Project on

Application of polymers
In
Defence & Railways
Submitted to
Ms. Ritima Banerjee
Prepared by:
Abhijeet Kumar 2k11/ps/001
Fiyanshu Kaka 2k11/ps/019

Deepak Hasija 2k11/ps/014

Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides, first produced
on February 28, 1935, by Wallace arothers at !u"ont#s research facility at the !u"ont $%perimental &tation'
(ylon
is one of the most commonly used polymers'


urrently, )e*lar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to body armor because of its
high tensile strength+to+weight ratio, by this measure it is 5 times stronger than steel on an e-ual weight basis'./0 1t
is
also used to make modern drumheads that hold up withstanding high impact' When used as a wo*en material, it is
suitable for mooring lines and other underwater applications'
2 similar fiber called 3waron with roughly the same chemical structure was de*eloped by 2k4o in the 1956s,
commercial production started in 1987, and 3waron is now manufactured by 3ei8in'
Introduction
Polymers in defence
Kevlar:-
9olecular formula .+:+7;/+:+(;+7;/+(;+0n
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para+aramid synthetic
fiber, related to other aramids such as (ome% and
3echnora' !e*eloped at !u"ont in 1975, this high strength
material was first commercially used in the early
1956s as a replacement for steel in racing tires' 3ypically it is
spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as
such or as an ingredient in composite material components'
urrently, )e*lar has many applications, ranging from bicycle
tires and racing sails to body armor because of its
high tensile strength+to+weight ratio, by this measure it is 5
times stronger than steel on an e-ual weight basis' 1t is
also used to make modern drumheads that hold up withstanding
high impact' When used as a wo*en material, it is
suitable for mooring lines and other underwater applications'
2 similar fiber called 3waron with roughly the same chemical
structure was de*eloped by 2k4o in the 1956s,
commercial production started in 1987, and 3waron is now
manufactured by 3ei8in'
Production:-
)e*lar is synthesi4ed in solution from the monomers 1,/+
phenylene+diamine <para+phenylenediamine= and
terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding
hydrochloric acid as a byproduct' 3he result has
li-uid+crystalline beha*ior, and mechanical drawing orients the
polymer chains in the fiber#s direction'
;e%amethylphosphoramide <;9"2= was the sol*ent initially
used for the polymeri4ation, but for safety reasons,
!u"ont replaced it by a solution of N+methyl+pyrrolidone and
calcium chloride' 2s this process was patented by
2k4o <see abo*e= in the production of 3waron, a patent war
ensued'
3he reaction of 1,/+phenylene+diamine <para+phenylenediamine= with terephthaloyl chloride
yielding ke*lar'
)e*lar <poly paraphenylene terephthalamide= production is
e%pensi*e because of the difficulties arising from using
concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water+insoluble
polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning'
3he ultra*iolet component of sunlight degrades and decomposes
)e*lar, a problem known as >? degradation, and
so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight'
Several grades of Kevlar are available:-
1' Kevlar K-29 in industrial applications, such as cables,
asbestos replacement, brake linings, and body@*ehicle
armor'
2' Kevlar K49 high modulus used in cable and rope
products'
3' Kevlar K100 colored *ersion of )e*lar
/' Kevlar K119 higher+elongation, fle%ible and more
fatigue resistant'
5' Kevlar K129 higher tenacity for ballistic applications'
7' Kevlar AP has 15A higher tensile strength than )+29'
5' Kevlar XP lighter weight resin and )92 plus fiber
combination'
8' Kevlar KM2 enhanced ballistic resistance for armor
applications'
Applications:-
Protection
1.Cryogenics
)e*lar is often used in the field of cryogenics for its low
thermal conducti*ity and high strength relati*e to other
materials for suspension purposes' 9ost often used to suspend a
paramagnetic salt enclosure from a superconducting
magnet mandrel in order to minimi4e any heat leaks to the
paramagnetic material' 1t is also used a thermal standoff
or structural support where low heat leaks are desired'
2.Armor
)e*lar is a well+known component of personal armor such as combat
helmets, ballistic face masks, and ballistic *ests' 3he "2&B3 helmet
and *est used by >nited &tates military forces since the 1986s both
ha*e )e*lar as a key component, as do their replacements' :ther
military uses include bulletproof facemasks used by sentries and spall
liners used to protect the crews of armoured fighting *ehicles' $*en
(imit4+class aircraft carriers include )e*lar armor around *ital spaces'
Celated ci*ilian applications include $mergency &er*ice#s protection
gear if it in*ol*es high heat <e'g', tackling a fire=, and )e*lar body
armor such as *ests for police officers, security, and &W23'
Personal protection
)e*lar is used to manufacture glo*es, slee*es, 8ackets, chaps and other articles of
clothing.190 designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions and heat' )e*lar based
protecti*e gear is often considerably lighter and thinner than e-ui*alent gear made
of more traditional materials'

pieces of )e*lar helmet used to help absorb the
blast of a grenade'
Sports equipment:-
1t is used as an inner lining for some bicycle tires to pre*ent
punctures' 1n table tennis, plies of )e*lar are added to custom
ply blades, or paddles, in order to increase bounce and reduce
weight' 1t is used for motorcycle safety clothing, especially in
the areas featuring padding such as shoulders and elbows'
1n )yudo or Dapanese archery, it may be used as an alternati*e
to more e%pensi*e hemp for bow strings' 1t is one of the main
materials used for paraglider suspension lines 1n Fencing it is
used in the protecti*e 8ackets, breeches, plastrons and
the bib of the masks'
3ennis rac-uets are often strung with )e*lar'
1t is e*en used in sails for high performance racing boats'
1t is increasingly being used in the EpetoE, the padded co*ering
which protects the picadors# horses in the bullring'
Shoes:-
With ad*ancements in technology, (ike used )e*lar in shoes
for the first time' 1t launched the $lite 11 &eries ,with
enhancements to its earlier *ersion of basketball shoes by using
)e*lar in the anterior as well as the shoe laces' 3his was done to
decrease the elasticity of the tip of the shoe in contrast to nylon
used con*entionally as )e*lar e%panded by about 1A against
nylon which e%panded by about 36A' &hoes in this range
included FeGron, ;yper!unk and Hoom )obe ?11' ;owe*er
these shoes were launched at a price range much higher than
a*erage cost of basketball shoes' 1t was also used as speed
control patches for certain &oap &hoes models' and the laces for
the adidas F56 adiHero "rime football boot'

)e*lar is a *ery popular material for racing canoes'
Rope, cable, sheath:-
3he fiber is used in wo*en rope and in cable, where the fibers
are kept parallel within a polyethylene slee*e' 3he cables ha*e
been used in suspension bridges such as the bridge at 2berfeldy
in &cotland' 3hey ha*e also been used to stabili4e cracking
concrete cooling towers by circumferential application followed
by tensioning to close the cracks'
)e*lar is widely used as a protecti*e outer sheath for optical
fiber cable, as its strength protects the cable from damage and
kinking' When used in this application it is commonly known
by the trademarked name "arafil'
)e*lar mooring line
Composite materials:-
2ramid fibers are widely used for reinforcing composite
materials, often in combination with carbon fiber and glass
fiber' 3he matri% for high performance composites is usually
epo%y resin' 3ypical applications include monoco-ue
bodies for F1 racing cars, helicopter rotor blades, tennis, table
tennis, badminton and s-uash rackets, kayaks, cricket
bats, and field hockey, ice hockey and lacrosse sticks'
2=' ylon :!
!ensity + 1'15 g@cm3
$lectrical conducti*ity+ <I= 1612 &@m
3hermal conducti*ity + 6'25 W@<mJ)=
9elting point K </7372/ )=
<196356 L=
<35/773 LF=
Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic
polymers known generically as polyamides, first produced
on February 28, 1935, by Wallace arothers at !u"ont#s
research facility at the !u"ont $%perimental &tation' (ylon
is one of the most commonly used polymers'
Overview :-
(ylon is a thermoplastic, silky material, first used commercially in a
nylon+bristled toothbrush <1938=, followed more famously by women#s
stockings <EnylonsE, 19/6=' (ylon is made of repeating units linked by
amide bonds and is fre-uently referred to as polyamide <"2=' (ylon was
the first commercially successful synthetic polymer' 3here are two common
methods of making nylon for fiber applications' 1n one approach, molecules
with an acid <+::;= group on each end are reacted with molecules
containing amine <+(;2= groups on each end' 3he resulting nylon is named
on the basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups
and the two amines' 3hese are formed into monomers of intermediate
molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains'
(ylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted
for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War
11' 1t replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak *ests,
and was used in many types of *ehicle tires'
(ylon fibers are used in many applications, including clothes fabrics, bridal *eils,
package paper, carpets, musical strings, pipes, and rope etc'
&olid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other
low+ to medium+stress components pre*iously cast in metal' $ngineering+grade
nylon is processed by e%trusion, casting, and in8ection molding' &olid nylon is
used in hair combs' 3ype 7,7 (ylon 161 is the most common commercial grade of
nylon, and (ylon 7 is the
most common commercial grade of molded nylon' For use in tools such as the
spudger, a nylon is a*ailable in glass+filled *ariants which increase structural and
impact strength and rigidity, and molybdenum sulfide+filled *ariants which
increase lubricity'
2ramids are another type of polyamide with -uite different chain structures which
include aromatic groups in the main chain' &uch polymers make e%cellent ballistic
fibers'
Production:-
3he first approachM combining molecules with an acid <::;= group on each end
are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine <(;2= groups on each end' 3his
process creates nylon 7,7, made of he%amethylene diamine with si% carbon atoms
and adipic acid'
3he second approachM a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the
other and is polymeri4ed to form a chain with repeating units of <+(;+.;20n+
:+=%' 1n other words, nylon 7 is made from a single si%+carbon substance called
caprolactam' 1n this e-uation, if n N 5, then nylon 7 is the assigned name <may also
be referred to as polymer='
The characteristic features of nylon 6,6 include:
O "leats and creases can be heat+set at higher temperatures
O 9ore compact molecular structure
O Getter weathering properties, better sunlight resistance
O &ofter E;andE
O ;igher melting point <257 L@/92'8 LF=
O &uperior colorfastness
O $%cellent abrasion resistance
:n the other hand, nylon 7 is easy to dye, more readily fades, it has a higher
impact resistance, a more rapid moisture absorption, greater elasticity and elastic
reco*ery'
Characteristics:-
O ?ariation of lusterM nylon has the ability to be *ery lustrous, semilustrous or dull'
O !urabilityM its high tenacity fibers are used for seatbelts, tire cords, ballistic cloth
and other uses'
O ;igh elongation
O $%cellent abrasion resistance
O ;ighly resilient <nylon fabrics are heat+set=
O "a*ed the way for easy+care garments
O ;igh resistance to insects, fungi, animals, as well as molds, mildew, rot and
many chemicals
O >sed in carpets and nylon stockings
O 9elts instead of burning
O >sed in many military applications
O Bood specific strength
O 3ransparent to infrared light <12dG=
Applications:-
Gill "ittendreigh, !u"ont, and other indi*iduals and corporations worked
diligently during the first few months of World War 11 to find a way to
replace 2sian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes' 1t was also used to
make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies' 1t was e*en
used in the production of a high+grade paper for >'&' currency' 2t the
outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 86A of all fibers used and
manufactured, and wool fibers accounted for nearly all of the rest' Gy
2ugust 19/5, manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25A, at the
e%pense of cotton'
&ome of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used e*ery day in
packaging' (ylon has been used for meat wrappings and sausage sheaths'
Use in composites:-
(ylon can be used as the matri% material in composite materials, with
reinforcing fibers like glass or carbon fiber, such a composite has a higher
density than pure nylon' &uch thermoplastic composites <25A glass fiber= are
fre-uently used in car components ne%tto the engine, such as intake manifolds,
where the good heat resistance of such materials makes them feasible
competitors to metals'
Incineration and recycling:-
?arious nylons break down in fire and form ha4ardous smoke, and to%ic fumes or
ash, typically containing hydrogen cyanide' 1ncinerating nylons to reco*er the
high energy used to create them is usually e%pensi*e, so most nylons reach the
garbage dumps, decaying *ery slowly'&ome recycling is done on nylon, usually
creating pellets for reuse in the industry'
"#
poly$inylidene fluoride

9olecular formula +<2;2F2=n+
2ppearance + whitish or translucent solid
&olubility in water +not soluble in water
Related compounds:-
1'"?F
2'"?
3'"3F$
Polyvinylidene fluoride, or poly*inylidene difluoride <PVDF= is a highly non+
reacti*e and pure thermoplastic fluoropolymer produced by the polymeri4ation of
*inylidene difluoride'
"?!F is a specialty plastic material in the fluoropolymer family, it is used
generally in applications re-uiring the highest purity, strength, and resistance to
sol*ents, acids, bases and heat and low smoke generation during a fire
e*ent' ompared to other fluoropolymers, it has an easier melt process because of
its relati*ely low melting point of
around 155 L' 1t has a low density <1'58= and low cost compared to the other
fluoropolymers' 1t is a*ailable as piping products, sheet, tubing, films, plate and an
insulator for premium wire' 1t can be in8ected, molded or welded and is commonly
used in the chemical, semiconductor, medical and defense industries, as well as in
lithium ion batteries' 1t is also a*ailable as a crosslinked closed cell foam, used
increasingly in a*iation and aerospace applications'
2 fine powder grade, )P(2C 566 "?!F or ;PF2C 5666 "?!F, is also used as
the principal ingredient of high+end paints for metals' 3hese "?!F paints ha*e
e%tremely good gloss and color retention, and they are in use on many prominent
buildings around the world, e'g' the "etronas 3owers in 9alaysia and 3aipei 161
in 3aiwan, as well as on commercial and residential metal roofing'
"?!F membranes are used for western blots for immobili4ation of proteins, due
to its non+specific affinity for amino acids' "?!F is sold under a *ariety of brand
names including ;ylar <&ol*ay=, )ynar <2rkema= and &olef <&ol*ay='
Properties:-
1n 1979, strong pie4oelectricity was obser*ed in "?!F, with the pie4oelectric
coefficient of poled <placed under a strong electric field to induce a net dipole
moment= thin films as large as 75 p@(M 16 times larger than that
obser*ed in any other polymer' "?!F has a glass transition temperature <3g= of
about 35 L and is typically 5676A crystalline' 3o gi*e the material its
pie4oelectric properties, it is mechanically stretched to orient the molecular chains
and then poled under tension' "?!F e%ists in se*eral formsM alpha <3B3B#=, beta
<3333=, and gamma <333B333B#= phases, depending on the chain conformations
as trans <3= or gauche <B= linkages' When poled, "?!F is a ferroelectric polymer,
e%hibiting efficient pie4oelectric and pyroelectric properties' 3hese characteristics
make it useful in sensor and battery applications' 3hin films of "?!F are used in
some newer thermal camera sensors' >nlike other popular pie4oelectric materials,
such as "H3, "?!F has a negati*e d33 *alue' "hysically, this means that "?!F
will compress instead of e%pand or *ice *ersa when e%posed to the same electric
field'
Processing:-
"?!F may be synthesi4ed from the gaseous ?!F monomer *ia a free radical <or
controlled radical= polymeri4ation process' 3his may be followed by processes
such as melt casting, or processing from a solution <e'g' solution casting,
spin coating, and film casting=' Fangmuir+Glodgett films ha*e also been made' 1n
the case of solution+based processing, typical sol*ents used include
dimethylformamide as well as the more *olatile butanone' 1n a-ueous
emulsion polymeri4ation, the fluorosurfactant perfluorononanoic acid is used in
anion form as a processing aid by solubili4ing monomers' For characteri4ation of
the molecular weight *ia gel permeation chromatography <also called si4e
e%clusion chromatography=, sol*ents such as dimethyl sulfo%ide or
tetrahydrofuran may be used'
"rocessed materials are typically in the non+pie4oelectric alpha phase' 3he
material must either be stretched or annealed to obtain the pie4oelectric beta
phase' 3he e%ception to this is for "?!F thin films <thickness in the order of
micrometres=' Cesidual stresses between thin films and the substrates on which
they are processed are great enough to cause the beta phase to form'
1n order to obtain a pie4oelectric response, the material must first be poled in a
large electric field' "oling of the material typically re-uires an e%ternal field of
abo*e 36 9?@m' 3hick films <typically Q166 Rm= must be heated during the
poling process in order to achie*e a large pie4oelectric response' 3hick films are
usually heated to 56166 L during the poling process'
2 -uantitati*e defluorination process was described by mechanochemistry, for
safe eco+friendly "?!F waste processing'
Copolymers:-
opolymers of "?!F are also used in pie4oelectric and electrostricti*e
applications' :ne of the most commonly+used copolymers is "<?!F+
trifluoroethylene=, usually a*ailable in ratios of about 56M56 wtA and
75M35 wtA <e-ui*alent to about 57M// molA and 56M36 molA=' 2nother
one is "<?!F+tetrafluoroethylene=' 3hey impro*e the pie4oelectric
response by impro*ing the crystallinity of the material'
While the copolymers# unit structures are less polar than that of pure
"?!F, the copolymers typically ha*e a much higher crystallinity' 3his
results in a larger pie4oelectric responseM d33 *alues for "<?!F+3rF$=
ha*e been recorded to be as high as 38 p@(.90 *ersus 33 p@( in
pure "?!F'
Applications:-
1!lectrical wires
"?!F is commonly used as insulation on some kinds of electrical wires, because
of its combination of fle%ibility, low weight, low thermal conducti*ity, high
chemical corrosion resistance, and heat resistance' 9ost of the narrow
36+gauge wire used in wire wrap circuit assembly and printed circuit board rework
is "?!F+insulated' 1n this use the wire is generally referred to as E)ynar wireE,
from the trade name'
3he pie4oelectric properties of "?!F are used to ad*antage to manufacture tactile
sensor arrays, ine%pensi*e strain gauges and lightweight audio transducers'
"ie4oelectric panels made of "?!F are used on the ?enetia Gurney &tudent !ust
ounter, a scientific instrument of the (ew ;ori4ons space probe that measures
dust density in the outer solar system'
2=batteries
"?!F is the standard binder material used in the production of composite
electrodes for lithium ion batteries' 1+2A weight solution of "?!F dissol*ed in (+
9ethyl+2+pyrrolidone <(9"= is mi%ed with an acti*e lithium storage
material such as graphite, silicon, tin, Fio:2, Fi9n2:/, or FiFe":/ and a
conducti*e additi*e such as carbon black or carbon nanofibers' 3his slurry is cast
onto a metallic current collector and the (9" is e*aporated to form a
composite or paste electrode' "?!F is used because it is chemically inert o*er the
potential range used and does not react with the electrolyte or lithium'
"#iomedical sciences
1n the biomedical sciences "?!F is used in immunoblotting as an artificial
membrane, usually with 6'22 or 6'/5 micrometres pore si4es, on which proteins
are transferred using electricity <see western blotting=' "?!F is resistant to
sol*ents and, therefore, these membranes can be easily stripped and reused to look
at other proteins, making it *ery con*enient'
"?!F is used for specialty monofilament fishing lines, sold as fluorocarbon
replacements for nylon monofilament'
:ptical density is lower than nylon, which makes the line less discernible' 3he
surface is harder, so it is more
resistant to abrasion and sharp fish teeth' 1t is also denser than nylon, making it
sink faster'