none o-+er -+an -+e inclina-ion -o -+e whole good1 0+ic+ is /recisel4 -+e inclina-ion -+a-
,rges -+e con-inen- man -o f,ll considera-ion agains- -+e dri2e of +is sense a//e-i-e. &i-+o,- a com/e-ing
inclina-ion -o dis-rac- i-1 an angel8s sole dri2e 0o,ld be -o c+oose 0i-+ -+e f,lles- /ossible considera-ion; and as 0e
+a2e seen1 -+e inclina-ion -o follo0 -+e r,le of reason does no- compete 0i-+ -+e inclina-ion -o follo0 -+e di2ine
r,le1 b,- on -+e con-rar4 en1oins i-. "2en more im/or-an-1 +o0e2er1 is -+e as/ec- of c,l/abili-4. Ac-ions /erformed
solel4 o,- of desire for -+e whole1 ,ni2ersal goodAinAi-self7e2en if1 ,nacco,n-abl41 -+e considera-ion 0ere c,-
s+or- and foc,sed on a limi-ed good incom/a-ible 0i-+ -+e 0+ole good of rig+- reason1 of 0+ic+ -+e c+ief elemen-
is -+e 0or-+iness of God -o be lo2ed and obe4ed7are no- +eld blame0or-+41 beca,se if i- is /,rs,ed o,- of s,c+ a
desire i- m,s- necessaril4 be /,rs,ed under the aspect of being cond,ci2e -o -+a- 0+ole good. T+a- 0o,ld be
sim/l4 a 0ellAin-en-ioned error1 for -+e ma6or /remise of i-s /rac-ical s4llogism is -+e /remise of ri!ht reason; i- is
onl4 0+en -+e 9original: ma6or /remise of -+e /rac-ical s4llogism is a limited one 9as in -+e case of >sensi-i2e?
reason: -+a- 0e a--rib,-e blame1 for i- is onl4 in s,c+ a case -+a- -+e ac-ion is no- being >referred? -o -+e good of -+e
0+ole. In o-+er 0ords1 i- seems -+a- 0e a--rib,-e blame no- 0+en -+e means c+osen are 0rong 9erroneo,s
delibera-ion:1 b,- 0+en -+e end is 0rong 9in an >erroneo,s? 0ill:; and -+e end is 0rong if -+e first1 ,ni2ersal
/remise of -+e /rac-ical s4llogism is 0rong1 i.e.1 aimed a- limi-ed ra-+er -+an ,ni2ersal goodness. Moreo2er1 i-
seems -+a- -+is +a//ens no- onl4 in -+e sense a//e-i-es1 b,- also 9and indeed c+iefl4: in -+e case of disordered selfA
lo2e1 -+e lo2e -+a- A,g,s-ine famo,sl4 called -+e so,rce of >con-em/- of God1?
@@
0+ic+ of co,rse is -+e essence of
/ride'
@4
an inclina-ion in -+e 0ill 0+ose end or >ma6or /remise? is nei-+er -+e ,ni2ersal good nor -+e s-ric-l4
sensi-i2e good 9-+o,g+ -+e la--er 0o,ld fall ,nder i-: b,- ra-+er -+e good ,nder -+e limi-ing as/ec- of >-+eAgoodA
forAme.? Le- ,s no0 -,rn -o $co-,s8 -+eor4 of angelic sin -o see 0+a- lig+- i- +as -o s+ed on -+is ma--er.
2. An!elic Sin in Scotus
To e.amine -+e 0+ole $co-is-ic -+eor4 of freedom -+a- gro,nds +is e./lana-ion of angelic sin 0o,ld1 of
co,rse1 be m,c+ -oo large a -as= for -+e s/ace +ere a2ailable; +ence 0e s+all merel4 s=e-c+ -+e bac=gro,nd of +is
-+eor4 before -,rning -o -+e /ar- -+a- in-eres-s ,s1 0+ic+ is +is do,bleAaffec-ion -+eor4. Firs-1 -+ere is +is -ene- -+a-
@@
A,g,s-ine1 De %ivitate Dei1 <=. RIB1 c+. 8.
@4
(f. ST IIAII1 3. 1F1 ar-. 1 c. and ad 1; ar-. 41 ad 4; and es/. ar-. F.
11
no- onl4 -+e s/ec,la-i2e b,- also -+e /rac-ical in-ellec- is 0+a- +e calls a >na-,ral /o0er1? i.e. a /o0er -+a- al0a4s
ac-s -o -+e f,ll e.-en- of i-s abili-4 and is al0a4s de-ermined -o a single effec- !iven all circumstances; i- is onl4
>diac+ronicall4? con-ingen-. T+,s1 once all rele2an- da-a and /rinci/les are gi2en 9and lea2ing aside errors d,e -o
o,r de/endence on fla0ed /+an-asms and brain /rocesses:1 -+e /rac-ical in-ellec- can onl4 4ield a single 9o/-imal:
co,rse of ac-ion !iven an end to (e achieved. I- is onl4 -+e 0ill1 0+ic+ is ca/able of refraining from /,rs,ing a
/resen- good 9,nli=e -+e in-ellec-1 0+ic+ canno- fail -o assen- -o a /resen- -r,-+: and of re-aining i-s o/enness -o
con-raries e2en within a gi2en momen-1 e2en gi2en all rele2an- circ,ms-ances1 -+a- is >s4nc+ronicall4? con-ingen-
and -+erefore deser2ing of being called a >ra-ional /o0er.?
@G
T+is -+eor4 seems -o go -oo far1 in -+a- i- lea2es li--le
room for -+e >incommens,rabili-4? of goods 9-+e doc-rine -+a- some-imes -+ere sim/l4 is no >bes-? co,rse1 and
-+a- -+erefore in -+ese si-,a-ions one ma4 be mo-i2a-ed b4 /,re c+ari-4 and s-ill /ic= an4 of a gro,/ of al-erna-i2es
0i-+o,- fear of +a2ing c+osen a >lesser? good7a doc-rine -+a- seems necessar4 -o /reser2e -r,e freedom of c+oice
for God and -+e blessed:;
@F
none-+eless $co-,s seems correc- a- leas- in -+a-1 in o,r ordinar4 moral e./erience1 sin
is no- d,e -o uncertainty abo,- 0+a- is rig+- 9i.e.1 -+e in-ellec- is no- o/en -o con-raries in -+a- regard: b,- ra-+er -o a
c+oice 9o/en -o con-raries: on -+e 0ill8s /ar- -o not seek 0+a- is rig+-1 /referring ins-ead 0+a- is /leas,rable 9or
>ad2an-ageo,s1? as 0e s+all see /resen-l4:. &i-+ -+is m,c+ $-. T+omas 0o,ld seem -o +a2e no 3,arrel.
T+e o-+er /reliminar4 /oin- -o be no-ed is $co-,s8 differen- ,nders-anding of >+a//iness.? $im/l4 /,-1
0+ere for A3,inas 9and Aris-o-le: i- refers -o -+e ac-i2i-4 b4 0+ic+ 0e a--ain -+e end for 0+ic+ God made ,s1 for
$co-,s i- seems -o refer ra-+er -o -+e receivin! or /ossessing of good1 >/erfec-i2e? -+ings or 3,ali-ies
@7
7and
moreo2er1 im/or-an-l41 of -+ings 0+ic+ are a//re+ended as being good or /erfec-i2e in the a(stract1 a/ar- from -+e
recei2er8s indi2id,al circ,ms-ances and fi--edness -o recei2e -+em.
@8
Mos- im/or-an-1 -+o,g+1 is $co-,s8 -endenc4
-o -rea- >delec-a-io? and >bea-i-,do?7-0o f,ndamen-all4 differen-1 -+o,g+ cer-ainl4 connec-ed1 no-ions in
A3,inas8 mind7as in some sense e3,i2alen-. Af-er concl,ding -+a- -+e good desired b4 L,cifer in +is sin 0as a
pleasura(le ra-+er -+an a ,sef,l or an +ones- good 9on -+e gro,nds -+a- 0+a- is ,sef,l is onl4 desired for -+e sa=e
of some-+ing else -+a- is desired /rimaril41 and -+a- -o lo2e 0+a- is +onorable1 as s,c+1 is ne2er sinf,l:1 $co-,s
claims -+a- >+ence +e firs- sinned b4 lo2ing some-+ing e.cessi2el4 as +is s,/reme delig+-. &+a- is s,/remel4
@G
For all -+e abo2e1 see 3uestions on the Metaphysics IR1 3. 1G; in Duns Scotus on the 4ill and Morality1 -rans. Allan &ol-er1
ed. &illiam A. Fran= 9&as+ing-on1 D(' (a-+olic )ni2ersi-4 Press1 1EE7:1 1@FA1G!1 es/. 1@8A141.
@F
$ee n. ! abo2e.
@7
$ee -+e disc,ssion belo0 of -+e affectio commodi.
@8
$ee n. 4G belo0 for a disc,ssion of -+is /oin- 0i-+ regard -o $co-,s8 ,nders-anding of -+e 0ill as a vis collativa.
1
delig+-f,l1 +o0e2er1 is -+e +onorable good and as s,c+ is bea-i-,de i-self?; and +e -+en goes on -o sa4 -+a- a sinf,l
0ill 9i.e.1 one ,nreg,la-ed b4 >6,s-ice1? 0+ic+ 0ill be disc,ssed belo0: 0o,ld see= abo2e all
some-+ing i- 0o,ld 0an- if s,c+ alone e.is-ed and in -+e absence of 0+ic+ no-+ing else 0o,ld be 0an-ed
Ki.e.1 desirable in i-self1 and -+e roo- of -+e desirabili-4 of e2er4-+ing elseL. #o01 delectatio is s,c+ a -+ing.
For if one 0ere sad1 0+a- one 0o,ld 0an- 0o,ld be no- some e5cellence or an4 o-+er s,c+ -+ing1 b,-
delectatio or some-+ing li=e i-. As for -+e angel8s firs- sin of desire1 -+en1 +e 0o,ld a//aren-l4 +a2e firs-
co2e-ed (eatitudo.
@E
From -+ese /assages 0e ma4 dra0 -+e follo0ing concl,sions' 1: >delectatio? is no- >e5cellence?; : >(eatitudo?
is indeed >e.cellence1? inasm,c+ as i- consis-s in -+e >(onum honestum?; @: none-+eless1 >(eatitudo? is in fac-
also 0+a- is mos- delig+-f,l1 and +ence ma4 be so,g+- either ,nder -+e as/ec- of >(onum honestum? or of
>delectatio?; and 4: -+e de2il sinned b4 see=ing >(eatitudo? ,nder -+e as/ec- of >delectatio1? and not ,nder -+e
as/ec- of >(onum honestum.? T+e ra-+er conf,sing ,/s+o- of all -+is is -+a- >(eatitudo? or >+a//iness? can mean
either -+e a--ainmen- of -+e >(onum delecta(ile? or of -+e >(onum honestum? 9bo-+ of 0+ic+1 of co,rse1 find -+eir
+ig+es- >embodimen-? in God:1 b,- -+a- -+e fallen angels desired +a//iness only in -+e sense of (onum delecta(ile.
T+is brings ,s direc-l4 -o o,r -o/ic; for according -o $co-,s1 -+e desire -+a- mo-i2a-ed -+e fallen angels 0as
/recisel4 one of -+e -0o inclina-ions -+a- +e /osi-ed in -+e 0ill 9-+e affectio commodi:1 o/era-ing 0i-+o,- an4
res-rain- from -+e o-+er inclina-ion of -+e 0ill 9-+e affectio iustitiae:. &+a- e.ac-l4 are -+ese inclina-ions5
T+e firs- inclina-ion1 -+e affectio commodi1 is a >na-,ral1? no- a >ra-ional1? /o0er 9voluntas ut natura:. I- is
direc-ed -o0ards -+e 0ill8s o0n /erfec-ion1 i.e. >(eatitudo1? 0+ic+ is so,g+- a: necessaril41 b: in -+e +ig+es-
meas,re1 and c: in /ar-ic,lar.
4!
T+ese -+ree 3,alifica-ions are all in-ima-el4 bo,nd ,/ 0i-+ -+is inclina-ion8s
>na-,ral1? /reAin-ellec-i2e s-a-,s. I- is necessar4 beca,se all na-,ral a//e-i-es are defined b4 -+e /ro/er /erfec-ion or
sa-isfac-ion a- 0+ic+ -+e4 aim; i- is so,g+- in -+e +ig+es- meas,re beca,se 0+a- is necessar4 canno- >-end in a
remiss fas+ion?; and i- is /ar-ic,lar beca,se if i- follo0ed ,/on in-ellec-,al1 ,ni2ersal =no0ledge i- 0o,ld +a2e
been free1 0+ereas -+is inclina-ion is in fac- necessi-a-ed and -+erefore /reAin-ellec-i2e and /reA,ni2ersal. T+is las-
/oin- is es/eciall4 in-eres-ing beca,se i- allo0s for a s-rong analog4 0i-+ sense a//e-i-e 9-+e main /la4er in
T+omis-ic akrasia: in -+a- 0+a- is direc-ed -o a /ar-ic,lar ob6ec- is de-ermined -o one1 and is ca/able of being
o2erridden b4 0+a- is ,ni2ersal and o/en -o man4. T+e im/or-an- 3,es-ion -o as= +ere is -+is' 0+a- e.ac-l4 is -+is
/ar-ic,lar >/erfec-ion of -+e 0ill? -+a- is so,g+- af-er b4 -+e affectio commodi5 I- cer-ainl4 does no- seem -o be -+e
@E
II1 d. F1 3. .1 n. 41 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 4@A44. Trans. &ol-er1 EFAE7 9em/+asis mine:.
4!
6rd. IB1 s,//l. d. 4E1 33. EA1!1 in &ol-er1 1GFA1G7.
1@
-r,e /erfec-ion of -+e 0+ole /erson1 real aret7; ra-+er1 as 0e sa0 abo2e1 i- seems -o aim a- delectatio1 a- -+e res-ing
of -+e a//e-i-e i-self.
T+is is /roblema-ic1 for A3,inas seems rig+- -o +old -+a- -+e >res-? of -+e a//e-i-e is never -+e a//e-i-e8s
ob6ec-1 0+e-+er -+e a//e-i-e be sensi-i2e or ra-ional; ra-+er1 -+e ob6ec- is ei-+er -+e desired good1 or -+e 9delig+-f,l:
ac-i2i-4 b4 0+ic+ -+a- desired good is recei2ed7b,- no- -+e >s,/er2enien-? ac-i2i-4Ab4A0a4AofAres- -+a- cons-i-,-es
delig+- i-self1 0+ic+ is logicall4 /os-erior -o -+e a--ainmen- of -+e good.
41
To delig+- a- all in -+e bea,-4 of an4-+ing1
0+e-+er i- be a s,nse-1 a friend8s noble c+arac-er1 or -+e s,/reme <ea,-4 of God1 seems -o re3,ire -+a- 0+a- 0e
love be -+e in-rinsic nobili-4 of 0+a- 0e /ercei2e ra-+er -+an -+e effec- -+a- i- /rod,ces in o,r 0ill7in o-+er 0ords1
-+a-1 once sense a//e-i-e is se- aside1 an ob6ec- can be delig+-f,l only insofar as i- is lo2ed as honestum. Ho0e2er1
i- seems -+a- $co-,s is ,sing -+e -erm delectatio no- in -+e -ec+nical1 T+omis-ic sense of >-+e a//e-i-e8s res- in -+e
/ossessed good? b,- in a broader sense -o signif4 -+e 0ill8s referring of -+e desired bea,-if,l ob6ec- solel4 bac= -o
the willer1 0i-+o,- concern for -+e >0+ole /ic-,re?' desire for -+e good e.cl,si2el4 ,nder -+e as/ec- of >forAme1?
and in no 0a4 ,nder -+e as/ec- of >forAothers.? T+,s1 a l,s-f,l man ma4 co2e- a 0oman based no- onl4 on +er
/+4sical bea,-4 b,- e2en for -+e nobili-4 of +er c+arac-er1 0+ic+ +e recogniHes as in-rinsicall4 good and desirable1
and s-ill sin b4 see=ing i- for +is o0n 0i-+o,- regard for -+ose -o 0+om i- /rimaril4 belongs 9e.g. -+e 0oman
+erself and +er +,sband:. T+is1 I belie2e1 0o,ld cons-i-,-e a case of see=ing a (onum honestum as a mere (onum
delecta(ile in -+e $co-is-ic sense' in s,c+ a case -+e 9in-rinsicall4 good: /,rs,i- of some-+ing -r,l4 noble is
/er2er-ed b4 ordering i- e5clusively -o m4 o0n /ossession -+ereof1 ra-+er -+an /,rs,ing i- according -o -+e order of
reason b41 e.g.1 recogniHing -+e /rior claims -+a- o-+ers +a2e ,/on i-.
4

An e3,all4 diffic,l- 3,es-ion is +o0 $co-,s can +old -+a- -+is desire for -+e (onum honestum 3,a
delecta(ile7i.e.1 e5clusively as a (onum si(i7is /ar-ic,lar ra-+er -+an ,ni2ersal1 and +ence de-ermined1 li=e -+e
sense a//e-i-es1 ad unum. $co-,s reasons -+a- -+is m,s- be so beca,se -+is inclina-ion -o /ossess (eatitudo is /rior
ra-+er -+an /os-erior -o in-ellec-ion; b,- on -+e face of i- -+is is a 2er4 s-range no-ion1 for i- seems -o assign -+e
affectio commodi -o a sor- of >noAman8sAland? be-0een sense a//e-i-e 9-+e desire -+a- follo0s ,/on -+e sensible
41
(f. ST IAII1 3. 1 ar-. F; Sent. li(. 'thic.1 <=. BII1 lec-. 1@1 I14E@.
4
T+is seems -o be $co-,s8 meaning 0+en +e sa4s -+a- -+e angel /robabl4 sinned b4 >0an-ing +a//iness as a (onum si(i ra-+er
-+an lo2ing i- as a (onum in se7-+a- is1 0an-ing a good1 li=e -+e bea-ific ob6ec-1 -o belong e.cl,si2el4 -o +imself1 ra-+er -+an -o be in
ano-+er1 s,c+ as in +is God. And -+is 0o,ld be -+e s,/reme /er2ersi-4 of -+e 0ill1 0+ic+7according -o A,g,s-ine 9'i!hty/three
Different 3uestions1 3. @!:7is -o ,se as means 0+a- is -o be en6o4ed as an end1 and -rea- as an end 0+a- is -o be ,sed as a meansJ
For +a//iness s+o,ld +a2e been 0an-ed less for +is sa=e -+an for -+e sa=e of God1 and +e s+o,ld +a2e 0an-ed i- a- -+e -ime God
in-ended and on -+e basis of meri-1 as God /lanned? 96rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. G4 Ked. Ba-. 8L1 G:.
14
/erce/-ion of goods: and ra-ional a//e-i-e 9-+e desire -+a- follo0s ,/on -+e in-ellec-,al /erce/-ion of goodness1
0+ic+ is necessaril4 ,ni2ersal and desired as s,c+:7a//aren-l4 in denial of -+e ob2io,s fac- -+a- -+ere can be no
inclina-ion -o0ards an4-+ing 0+a-soe2er e.ce/- qua a//re+ended.
4@
Ho0e2er1 I belie2e -+a- $co-,s8 idea is no- in
fac- s,c+ a s-range one. His /oin- is -+a-1 ,nli=e A3,inas8 0ill1 0+ic+ is ,ni2ersal in -+a- i-s dri2e is -o0ard
anythin!1 grea- or small1 -+a- +as -+e as/ec- of >s+aringAinA+a//iness? 9as o//osed -o -+e T+omis-ic sense a//e-i-e1
0+ic+ is /ar-ic,lar in -+a- i-s dri2e is onl4 -o0ards 0+a- is /ercei2ed as1 e.g.1 -as-iest:1 -+e affectio commodi1 so -o
s/ea=1 >goes all the way1? blindl4. I- is no- aimed a- 0+a- is !ood1 b,- a- 0+a- is (est1 and 9-+is is =e4: >bes-? from
a 2er4 /ar-ic,lar /oin- of 2ie0' -+e /oin- of 2ie0 of -+e goodAforAme 9i.e.1 -+e /ers/ec-i2e of m4 inborn lo2e of
friends+i/ for m4self:. I- does no- -a=e in-o acco,n- circ,ms-ances or di2ine la01 or e2en one8s o0n /ersonal
nobili-4 or e.cellence 9for all -+ese are 0ra//ed ,/ inse/arabl4 0i-+ -+e no-ion of -+e goodAinAi-self/(onum
honestum and 0i-+ -+e o,-0ardAdirec-edness -+a- are -+e /ro2ince of -+e affectio iustitiae1 as 0e s+all see:; ra-+er1
i- aims sim/l4 a- m4 /ossession of -+e grea-es- concei2able goodAforAme1 and +ence 9as 0e sa0: ,nder -+e as/ec-
of delecta(ile ra-+er -+an honestum. I- is in -+is sense -+a- -+e angel can be said -o 0ill some-+ing a/ar- from -+e
r,le of rig+- reason1 and indeed some-+ing al-oge-+er im/ossible s,c+ as e3,ali-4 0i-+ God; for -+e /rocess of
delibera-ion in -+e con-e.- of >-+e 0+ole goodAinAi-self1? in $co-,s8 /s4c+olog41 0o,ld come after -+e in-ellec-8s
ini-ial /resen-a-ion of -+e summum (onum delecta(ile 9-o /ossess God as He /ossesses Himself: and after -+e
ini-ial mo2emen-
44
of -+e >blind? affectio commodi 0+ic+1 ,nable -o see= less -+an -+e ,l-ima-e in in-ellec-,al
delig+-1 0o,ld necessaril4 be a--rac-ed b4 i-. T+is is 0+4 $co-,s feels 6,s-ified in calling -+e 0ill1 as 0ell as -+e
in-ellec-1 a >com/ara-i2e /o0er.?
4G
4@
I- is 3,i-e /ossible -+a- /ar- of -+e conf,sion +ere is o0ing -o $co-,s8 belief -+a- -+e in-ellec- can also a//re+end /ar-ic,lars; b,-
I belie2e a sa-isfac-or4 e./lana-ion is /ossible 0i-+o,- resor-ing -o -+is f,r-+er com/lica-ion. (er-ainl41 +o0e2er1 $co-,s did no- mean
-o /osi- an inclina-ion a/ar- from a corres/onding a//re+ension; indeed +e sa4s e./lici-l4 -+a- e2er4 a//e-i-e8s c+ief >dri2e? is
/recisel4 for -+e /erfec-ion of i-s corres/onding a//re+ensi2e /o0er 96rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. 4 Ked. Ba-. 8L1 4G; cf. also nn. 44A4G1 //.
4GA4F:.
44
I- seems /la,sible -o dra0 an analog4 +ere be-0een -+is firs-1 no-A4e-Areg,la-ed mo2emen- of -+e affectio commodi and
A3,inas8 >firs- ac-? of -+e 0ill1 /rior -o delibera-ion1 0+ereb4 -+e 0ill is inclined -o0ards7b,- does no- 4e- c+oose7some-+ing
/resen-ed -o i- as good in a s/on-aneo,s1 indelibera-e a--rac-ion. (f. ST IAII1 3. F1 ar-. 1 0+ere A3,inas sa4s -+a- >-+e a//e-ible ob6ec-
gi2es -+e a//e-i-e1 firs-1 a cer-ain ada/-a-ion -o i-self1 0+ic+ consis-s in com/lacenc4 in -+a- ob6ec-; and from -+is follo0s mo2emen-
-o0ards -+e a//e-ible ob6ec-J -+e firs- c+ange 0ro,g+- in -+e a//e-i-e b4 -+e a//e-ible ob6ec- is called Slo2e18 and is no-+ing else -+an
com/lacenc4 in -+a- ob6ec-; and from -+is com/lacenc4 res,l-s a mo2emen- -o0ards -+a- same ob6ec-1 and -+is mo2emen- is Sdesire8;
and las-l41 -+ere is res- 0+ic+ is S6o4.8? I- is in -+is sense -+a-1 for A3,inas1 -+e good is al0a4s a--rac-i2e 0+en i- is /resen-ed -o ,s1
e2en -+o,g+ 0e can -,rn a0a4 from i- and c+oose ano-+er good in i-s s-ead 9cf. ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. :. For a l,cid disc,ssion of -+is
dis-inc-ion be-0een firs- and second ac- in -+e 0ill1 and +o0 -+e former 9being a--rac-ed b4 -+e end: is s/on-aneo,s 0+ereas -+e la--er
9c+oosing means -o reac+ -+e end: is delibera-e1 cf. "d0ard (oo=1 The Deficient %ause of Moral 'vil Accordin! to St. Thomas
Aquinas 9&as+ing-on1 D(' Paideia P,blis+ers1 1EEF:1 78A7E.
4G
(f. $co-,s1 6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 11 n. 1! 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 7A8' >J2ol,n-as +abe- d,/licem ac-,m1 ac-,m amandi amore amici-iae e-
ac-,m conc,/iscendi ali3,id ama-o1 O e- sec,nd,m ,-r,m3,e ac-,m +abe- -o-,m ens /ro obiec-o1 i-a 3,od sic,- 3o,odc,m3,e ens
/o-es- ali3,is amare amore amici-iae1 i-a 3,odc,m3,e ens /o-es- i/se conc,/iscere i/si ama-o; ergo angel,s /o-,i- se i/s,m amare
1G
$,c+ an a--rac-ion is no-1 of co,rse1 blame0or-+4 in $co-,s8 e4es1 since i- is ,na2oidable; 0+a- is
a2oidable is -o gi2e -+a- a--rac-ion -+e 0ill8s >seal of a//ro2al1? so -o s/ea=. T+is is 0+ere -+e affectio iustitiae
en-ers in. T+is inclina-ion of -+e 0ill seems1 in almos- e2er4 res/ec-1 iden-ical -o -+e T+omis-ic 0ill8s inclina-ion
-o0ards -+e com/le-e good of >+a//iness?7e.ce/- -+a-1 for $co-,s1 -o follo0 -+is inclina-ion can never be -+e
ca,se of sin.
4F
T+e ob6ec- of -+is inclina-ion1 -+a- -o 0+ic+ i- -ends1 is >-+e r,le of 6,s-ice i- +as recei2ed from a
+ig+er 0ill1?
47
b4 2ir-,e of 0+ic+ i- ma4 be called >inna-e 6,s-ice.?
48
I-s mos- im/or-an- -as= of -+is inclina-ion is -o
reg,la-e -+e o-+er0ise bo,ndless1 blind friends+i/Alo2e -+a- 0e bear -o o,rsel2es in o,r affectio commodi
4E
; for as
$co-,s /oin-s o,-1 >if -+e friends+i/Alo2e 0ere ordina-e1 -+e conse3,en- lo2e of desire 0o,ld also be ordina-e.?
G!
In
a 0ord1 i- seems -o o/en ,s -o lo2ing o-+er -+ings7God abo2e all70i-+ lo2e of friends+i/ for -+eir o0n sa=es1
beca,se -+e4 are worthy of s,c+ lo2e1 and of reg,la-ing o,r desire for o,r o0n good 9based ,/on o,r o-+er0ise
amore amici-iae1 potuit etiam si(i concupiscere quodcumque (onum concupisci(ile1 O e- i-a1 c,m ae3,ali-as Dei si- 3,oddam bon,m
conc,/iscibile sec,nd,m se1 sibi /o-,i- angel,s ill,d bon,m conc,/iscere.? (f. also -ep. II A1 d. F1 3. 1 9Ms. %.ford Mer-on F1:1 fol.
14@21 0+ere $co-,s arg,es -+a- -+e >error? of sin in -+e 0ill lies nei-+er in lo2ing God8s o0n +a//iness 0i-+ lo2e of conc,/iscence as
s,/remel4 desirable nor in lo2ing oneself 0i-+ lo2e of friends+i/1 b,- in combining -+ese -0o in-o >lo2ing God8s o0n +a//iness for
oneself?' >$ic 2ol,n-as1 c,m ama- s,mmam bea-i-,dinem1 non erra-1 nec c,m ama- essen-iam angeli1 c,m si- 3,oddam bon,m; sed
-,nc /o-es- 2ol,n-as conferre +oc bon,m illi bono e- amare s,mmam bea-i-,dinem i/si angelo1 e- -,nc errando /ecca-.? (f. Tobias
Hoffmann1 >D,ns $co-,s8 Ac-ion T+eor4 in -+e (on-e.- of His Angelolog41? for-+coming in *ohannes Duns Scotus 1.89/2889: Die
philosophischen $erspectiven seines 4erkes ; Investi!ations into his $hilosophy1 ed. L,dger Honnefelder and Hannes MT+le
9MUns-er' Asc+endorff:1 es/. 7A81 for an ill,mina-ing disc,ssion of -+ese and o-+er /assages rela-ing -o -+e $co-is-ic doc-rine of -+e
0ill as >vis collativa.?
Ho0e2er1 /er+a/s one need no- claim -+a- $co-,s8 /osi-ing of -+e 0ill as vis collativa necessaril4 in2ol2es -+e 0ill8s /,rs,ing
some-+ing 0i-+o,- -+e in-ellec-8s +a2ing /resen-ed i- as desirable 9Hoffmann1 ibid.1 F:; ra-+er1 as Hoffmann /roceeds -o /oin- o,-
9ibid.1 n. 1: i- seems -+a- a limi-ed1 a=ra-ic /rac-ical s4llogism 0o,ld be 3,i-e ca/able of /resen-ing a good -+a- is desirable e2en
-+o,g+ im/ossible -o a--ain1 and -+a- moreo2er1 al-+o,g+ consen- -o s,c+ a s4llogism 0o,ld no- be an ins-ance of perfecta voluntas1 i-
co,ld cer-ainl4 be a case of voluntas imperfecta or velleitas 9i.e.1 in-en-ion 0i-+o,- c+oice of means:1 0+erein -+e >-,rning -o0ards?
or >-,rning a0a4 from? -+e good lies1 and 0i-+ i- meri- and g,il- 9DM1 3. 1F1 ar-. @ ad E K-+o,g+ i- s+o,ld be no-ed -+a- -+e 1EG@
Ta,rini edi-ion +as a nega-i2e inser-ed a- -+e cr,cial s/o-1 0+ic+ -+e Leonine lac=sL:. T+,s1 i- seems 3,i-e /ossible -o 0ill some-+ing
on -+e condi-ion -+a- i- 0ere /ossible1 and for s,c+ a 0illing -o be eminen-l4 sinf,l1 e2en -+o,g+ $-. T+omas does no- +imself a//l4
-+is -o -+e sin of -+e angels 9/er+a/s beca,se c+oice of a /ar-ic,lar means is so in-ima-el4 connec-ed in +is mind 0i-+ moral decision:;
indeed1 -+is sor- of delibera-e velleitas seems -o be /recisel4 0+a- is forbidden b4 -+e nin-+ and -en-+ commandmen-s. I- seems -+a- i-
is some-+ing of -+is sor- -+a- $co-,s +as in mind +ere. Moreo2er7and -+is is 2i-al70+en +e insis-s -+a- -+ere need be no /rac-ical
s4llogism in order for -+ere -o be electio in -+e sense of an >ac-, 2ol,n-a-is conse3,en-e /lenam a//re+ensionem in-ellec-,s1 3,o
modo dici-,r 3,is /eccare e. elec-ione 3,and non es- /assio /er-,rbans in-ellec-,m1 nec ignoran-ia1? +e is no- -a=ing -+e no-ion of
>/rac-ical s4llogism? -o refer -o -+e in-ellec-8s apprehension of !oodness in -+is /ar-ic,lar ob6ec-1 b,- ra-+er solel4 -o refer -o -+e
positin! of means to attain -+a- /ar-ic,lar ob6ec- 96rd. II1 d. F1 3. 11 n. 14 Ked. Ba-. 8L1 E:. T+is conf,sion res-s on an e3,i2oca-ion on
-+e -erm >means?' for -+e -4/e of /rac-ical s4llogism 0+ose necessi-4 $co-,s is re6ec-ing is one 0+ere -+e means are desired sim/l4 as
(ona utilia for a--aining -+e /ar-ic,lar good1 0+ereas in -+e /rac-ical s4llogism in -+e sense in 0+ic+ 0e +a2e been ,sing -+e -erm -+e
>means? is -+e /ar-ic,lar good i-self1 0+ic+ is no- a >means? in -+e sense of a (onum utile b,- ra-+er a >means? in -+e sense of a
participation in -+e (onum honestum or delecta(ile -+a- 0as -+e /redica-e of -+e ,ni2ersal ma6or /remise 9e.g.1 >s0ee- -+ings are
9sensibl4: good1 and -+is ca=e is s0ee-?:. I see no indica-ion -+a- $co-,s in-ended -o re6ec- -+e need for -+e la--er -4/e of /rac-ical
s4llogism; +ence -+e basic T+omis-ic /rinci/le -+a- e2er4 ac- of -+e 0ill m,s- be informed b4 a /rac-ical s4llogism in order -o +a2e
>con-en-? remains s-anding.
4F
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. 4! 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 4@.
47
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. G1 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 G1.
48
(f. 6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. 4E 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 48.
4E
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. G1 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 G1.
G!
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. @F 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 41.
1F
,nres-rained /reAin-ellec-i2e friends+i/Alo2e for o,rsel2es1 -+e affectio commodi: b4 balancing o,r selfAlo2e
agains- -+ese o-+er1 /er+a/s grea-er lo2es.
G1
T+is is no- an inf,sed gif- from God 9$co-,s1 follo0ing Anselm1 is
2er4 e./lici- in dis-ing,is+ing >inf,sed? from >inna-e? 6,s-ice:;
G
ra-+er1 -+e order of 6,s-ice 90+ose -as= i- is -o
im/ose a d,e +ierarc+ical arrangemen- on o,r friends+i/Alo2es: is =no0n -o ,s sim/l4 b4 rig+- reason.
G@
T+is
inclina-ion1 ,nli=e -+e affectio commodi1 is no- necessaril4 >ma.imiHed1? i- need no- o/era-e -o -+e f,ll e.-en- of i-s
/o0er; -+o,g+ i- +as -+e /o0er -o bring -+e affectio commodi in-o line 0i-+ rig+- reason and -o /re2en- ,s from
see=ing -+e goodAforA,s in mad1 ,nbo,nded fas+ion1 i- is ,nder no obliga-ion -o do so sa2e for moral obliga-ion.
For -+is reason $co-,s calls -+e affectio iustitiae -+e >liber-4 inna-e -o -+e 0ill?;
G4
and i- is beca,se of -+is
affec-ion8s ,ni3,e abili-4 -o ei-+er asser- i-s dominance o2er -+e affectio commodi or -o 4ield -o i-1 a- an4 momen-1
-+a- -+e 0ill is /reser2ed from being a >na-,ral /o0er? and becomes ins-ead a >ra-ional /o0er1? s4nc+ronicall4
con-ingen-. I- is in -+is abili-41 ,ni3,e in -+e crea-ed ,ni2erse1 -+a- a 0ill is ca/able of being -+e sea- of moral
res/onsibili-4.
T+is in-er/re-a-ion +as been con-es-ed. Pe-er Ming1 for e.am/le1 +olds -+a- -+e affectio iustitiae is no- an
inclina-ion or mo-i2a-ing -endenc4 a- all b,- merel4 a sor- of reg,la-ing de2ice1
GG
0+ile T+omas &illiams
main-ains -+a-1 0+ile i- is indeed an inclina-ion1 i- is no- in fac- an inclina-ion -o0ards -+e ra-ionall4 /ercei2ed
(onum in se b,- ra-+er -o0ards -+e di2inel4 0illed order of morali-4 sim/l4 as s,c+.
GF
<o-+ of -+ese in-er/re-a-ions
seem -o me ,ngro,nded1 -+o,g+ s/ace is lac=ing +ere for a f,ll anal4sis. Ming8s -+eor4 is based ,/on -+e fac- -+a-
$co-,s reser2es -+e classifica-ion of >a//e-i-e? for -+e affectio commodi1 and seems -o limi- +is disc,ssion of -+e
affectio iustitiae -o i-s radicall4 con-ingen- reg,la-or4 abili-4; b,-1 in addi-ion a: -o -+e fac- -+a- -+is in-er/re-a-ion
G1
T+is is 0+4 $co-,s can sa4 -+a- >+a//iness s+o,ld +a2e been 0an-ed less for +is K-+e angel8sL sa=e -+an for -+e sa=e of God?
96rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. G4 Ked. Ba-. 8L1 G:1 and -+a- -+e good angels differed from -+e bad /recisel4 in -+a- -+e4 >did no- 0an- i-
K+a//inessL more -+an -+e4 0an-ed God -o +a2e e2er4-+ing good; ra-+er -+e4 0is+ed for +a//iness less -+an -+e4 0is+ed God 0ell1
for -+e4 co,ld modera-e -+is desire -+ro,g+ -+eir liber-4? 96rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. F1 Ked. Ba-. 8L1 GF:. %b2io,sl41 >(eatitudo? is +ere
being ,sed in -+e nonAT+omis-ic sense of >my /ossession of -+e good ob6ec-1? ra-+er -+an >m4 ac-i2i-4 in accord 0i-+ -+e end God
+as gi2en me1? 0+ic+ b4 i-s na-,re incl,des and gi2es c+ief /lace -o -+e ac- of c+ari-4.
G
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. 4E 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 48.
G@
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. G4 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 G' >Deb,i- igi-,r libera 2ol,n-as moderari affec-ionem 3,an-,m ad is-as circ,ms-an-ias1
3,as recta ratio +ab,i- os-endere? 9em/+asis mine:.
G4
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. 4E 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 4E.
GG
Pe-er Ming1 >$co-,s8s Ce6ec-ion of Anselm' T+e T0oA&ills T+eor41? for-+coming in -+e $co-,sA(ongress Proceedings1 14A1G
and 18A1E. Ming in-er/re-s $co-,s as +olding -+a- -+e 0ill +as no inner mo-i2a-ion or desire -o follo0 rig+- reason a- all1 b,- sim/l4
does so in -+e 2er4 -ee-+ of -+e mo-i2e of -+e affectio commodi or in-ellec-i2e a//e-i-e.
GF
T+omas &illiams1 >Ho0 $co-,s $e/ara-es Morali-4 from Ha//iness1? American %atholic $hilosophical 3uarterly FE
91EEG:1 4@FA4@7. I- is in-eres-ing -o no-e +o0 &illiams belie2es -+a- for $co-,s -+e affectio iustitiae is indeed an inclina-ion -o0ards
6,s-ice b,- -+a- some form of s/ecial re2ela-ion is necessar4 -o =no0 0+a- -+e order of 6,s-ice is 94@8:1 0+ile Ming main-ains -+e
o//osi-e' -+a- for $co-,s rig+- reason is indeed s,fficien- -o =no0 -+e order of 6,s-ice 0illed b4 God 9181 ci-ing 6rd. II1 d. 71 3. ,n.1 nn.
8A@! Ked. Ba-. 8L1 88AE!: b,- -+a- 0e +a2e no inclina-ion -o follo0 rig+- reason7i- 6,s- con-ingen-l4 +a//ens.
17
0o,ld res,rrec- -+e 0+ole /roblem of demonic mo-i2a-ion -+a- -+e -0oAaffec-ions -+eor4 0as s,//osed -o sol2e1
and b: -o -+e fac- -+a- i- 0o,ld /arado.icall4 red,ce all rig+- c+oice -o ine./licable randomness 0+ile selfis+ sin
0o,ld remain /erfec-l4 in-elligible1 i- seems /lain c: from -+e -e.-s 0e +a2e been ci-ing -+a- -+e 0+ole essence of
-+e order of 6,s-ice 0+ic+ God 0ills ,s -o follo0 is /recisel4 -o +a2e ordered friends+i/Alo2es for God1 o-+ers1 and
o,rsel2es1 based ,/on -+e (onitas in se of eac+. <,- >lo2e? and >goodness? are1 res/ec-i2el41 -+e mo2emen- and
-+e ob6ec- of appetite; and1 in -+e case of friends+i/Alo2e for o-+ers1 -+e4 are cer-ainl4 no- -+e mo2emen- or ob6ec-
of -+e affectio commodi1 lea2ing no o/-ion sa2e for -+e affectio iustitiae. As for &illiams1 +e indeed seems rig+- -o
con-end agains- No+n <oler
G7
-+a- -+e >+ig+er 0ill? 0+ose r,le -+e affectio iustitiae im/oses on -+e affectio
commodi is God8s 0ill1 and -+a- -+e r,le is +anded do0n from abo2e; b,- -+is b4 i-self seems no arg,men- for
con-ending f,r-+er -+a- -+e >r,le of 6,s-ice? is some-+ing o2er and abo2e 0+a- is ra-ionall4 a//re+ensible as -+e
(onum in se1 and in fac- seems -o r,n direc-l4 con-rar4 -o 0+a- $co-,s +as -o sa4 abo,- rig+- reason8s role in 6,s-
desire.
G8
Moreo2er1 &illiams8 arg,men- -+a- -+e affectio commodi canno- corres/ond -o a >ma.imiHed?
friends+i/Alo2e for myself1 in addi-ion -o +a2ing -o deal 0i-+ all -+e e2idence add,ced abo2e1 is based sim/l4 ,/on
-+e arg,men- -+a- a: for $co-,s e2er4 sinf,l ac- /roceeds from -+e affectio commodi1 and b: I can sin b4 lo2ing a
fello0 +,man being -oo m,c+.
GE
<,- -+is diffic,l-4 does no- seem insol,ble1 for -+e sin in s,c+ cases does no-
/roceed from lo2ing a +,man being too much 90+ic+1 as (.$. Le0is sa4s in The +our <oves1 is >/robabl4
im/ossible?
F!
:1 b,- ra-+er from no- considering -+e goodness of God and +ence lo2ing Him too little b4
com/arison7and -+e reason I fail -o consider His goodness is beca,se i- is a grea- deal easier -o foc,s m4
a--en-ion onl4 on -+e goodness of -angible -+ings -+a- are sensibl4 /resen- -o me1 0+ic+ is a sin no- of friends+i/
b,- of laHiness.
F1
I- is -r,e -+a- $co-,s does no- -rea- -+is iss,e1 b,- -+a- is /robabl4 beca,se -+e n,mber of -imes -+a-
0e do some-+ing ob6ec-i2el4 sinf,l o,- of /,re1 ,nselfis+ lo2e for o-+ers is so small as -o be negligible; normall4
e2en o,r mos- +eroic ac-ions for o-+ers +a2e a s-rong elemen- of desire for -+e friend -o be gra-ef,l -o ,s and -o
lo2e ,s in re-,rn1 and i- is -+is elemen- -+a- -,rns o,r e4es a0a4 from God8s goodness and ma=es -+e crea-ed
goodness fill o,r field of 2ision. For all -+ese reasons1 -+en1 i- seems -o me -+a- <oler is rig+- -o cas- -+e inna-e
G7
No+n <oler1 >Transcending -+e #a-,ral' D,ns $co-,s on -+e T0o Affec-ions of -+e &ill1? American %atholic $hilosophical
3uarterly F7 91EE@:1 14.
G8
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. 1 n. G4 9ed. Ba-. 8:1 G; also -+e /assage ci-ed b4 Ming 9/. 181 n. F:1 6rd. II1 d. 71 3. ,n.1 nn. 8A@! Ked. Ba-.
8L1 88AE!.
GE
&illiams1 4@1.
F!
(. $. Le0is1 The +our <oves 9$an Diego' Harco,r-1 Inc.1 1EE1:1 1.
F1
Moreo2er1 0+a-
18
liber-4 of -+e 0ill in -erms of a /ar-ic,lar =ind of c+oice -+a- >cons-i-,-es -+e moral dimension as $co-,s sees i-' i.e.1
-+e c+oice of going 9or ref,sing -o go: be4ond considera-ions of S+a//iness8 Ki.e.1 be4ond -+e -endenc4 -o
>-ranscendJ -+e 2er4 -endencies of an in-ellec-,al na-,re -o realiHe i-self?L in fa2or of considera-ions of 1ustitia or
(onum in se.?
F
=. %onclusion> and -amifications for the Theory of 'udaemonism
As 0e +a2e /resen-ed i-1 -+en1 $co-,s8 -+eor4 seems -o /a-c+ a rela-i2el4 im/or-an- ga/ in A3,inas8 -+eor4
of sin' -+e lac= of a mo-i2e1 in -+e case of crea-,res no- -ro,bled b4 sense a//e-i-e 9bo-+ -+e angels and o,r firs-
/aren-s1 0i-+ -+eir /re-erna-,ral gif-s:1 -o ac- based ,/on an in-ellec-,al delibera-ion -+a- is =no0n -o be incom/le-e.
If -+e a//e-i-e for -+e >com/le-e good? 0ere reall4 -+e onl4 inclina-ion e.is-ing in -+e 0ill1 -+en i-s 0+ole desire
0o,ld be -o ma=e s,re -+a- i- +ad made -+e bes- /ossible delibera-ion and considered e2er4-+ing 0+ose (onitas in
se mig+- /ro2ide a mo-i2e for ac-ing differen-l41 and no bad c+oice co,ld res,l- e.ce/- -+ro,g+ an 9,nconscio,s:
mis-a=e on -+e /ar- of -+e delibera-ing in-ellec-1 0+ic+ ob2io,sl4 0o,ld no- be morall4 re/re+ensible. $co-,s
a2oids -+is diffic,l-4 b4 /osi-ing ano-+er inclina-ion7-+e affectio commodi7-o accom/an4 -+e a//e-i-e for -+e
>com/le-e good1? 0+ic+ >com/e-es? 0i-+ i- in -+e same 0a4 -+a- -+e sense a//e-i-es1 for A3,inas1 >com/e-e? 0i-+
i- in -+e a=ra-ic man. T+e onl4 difference be-0een -+e sense a//e-i-es and -+e affectio commodi is -+a- -+e ob6ec- of
-+e former is 0+a- /leases -+e sensi-i2e a//re+ensi2e /o0ers1 0+ile -+e ob6ec- of -+e la--er is 0+a- /leases -+e
in-ellec-,al a//re+ensi2e /o0er1 namel4 <ea,-4. <o-+ of -+em1 ,nli=e -+e inclina-ion -o -+e >com/le-e good1? deal
solel4 0i-+ a limi-ed as/ec- of goodness; -+e former 0i-+ -+e sensible good1 -+e la--er 0i-+ -+e >con-em/la-able?
good. <o-+ of -+ese com/e-ing a//e-i-es s/ring onl4 from a na-,ral1 /reAin-ellec-i2e lo2e of friends+i/ for m4self;
no a//re+ension of m4 o0n 0or-+iness is necessar41 and +ence -+ese a//e-i-es are no- in-rinsicall4 meas,red
-+ereb41 b,- re3,ire -+is meas,re -o be im/osed b4 an in-ellec-,al a//re+ension of m4 /ro/er /lace in -+e ,ni2erse
70+ic+ is done b4 -+e affectio iustitiae -+ro,g+ recogniHing -+a- m4 God and1 -o an e.-en-1 m4 fello0 crea-,res
deser2e -o be lo2ed more -+an m4self. T+is does no- in2ol2e se/ara-ing free 0ill from -+e ra-ional a//re+ension of
-+e good 9or as <oler /,-s i-1 belie2ing -+a- >-+e 0ill +as i-s o0n reasons?
F@
:1 b,- -+e con-rar4. I- does no- e2en
in2ol2e roo-ing -+e con-ingenc4 of free c+oice in -+e 0ill in an4 0a4 in 0+ic+ A3,inas does no- do so; for $co-,s
as for A3,inas1 i- is -+e 0ill8s /ro2ince and -+e 0ill8s d,-4 -o con-rol 0+a- -+e in-ellec- considers in order -+a- sin
F
<oler1 1G.
F@
<oler1 14.
1E
ma4 no- ens,e from fla0ed1 malAfoc,sed considera-ion.
F4
I- seems1 -+en1 -+a- no dangero,s s,rger4 is re3,ired -o
a//l4 -+is >/a-c+? -o A3,inas8 -+eor41 and -o -ransform all sin in-o a form of akrasia.
De- is e2en -+is >/a-c+? so foreign -o A3,inas8 mind af-er all5 T0o /oin-s in /ar-ic,lar seem -o indica-e
-+a- i- is no-. Firs-1 -+ere is -+e fac- -+a- A3,inas a--rib,-es -+e fall of -+e angels -o pride7and /ride1 of co,rse1 is
mo-i2a-ed b4 a -oo +eig+-ened a0areness of one8s o0n e.cellence.
FG
T+o,g+ $-. T+omas1 in disc,ssing -+e fall of
-+e angels1 does no- gi2e an4 reason for 0+4 -+e angels 0o,ld +a2e foc,sed e.cessi2el4 on -+eir o0n e.cellence
-o -+e de-rimen- of con-em/la-ing -+a- of God1
FF
+e is a- leas- clear in +is disc,ssion of /ride -+a- i- is essen-iall4
e3,i2alen- -o -+e lo2e of -+a- e.cellence;
F7
-+e 3,es-ion -+en becomes 0+e-+er -+a- lo2e results from1 or is ra-+er
-+e cause of1 -+e in-ellec-8s foc,sing on -+a- e.cellence -+a- -+en im/edes considera-ion of God8s e.cellence1
,l-ima-el4 res,l-ing in con-em/- for Him and His r,le. I 0o,ld arg,e -+a- i- is in fac- -+e cause ra-+er -+an 9or a-
leas- as 0ell as: -+e effec-;
F8
and -+is brings ,s -o -+e second /oin-.
A3,inas1 0+en +e disc,sses -+e ca,ses of lo2e1 claims -+a- all lo2e is based on li=eness1 0+ic+ can be of
-+ree =inds' li=eness in ac-,ali-4 90+en lo2er and belo2ed s+are -+e same 3,ali-4:1 li=eness in /o-en-iali-4 90+en
-+e belo2ed +as a 3,ali-4 -+a- -+e lo2er lac=s1 and 0o,ld see= -o gain:1 and s,bs-an-ial >li=eness? or ,nion 90+ic+
is 0+a- e2er4 ra-ional crea-,re +as -o +imself:. T+e firs-1 for A3,inas1 is -+e so,rce of friends+i/Alo2e 9b4 0+ic+ 0e
ma=e -+e +a//iness of -+e belo2ed o,r o0n:; -+e second is -+e so,rce of conc,/iscenceAlo2e 90+ere 0e 0o,ld
see= -o fill o,r em/-iness b4 gaHing ,/on1 or o-+er0ise /ossessing1 -+e belo2ed:; and -+e -+ird is -+e so,rce of selfA
lo2e. A3,inas -+en goes on -o +old -+a- >a man lo2es +imself more -+an ano-+er' beca,se +e is one 0i-+ +imself
s,bs-an-iall41 0+ereas 0i-+ ano-+er +e is one onl4 in -+e li=eness of some form.?
FE
T+is is a fascina-ing /oin-. %,r
friends+i/Alo2e for o-+ers is roo-ed in li=enessAofAac-,ali-41 a- leas- -o -+e e.-en- -+a- o,r in-ellec-s and 0ills m,s-
be noble if 0e are -o a//recia-e -+e nobili-4 of ano-+er1 and 0ill +is good beca,se of i- 9a br,-is+ man canno- lo2e a
sain-:; and -+is li=eness m,s- be in-ellec-,all4 a//re+ended. %,r s,bs-an-ial ,nion 0i-+ o,rsel2es1 +o0e2er1 need
no-; i- is pre/intellective1 li=e $co-,s8 affectio commodi. Moreo2er1 beca,se i- is /reAin-ellec-i2e1 i- ma=es /erfec-
sense -+a- i- 0o,ld no- be limi-ed or s,b6ec- -o an4 in-ernal meas,re; s,c+ a meas,re co,ld onl4 be im/osed 0+en
F4
6rd. II1 d. F1 3. .1 n. G8 Ked. Ba-. 8L1 G4' >Po-es- enim K2ol,n-asL a2er-ere in-ellec-,m ne s/ec,le-,r -alia s/ec,labilia circa
3,ae inclinare-,r1 e- -ene-,r a2er-ere si s/ec,la-io eor,m si- /ecca-,m ma-eriali-er in-ellec-,i 2el formali-er 2ol,n-a-i.? (f. also 6pus
o5oniense II1 d. 41 33. 1A41 nn. 1!A111 for a disc,ssion of +o0 -+e 0ill mo2es -+e in-ellec- for $co-,s.
FG
ST I1 3. F@1 ar-. and 7.
FF
(f. Hoffmann1 >A3,inas and In-ellec-,al De-erminism1? 14FA147.
F7
ST IIAII1 3. 1F1 ar-. ad 4 and ar-. @ ad 4.
F8
$ee DM 1F.@ co.
FE
ST IAII1 3. 71 ar-. @.
!
0e ac3,ire a friends+i/Alo2e for o,rsel2es of -+e same sor- as 0+a- 0e +a2e for o,r friends7i.e.1 one based ,/on
-+e li=eness be-0een -+e >fi--edness? of o,r in-ellec-s and 0ills -o a//recia-e and lo2e nobili-41 and o,r o0n
a//re+ended nobili-4. $,c+ a lo2e 0o,ld be1 in one sense1 0ea=er -+an -+e firs-1 beca,se i- is based ,/on a less
-ig+-A=ni- ,nion 9li=eness 2s. s,bs-an-ial ,nion:; b,- in ano-+er sense 9and -+is A3,inas does no- seem -o +a2e
realiHed: i- 0o,ld be s-ronger1 for i- 0o,ld be on a +ig+er1 ra-ional /lane. $,c+ a lo2e1 ra-+er -+an /lacing one8s self
a- -+e cen-er of one8s ,ni2erse and -+,s 2iola-ing -+e /rece/- of c+ari-4 as -+e firs- one1 based ,/on s,bs-an-ial
,nion1 does1 0o,ld reg,la-e -+a- firs- lo2e b4 lo2ing oneself only based ,/on -+e meas,re of one8s real 9and +ig+l4
limi-ed: e.cellence1 -+,s allo0ing o-+er friends+i/Alo2es 9abo2e all -+e friends+i/Alo2e of c+ari-4: -o -a=e /ride of
/lace. %f co,rse1 -o main-ain -+a- i- is reall4 /ossible -o lo2e oneself 0i-+ too !reat a friends+i/Alo2e 0o,ld
in2ol2e a f,ndamen-al res+a/ing of -+e 0a4 in 0+ic+ man4 modern T+omis-s ,nders-and T+omis-ic
e,daemonism;
7!
i- 0o,ld also in2ol2e c+anging some =e4 -ene-s of A3,inas8 o0n doc-rine1 s,c+ as -+e abo2eA
men-ioned belief -+a- one necessaril4 lo2es oneself mos- of all1 or -+e famo,s claim -+a- +a//iness resides in an ac-
of -+e in-ellec- ra-+er -+an in ac- of -+e 0ill 9since one can onl4 claim -+a- o,r c+ief goal is -o recei2e a goodAforAus
if o,r c+ief friends+i/Alo2e is +eld -o be for o,rsel2es:. #one-+eless1 I belie2e -+a- m,c+ of -+e fo,nda-ion for -+ese
c+anges is alread4 im/lici- in T+omism1 -o -+e /oin- -+a- -+e4 0o,ld no- be so m,c+ c+anges as -+e remo2al of
lingering inconsis-encies 0i-+ A3,inas8 core /rinci/les 9of 0+ic+ -+e s,/remac4 of -+e lo2e of c+ari-41 and -+e
correla-i2e e2il of inordina-e selfAlo2e1 is cer-ainl4 one:.
71
In s,m1 -+en1 i- seems -+a- $co-,s8 do,bleAaffec-ion
-+eor41 nonAe,daemonis-ic as i- is1 is no- in conflic- 0i-+ A3,inas8 e-+ical -+eor4 b,- ra-+er sim/l4 adds -o i- and
sol2es an im/or-an- /roblem -+erein.
7!
(f. (+ris-o/+er Toner1 >Angelic $in in A3,inas and $co-,s and -+e Genesis of $ome (en-ral %b6ec-ions -o (on-em/orar4
Bir-,e "-+ics1? The Thomist FE 9!!G:' 7EA1G1 for a good /or-ra4al of a -4/ical neoAT+omis- ,nders-anding of e,daemonism.
71
(f.1 for e.am/le1 S%# <=. III1 c+. 1!E1 I7' >al-+o,g+ na-,ral inclina-ion of -+e 0ill is /resen- in e2er4 2oli-ional agen- -o 0ill
and -o lo2e i-s o0n /erfec-ion so -+a- i- canno- 0ill -+e con-rar4 of -+is1 4e- i- is no- so na-,rall4 im/lan-ed in -+e agen- -o so order i-s
/erfec-ion -o ano-+er end1 -+a- i- canno- fail in regard -o i-1 for -+e +ig+er end is no- /ro/er -o i-s na-,re1 b,- -o a +ig+er na-,re. I- is lef-1
-+en1 -o -+e agen-8s c+oice1 -o order +is o0n /ro/er /erfec-ion -o a +ig+er end.? T+is s,rel4 seems a- leas- close -o $co-,s8 re3,iremen-
-+a- a crea-,re1 in order -o ac- morall41 m,s- s,bordina-e i-s o0n friends+i/Alo2e for i-self -o o-+er +ig+er1 more im/or-an- friends+i/A
lo2es70+ic+ 0e are not bo,nd -o do b4 na-,ral necessi-4.
<I<LI%GCAPHD
A3,inas1 $-. T+omas. De Malo. Transla-ed b4 Cic+ard Cegan. #e0 Dor=' %.ford )ni2ersi-4 Press1 !!@.
VVVVVVVV. De eritate. Transla-ed b4 Cober- &. M,lligan1 $N1 Names B. McGl4nn1 $N1 and Cober- &. $c+mid-1
$N. (+icago' Henr4 Cegner4 (o.1 1EG4.
VVVVVVVV. Summa Theolo!iae. Transla-ed b4 -+e Fa-+ers of -+e "nglis+ Dominican Pro2ince1 1E47.
<oler1 No+n. >Transcending -+e #a-,ral' D,ns $co-,s on -+e T0o Affec-ions of -+e &ill.? American %atholic
$hilosophical 3uarterly F7 91EE@:' 1!EA1F.
Gallag+er1 Da2id. >Free (+oice and Free N,dgmen- in T+omas A3,inas.? Archiv f"r #eschichte der $hilosophie
7F 91EE4:' 47A77.
GriseH1 Germain. >T+e <asic Princi/les of #a-,ral La0' A Ce/l4 -o Cal/+ McInern4.? American *ournal of
*urisprudence F K1E81L' 1A@1.
Hoffmann1 Tobias. >A3,inas and In-ellec-,al De-erminism' T+e Tes- (ase of Angelic $in.? Archiv f"r #eschichte
der $hilosophie 8E 9!!7:' 1A1GF.
VVVVVVVV. >D,ns $co-,s8 Ac-ion T+eor4 in -+e (on-e.- of His Angelolog4.? For-+coming in *ohannes Duns
Scotus 1.89/2889: Die philosophischen $erspectiven seines 4erkes ; Investi!ations into his $hilosophy.
"di-ed b4 L,dger Honnefelder and Hannes MT+le. MUns-er' Asc+endorff.
Ming1 Pe-er. >$co-,s8s Ce6ec-ion of Anselm' T+e T0oA&ills T+eor4.? For-+coming in -+e $co-,sA(ongress
Proceedings.
Lee1 Pa-ric=. >T+e Cela-ion <e-0een In-ellec- and &ill in Free (+oice According -o A3,inas and $co-,s.? The
Thomist 4E 91E8G:' @1A@4.
Mars+ner1 &illiam. >Does Prac-ical Ceason $-ar- 0i-+ Good or 0i-+ (om/le-e Good5? +aith , -eason F
K!!1L' @@EA@78.
McInern41 Cal/+. >T+e Princi/les of #a-,ral La0.? American *ournal of *urisprudence G K1E8!L' 1A1G.
$co-,s1 <l. D,ns. 6pera 6mnia. "di-ed b4 (arol,s <ali e- al. Ba-ican (i-4' T4/is Pol4glo--is Ba-icanis1 1EG!ff.
VVVVVVVV. Duns Scotus on the 4ill and Morality. Transla-ed b4 Allan &ol-er; edi-ed b4 &illiam A. Fran=.
&as+ing-on1 D(' (a-+olic )ni2ersi-4 Press1 1EE7.
Toner1 (+ris-o/+er. >Angelic $in in A3,inas and $co-,s and -+e Genesis of $ome (en-ral %b6ec-ions -o
(on-em/orar4 Bir-,e "-+ics.? The Thomist FE 9!!G:' 7EA1G.
&illiams1 T+omas. >Ho0 $co-,s $e/ara-es Morali-4 from Ha//iness.? American %atholic $hilosophical
3uarterly FE 91EEG:' 4GA44G