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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
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DOI: 10.1243/13506501JET535
2009 223: 741 Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology
E Badisch, M Kirchganer and F Franek
Continuous impact/abrasion testing: Influence of testing parameters on wear behaviour
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SPECIAL ISSUE PAPER 741
Continuous impact/abrasion testing: inuence
of testing parameters on wear behaviour
E Badisch
1
, MKirchganer
2
, and F Franek
1,3
1
AC
2
T Research GmbH, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
2
Castolin GmbH, Vienna, Austria
3
Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
The manuscript was received on 4 September 2008 and was accepted after revision for publication on 23 January 2009.
DOI: 10.1243/13506501JET535
Abstract: In many elds of industry, erosion is the dominant wear mechanism that reduces
the lifetime of costly machine parts such as crushers, hammer bars, or cutting edges. Particles
of specic mechanical and geometrical properties hit the surface with a certain energy and,
under different angles of impact, cause abrasion and surface fatigue, or, in the case of high single
particle impact energy, immediate damage by exceeding the rupture strength. Different types
of wearfacing alloy layers applied through welding are used to protect exposed surfaces. The
structure of state-of-the-art welding alloys is always based on multi-phase systems containing
effective hard phases based mainly on borides and carbides of W, Cr, Nb, and others.
Within this work the so-called continuous impact abrasion test was established to compare
different wearfacing alloys as described above and to develop a relation between parameters of
the tribological system and properties of multi-phase materials. In the rst step, morphology,
energy, and size of the abrasive particles were varied and applied onto two different Fe-based
wearfacing alloys. Observations on the phenomena of wear on the test samples accompanied by
a quantitative evaluation of volumetric wear loss nally resulted in dening a model that enables
a prognosis oriented consideration of wear. It was found within this study that wear phenomena
in the microstructure have to be clearly differentiated according to the total energy applied and
the impact energy of a single particle.
Keywords: impact/abrasion testing, wearfacing alloy, abrasion, impact, wear
1 INTRODUCTION
Particle erosion is typically characterized by an abra-
sive component of wear and, depending on the num-
ber of cycles, a certain amount of surface fatigue. If
single particles provide sufcient energy, impact often
results in immediate brittle or ductile fracture. During
impact, high loads are applied within a relatively short
contact time (s), resulting inhigh deformationveloc-
ities. The velocity of hitting particles determines load
and energy. The single particle is slowed by dv/dt. The
impetus is changed by dJ /dt, which is correlated to
the force F = mdv/dt. This force can lead to fracture
or material decohesion. The overview of the sum of
Corresponding author: AC
2
T Research GmbH, Viktor Kaplan-
Strae 2, 2700Wiener Neustadt, Austria.
email: badisch@ac2t.at
effects of a single particle hitting a surface is given by
Uetz [1] inFig. 1. By using the theoretical work of John-
son based on the theories of Hertz, the force charac-
teristics incorrelationwithcontact time and the maxi-
mumpressureinthecontact areacanbecalculated[2].
ZumGahr denedfollowing damaging mechanisms
at single or cyclic impacts for erosive wear: micro-
chipping and -ploughing; micro-fracture; extrusion
or lips formation of material at the borders of the
impact crater; fatigue based on crack formation at the
surface or beneaththe surface; andablationandplate-
and wave-formation on the surface [3]. With increas-
ing size and density of hitting abrasives as well as
at higher impacting velocity and energy, the forma-
tion of further-on removed lips at the border of the
crater is enhanced, thus resulting in higher material
loss. Brittle materials behave worst at normal impacts
(angle of hitting abrasives 90
), which means that

with increasing material hardness and thus decreased
JET535 IMechE 2009 Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part J: J. Engineering Tribology
742 E Badisch, MKirchganer, and F Franek
Fig. 1 Summary of effects and energy balance at single
impact [1]
toughness the wear rate increases [4]. It was shown
by Engel [5] that with increasing particle hardness a
high level of wear occurs because plastic deformation
is displaced from the erodent into the eroded surface.
The wear mechanisms of hard phase (HP) fracture
are dened by Babout et al. [6] based on exceeding
a critical normal stress or by continuous failure at the
interface HP/matrix due to plastic deformation of the
matrix. Higher strengthof the matrix results infracture
of HPs whereas at lower strength plastic deformation
dominates.
The behaviour of homogeneous materials against
surface fatigue can be improved by high strength
and alternatively high endurance strength. This
behaviour was observed by Dogan et al. [7], where
the impact/abrasion behaviour improved at increased
material hardness. The size of HPs has to be consid-
ered as well, especially their relation to the affecting
abrasive particles. Continuous impact abrasion tests
(CIATs) under low impact loads are comparable to
low-stress abrasion. Earlier observations have been
reported in reference [8]: by using ne quartz sand
(1.62.2 mm) a lowlevel of wear was observedwhereas
the high energy level of coarse corundumparticles (5
10 mm) resulted in a severe wear regime obtained for
multi-phase materials. Guo et al. [9] and Berns [10]
showed that under cyclic normal impacts the mech-
anisms of fatigue of the matrix and micro-fracture of
the HPs dominate in multi-phase materials. HPs do
not wear at the beginning of loading, but because of
the reduced supporting effect and the low fracture
toughness in the loading process.
The present work has the main goal of evaluating
the inuence of abrasive particles in the CIAT system
where morphology, shape, size, and impact energy of
theparticles arevariedinorder tocorrelateparameters
of the tribological systemwith properties of the multi-
phase materials. Theoretical calculations of the single
impact contact and furthermore a model for wear pre-
dictionbasedonmaterial-relatedparameters of multi-
phase hardfacing alloys are the focus of this work.
2 EXPERIMENT
2.1 Materials and welding parameters
Two different hardfacing alloys produced as ux cored
wires on iron basis were selected and welded onto
1.0038 mild steel plates with dimensions of 195
125 6 mm (ferritic/perlitic structure with <0.15 per
cent C). Thechemical compositionof thealloys is com-
piledinTable 1. Table 2 shows the welding parameters,
which are standard in practical applications, e.g. on
crusher systems. The welding was carried out in the
at position in two layers. For all hardfacing alloys,
weldinggas andwirediameter werekept constant at Ar
+2.5 per cent CO
2
and 1.6 mm, respectively. The inter-
pass temperature was kept at a level of 170200

C
(see Table 2). The nal samples were cut out of the
original plates by water jet cutting to avoid any heat
effect on the nal overlay.
2.2 Continuous impact abrasion test
Wear tests were performed with a special impeller-
tumbler apparatus (combining impact and abrasion
wear). The CIAT consists of an outer tumbler slowly
Table 1 Chemical composition of the Fe-based hard-
facing alloys investigated
Chemical composition (wt %)
Sample Fe C Cr Nb Others (Mo, V, W, Ti, Ni)
A Basis <1 6 3 1.5
B Basis 5.5 21 7 1
Table 2 Welding parameters of the Fe-based hardfacing
alloys investigated
Current Voltage Interpass Wire speed
Sample (A) (V) temperature (
C) (m/min)
A 175 22.9 168 4.4
B 247 27.5 197 8.4
Fig. 2 Continuous impact abrasion tester (visualization
of particle ow)
Proc. IMechE Vol. 223 Part J: J. Engineering Tribology JET535 IMechE 2009
Continuous impact/abrasion testing 743
Fig. 3 Abrasives used within this study: (a) steel grit in newcondition (grain size <1 mm); (b) steel
grit used in CIAT; (c) quartz sand in new condition (grain size 1.62.2 mm); (d) quartz sand
used in CIAT; (e) corundum in new condition (grain size 510 mm); (f ) corundum used in
CIAT; (g) steel balls used in CIAT (grain size 4.8 mm); and (h) glass balls used in CIAT (grain
size 5 mm)
rotating at a rotation speed of 60 r/min and a fast-
rotating inner impeller (650 r/min) on which the
testing specimens are mounted (Fig. 2) [1113]. The
tumbler is lled with a dened amount of abrasives
andprovides a controlledowof abrasive particles hit-
ting the fast-moving test specimens (see Fig. 2). Due to
the kinematical situation, the particles get in contact
with the specimen (surface exposed to abrasive parti-
cles, 25 10 mm) at an impact velocity of 10 m/s.
2.3 Abrasive particles
Within this study ve different kinds of abrasives were
used: very ne steel grit of grain size <1 mm and
quartz sand of 1.62.2 mm, respectively. The shape of
these particles can be observed in Figs 3(a) and (c).
For higher impact loading, coarse corundum parti-
cles at a grain size of 510 mm (Fig. 3(e)) were used
as well as steel balls at a diameter of 4.8 mm and glass
balls at a diameter of 5.0 mm. The total mass of abra-
sive grains was set to 5 kg for ne abrasives and to
1 kg for coarser abrasives (corundum particles, glass
balls, and steel balls) at a testing duration of 60 and
20 min, respectively. The tests are repeated three times
for goodapproximation. Toobtainadirect comparison
between CIAT tests with the different testing condi-
tions possible, the wear rate is given in volume loss
divided by testing time and mass of abrasive particles
used. A summary of the properties of the abrasive par-
ticles used is given in Table 3. There the differences
in hardness, density, and E-modulus are discussed.
Furthermore, in Table 3 the single particle energy and
the total particle energy deposited on a surface are
listed. The total particle energy deposited is calcu-
lated by the sumof the total number of single particles
impacting the test (25 10 mm
2
) during the testing.
The highest total energy is deposited by using steel
balls followed by corundum particles with 8190 and
5502 J, respectively.
2.4 Characterization of microstructure and wear
behaviour
Characterization of microstructure was done with
optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). Quantitative analysis of the
microstructure was carried out by the use of Intronic
Image C Software. Hardness measurements were per-
formed with a standard Vickers hardness technique
HV5for macroscopic hardness. Todeterminethehard-
ness of each phase in microstructure, e.g. hard parti-
cles and metallic matrix, HV0.1 was used. Quantitative
wear characterization was carried out by gravimetric
mass loss of the testing specimen during wear testing.
An accuracy of 0.1 mg was obtained for the specimen
mass loss measurements. Qualitative characterization
of worn surfaces and worn edges was carried out by
evaluating macroscopic and cross-section images and
by SEM investigations.
3 RESULTS ANDDISCUSSION
3.1 Microstructure and hardness of materials
investigated
The characterization of microstructure was done with
OMafter etching with5 vol%alcoholic nitric acid. Typ-
ical microstructures of the welded deposits are shown
in Figs 4(a) and (b). Alloy A is mainly martensitic
with some islands of retained austenite. The hard-
ness of the martensite is 780 HV0.1. Fine primary Nb
carbides are well distributed throughout the micro-
section (see Fig. 4(a)). The content, shape, and size
of Nb carbides are summarized in Table 4. The con-
tent of Nb carbides is 7 per cent and the size is
<3 m. Alloy B consists of primary Fe/Cr carbides
with a micro hardness of roughly 1600 HV0.1 in a lede-
buritic matrix. The content of Fe/Cr carbides is 57.1
per cent and carbide size is 30200 m (see Table 4).
The chemistry of Fe/Cr carbides in hypereutectic
FeCrCalloys is describedto be M
7
C
3
structure [1416].
The hardness values of the ledeburitic matrix, which
are determined to 800 HV0.1, are close to previous
investigations [17, 18]. Furthermore, small and evenly
distributedprimary Nbcarbides (light grey inFig. 4(b))
at a volume content of 5 per cent can be detected,
which are supposed to be of major importance for
increasing the resistance against erosion and abrasion
due to their high hardness [17, 19].
Table 3 Summary of the properties of the abrasives used within this study [19]
Steel grit Quartz sand Corundum Steel balls Glass balls
Size (mm) 0.21 1.62.2 510 4.8 5
Hardness (HV) 700 10001200 20972598 780 600
Density (g/cm
3
) 7.8 2.65 4.0 7.8 2.5
E-modulus (GPa) 210 70 335 210 70
Abrasive mass (kg) 5 5 1 1 1
Test duration (min) 60 60 20 20 20
Energy/particle (mJ) 0.06 0.4 28 21 8.26
Particles/test area (25 10 mm
2
) 1812 134 5 10 10
Total energy on surface at 1 test (J) 4241 2088 1834 2730 1074
Scaled at 1 h 4241 2088 5502 8190 3222
Fig. 4 Microstructures of the Fe-basedhardfacing alloys
investigated: (a) martensitic FeCrNbC alloy and
(b) hypereutectic FeCrCNb alloy
Table 4 Summary of the HPs of the Fe-based hardfacing
alloys investigated
Content of Size of Shape of
Sample Type of HP HP (vol %) HP (m) HP
A Nb carbides 7 <3 Spattered
B Fe/Cr carbides 57.1 30200 Columnar
Nb carbides 5.4 <7 Granular
3.2 Erosion at lowsingle particle impact loading
Figure 5 gives the total mass loss for the different
Fe-based hardfacings in dependence of the particle
impacting energy based on the different abrasives
Fig. 5 Comparison of the total mass loss of the differ-
ent Fe-based hardfacings in CIAT in dependence
of the particle impacting energy based on the
different abrasives investigated
used. By using ne steel grit (impact energy/particle,
0.06 mJ), only low mass loss can be detected whereas
no signicant differences between alloy A and B can
be seen. The abrasives used are compared to fresh
steel grit in Figs 3(a) and (b). No signicant change in
shape and size can be observed after the test. For ne-
grained quartz sand, a slight enhancement in mass
loss compared to ne steel grit can be observed in
CIAT. The wear mechanisms are closer to an erosive
process, which explains the higher wear resistance of
alloy B due to the higher hardness and the presence
of a large amount of hard and wear-resistant primary
carbides (see Table 4). After the test a small amount of
quartz powder can be detected caused by the fracture
of quartz grains during hitting the specimen (compare
Figs 3(c) and (d)). By using glass balls, steel balls, and
corundum particles as abrasives, the single particle
impact energy is given as 8.26, 21, and 28 mJ, respec-
tively. In general, the mass loss of alloy Bis higher than
that of alloy A at high impact loading, which is in good
agreement with a strong interaction of abrasives with
the HPs where micro-cracking of the HPs dominates
resulting inincreased mass loss. Highest mass loss can
be observed by using steel balls (see Fig. 5).
High and low levels of wear can be observed for
alloys A and B in Fig. 6, depending on the impacting
energy where the absolute mass loss during testing is
calculated. This achieves a wear rate that makes direct
comparison of the different testing procedures (varia-
tion of test duration and abrasive mass) possible. The
wear rate is calculated by volume loss during testing
divided by testing time and mass of abrasive parti-
cles used. It is seen that for single particle energies
>8.26 mJ, the embrittlement of HPs is signicant for
the progress of material loss. At 8.26 mJ single parti-
cle impact, the wear rate of alloy B containing >60 per
cent HPs is slightly increased, which indicates that for
this low wear rate failure of HPs is becoming domi-
nant. However the wear is located at the low level of
wear. Exceeding this critical single particle energy the
wear rate increases signicantly due to strong interac-
tion of the abrasives with the HPs, causing their brittle
fracture (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 High/lowwear level inCIATfor different Fe-based
hardfacings investigated
Summing up, it can be pointed out that by using
ne steel grit and ne quartz sand the abrasive com-
ponent dominates, which means that the proportion
of abrasion is high compared to fatigue and impact.
The loading situation is too low for signicant fatigue
and single impacts are not strong enough for material
separation. The worn surface is typical for rolling
abrasive wear caused by steel grit and quartz sand.
3.3 Erosion at high single particle impact
3.3.1 Calculation of the elastic impact for the
CIAT system
The loading situation in the contact area has been
considered based on the theory of Hertz, with the
aim of evaluating the inuence of the microstructure
of Fe-based hardfacings as well as abrasive parti-
cles (comparison of steel and glass balls) itself on
the loading situation in the contact area. Starting
from the classical theory of impact between friction-
free elastic bodies, loading at the impact of glass,
alternatively steel balls, onto the specimen surface
in CIAT is considered as a discontinuous increase of
load in small increments, for each step calculating
the deformation as for astatic contact. Both bodies
come close together during the impact by a distance
z (compression) in the z-direction (perpendicular
to the specimen surface). Acting forces of the differ-
ent abrasive particles (F = m(dv/dt)) are calculated
basedontheimpact velocityof 10 m/s accordingtothe
kinematic situation described in section 2.2. In the lit-
erature a contact time of 5 s and contact pressures
of 5001700 MPa can be found to be typical for similar
conditions [19], estimating a contact area of 1 mm
2
.
These values can be enhanced signicantly at con-
tacting edges or tops. Very high forces are generated
for brittle materials. Reasons for this are the reduced
deformationbehaviour of the HPs anda very hightime
lag. The calculation of impact forces in conditions of
elastic impact enables an estimation of acting forces
and deformations in the contact area. Calculations
were carried out based on Johnson (Table 5, equa-
tions (1) to (12)). The fundamentals for calculation are
Table 5 Fundamentals for calculation of the elastic impact in CIAT [2]
F(t) = m dv/dt = m
1
dv
1
/dt = m
2
dv
2
/dt Force F (1)
F = (4/3) R
1/2
E
z
3/2
= K z
3/2
Force F in dependence of R, E
, and z (2)
1/R = 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2
R Composite curvature (3)
R
1
Radius of body 1 (ball)
R
2
Radius of body 2 (specimen)
1/E
= (1
1
)/E
1
+ (1
2
)/E
2
E
Composite modulus (4)

E
1
Modulus of ball
E
2
Modulus of specimen
1/m = 1/m
1
+ 1/m
2
Masses (5)
z
= [(5 m v
2
z
)/4K
]
2/5
z
Maximum compression (6)

K
Parameter bundle ((4/3) R

1/2
E
)
T
co
= 2 t
= 2.94
z
/v
z
T
co
Total time of contact (7)
t
Time until maximum compression

a
= [(3FR)/(4E
)]
1/3
Radius of contact area (8)
p
0
= (3F)/(2 a
2
) Maximum pressure (9)
max
= (1 2 )p
0
/3 Maximum tensile stress at r = a and z=0 (surface) (10)
max
= 0.31 p
0
Maximum shear stress at r = 0 and z = 0.48 a (11)
F(t) = F
max
sin(t/2t
) Force in dependence of time; 0 t 2 t
(12)
Table 6 Basis data for impact parameter calculation
System E
1
(GPa) E
2
(GPa)
1

2
E
(GPa) R
(m) m(kg)
Steel ball on alloy A 210 247 0.3 0.30 124.7 0.0025 0.513 10
3
Steel ball on alloy B 210 303 0.3 0.28 135.5 0.0025 0.513 10
3
Glass ball on alloy A 70 247 0.23 0.30 58.8 0.0025 0.171 10
3
Glass ball on alloy B 70 303 0.23 0.28 135.5 0.0025 0.171 10
3
Table 7 Impact parameters calculated for the elastic impact in the CIAT system for steel balls and
glass balls, respectively
z
T
co
P
max
P
0
a

max

max
System (m) (s) (N) (N/mm
2
) (m) (N/mm
2
) (N/mm
2
)
Steel ball on alloy A 35.9 10.5 1787 9478 299 1263 2938
Steel ball on alloy B 34.6 10.15 2102 10 528 308 1488 3348
Glass ball on alloy A 31.3 9.1 683 4271 280 569 1324
Glass ball on alloy B 30.7 9.0 691 4316 277 605 1344
Fig. 7 Dependence of the force on the impact time for
different Fe-based hardfacings inCIATcalculated
by Johnson (steel ball 5 mm diameter)
Fig. 8 Dependence of the force on the impact time for
different Fe-based hardfacings inCIATcalculated
by Johnson (glass ball 5 mm diameter)
listed in Table 6. The results gained by calculation are
summarized in Table 7 and Figs 7 and 8.
The results indicate quantitatively that for hardfac-
ings withhigher hardness andhigher E-modulus (alloy
B) the loading conditions are more severe, resulting in
enhanced failure, either fracture or dissection of HPs.
For particles with lower impact energy (e.g. glass balls
in Fig. 8), the differences are minor. Furthermore, it
has to be considered in the calculations that plas-
tic deformation can occur in the specimen at least
on a microscale. This was detected for the matrix of
alloy B for example. Calculation of the contact pres-
sure values indicates that by using glass balls under
givenconditions the limit of the elastic deformationof
the specimen is not yet exceeded; contrary behaviour
is observed for steel balls. Deviations to be consid-
eredinthe calculations may result fromdetermination
of E-modulus by nanoindentation, which in general
gives very high values. Nevertheless, the relations of
values are in the right scale.
3.3.2 Discussion of CIAT results at high single
particle impact energy
The total energy on a surface during testing is sum-
marized for the different abrasives used in Table 3.
It can be seen that the total energy on a surface for
corundumparticles, steel balls, and glass balls is 1834,
2730, and 1074 J, respectively. After CIAT with corun-
dum particles, the broken ne fraction of corundum
generated during the test was measured by grading.
The brokenne fraction(grainsize <1 mm) was deter-
mined to 17 per cent when testing against alloy B
(see Fig. 3(f )). This indicates that for this erodent, com-
paredtotheother abrasives, muchmorekineticenergy
is deposited in the crushing of particles whereas by
using other abrasives energy is essentially consumed
by rebound and is not inserted into the specimen sur-
face [20]. Slight fracture effects can be observed for
glass balls after CIAT (see Fig. 3(h)); no signicantly
changed shape of the steel balls can be detected after
CIAT (see Fig. 3(g)).
The mass loss during CIAT testing for high single
particle impact (glass balls, steel balls, and corundum
particles) is summarized in Fig. 9. For alloy B higher
mass loss can be detected. At 21 mJ particle impact,
highest differences in mass loss can be observed. A
decrease in mass loss can be detected for alloy B at
28 mJ compared to 21 mJ single particle impact. The
reason therefore is a reduced total energy for corun-
dum particles (28 mJ) compared to steel balls (21 mJ)
by 30 per cent and the fracture of corundum particles
during testing (see Fig. 9). The wear mechanism for
alloy B is given mainly due to fracture of HPs (content
of HPs inalloy B, 63per cent); inthe same way the lede-
buritic matrix is strongly plastic deformed, which can
be observed in Fig. 10. For alloy A, a steady increase
in mass loss with increasing particle energy can be
observed in Fig. 9. This behaviour can be explained by
severe abrasive wear conditions and plastic deforma-
tion at the specimen edge (Fig. 11), whereas fracture
Fig. 9 Dependence of mass loss in CIAT on the sin-
gle particle impact energy for different Fe-based
hardfacings
Fig. 10 Plastic deformationand carbide fracture of alloy
B after CIAT (single particle impact 28 mJ) [12]
Fig. 11 SEMimage of a typical worn edge of alloy Aafter
CIAT (single particle impact, 28 mJ)
of abrasive particles does not play a signicant role.
This is in good agreement with the observations in
section 3.3.1, where higher contact forces are reported
for alloy B compared to alloy A. The higher the con-
tact forces, the higher the demand on the fracture
toughness of abrasive particles to withstand fracture
effects.
3.4 Wear modelling of CIAT at high impact loading
This section predicts wear in the high-level regime
of the CIAT system based on a simplied model of
energy balance, with the aim of developing a rela-
tion between parameters of the tribological system
and properties of multi-phase materials. The sin-
gle particle impact energy is the main wear relevant
parameter and is therefore to be considered in the
modelling of deposited energy in the hardfacing. The
Table 8 Fundamentals for model formation that
enables a prognosis oriented consideration
of wear for multi-phase materials in the
CIAT system
W = kE
b
W Wear value (13)
k Wear coefcient depending
on material
E
b
Available energy rate for
fracture initiation
E
d
= n
r
E
kin
E
d
In material deposited
energy (J)
(14)
E
kin
Kinetic energy of single
particle (J)
n
r
= n n Theoretical number of
impacts
(15)
n
r
Reduced impacts by the
number of broken particles
Number of particles which
are not broken after the test
W
V
= E
d
/e
CIAT
W
V
Wear volume (mm
3
) (16)
e
CIAT
Apparent specic fracture
initiating energy density of the
material (J/mm
3
), parameter
which depends on the material
Fig. 12 Simplied model for the energy deposited in
surface of component
wear value is given by equation (13) in Table 8 in
terms of the available energy rate for fracture initiation
and a material-related wear coefcient. Furthermore,
the deposited energy E
d
has been calculated in equa-
tions (14) and (15) based on the kinetically deposited
energy E
kin
reduced by the ratio which is dissipated
by fracture of abrasives. The simplied model for the
deposited energy is depicted in Fig. 12, where the
abrasive particles are hitting normal to the surface
whereas no tangentially grooving movement of the
particles occurs. Thematerial inuencewhichmeans
the material specically damaging energy content is
considered by a critical energy density e
CIAT
. This crit-
ical energy density includes a plastic energy E
pl
, an
elastic rebound energy as well as an immediately frac-
ture initiating remaining energy E
R
. Wear volume can
be calculated by equation (16).
Vericationof the wear modelling has beendone for
alloy A by variation of single particle impact energy
Fig. 13 Correlation of wear rate of alloy A obtained in
CIAT with wear results gained by wear predic-
tion based on the wear model of equations (13)
to (16)
by using steel balls (21 mJ) as well as corundum par-
ticles at xed energies (15, 18, and 28 mJ). The results
obtained in the CIAT system in correlation with wear
datafrommodellingareillustratedinFig. 13. Apositive
correlation between measured and calculated wear
values of 0.96 exists, which means that measurement
andcalculationcorrelateby0.84. As depictedinFig. 13,
the calculated values tend to higher values compared
to measured ones. This deviation between measure-
ment in CIAT and calculation can be explained by
the interaction within the ow of particles, with
the result that the deposited energy is reduced sig-
nicantly. According to this effect, particle energy
has been deposited only partially onto the surface
area.
4 CONCLUSIONS
This work showed that testing parameters in CIAT
strongly inuence the wear behaviour of multiphase
materials.
1. The wear behaviour based on experiments in CIAT
shows a strong correlation between the single
particle impact energy and the abrasive particles.
2. Low wear rates in CIAT are observed for low single
particle impact energy (steel grit, quartz sand, and
glass balls) whereas for coarser particles (steel balls
and corundum particles) a much higher wear level
is obtained.
3. Fracture effects on abrasive particles are found
for high impact energy, which result in reduced
depositingenergy andthereforelower material loss.
4. Calculation of the loading situation for a single par-
ticle impact in the contact zone by Hertz shows
a good correlation of material properties, loading
conditions, and failure of HPs.
5. Interacting particles within the particle owlead to
deviations in the modelling of wear prediction in
CIAT.
Summing up, it can be claimed that wear phenom-
ena in the microstructure can be correlated to testing
parameters in CIAT.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was funded by theAustrian Kplus-Program
(governmental funding program for precompetitive
research) via the Austrian Research Promotion Agency
(FFG) and the TecNet Capital GmbH (Province of
Niedersterreich) and has been carried out within
the Austrian Center of Competence for Tribology
(AC
2
T Research GmbH). The authors are also grate-
ful to L. Ekres (IAESTE student) for helpful work in
the testing procedure and wear quantication and
to M. Varga (B.Sc.) for assistance with manuscript
preparation.
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), which means that

Composite modulus (4)

Maximum compression (6)

Parameter bundle ((4/3) R

Time until maximum compression

) Force in dependence of time; 0 t 2 t

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