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SLA and Pedagogy

Jimnez Raya, M., Lamb, T. y Vieira, F. (2007). Pedagogy for autonomy in language education in Europe Towards a
framework for learner and teacher development. Dubln: Authentik.


Nowadays, despite the wealth of research studies in instructed language acquisition, language
teaching methodology research and theory do not afford a homogeneous explanation of how
instruction can best facilitate language learning. Nevertheless, we will make an attempt to
draw together findings from a range of second language acquisition and language teaching
methodology studies in order to formulate a set of general principles for language pedagogy.
Doughtys and Longs (2003) distinction between methodological principles and pedagogic
procedures is relevant for our purposes here. They define principles as putatively universally
desirable language teaching design features, motivated by theory and research findings in
SLA, educational psychology, and elsewhere, which show them to be either necessary for SLA
or facilitative of it (Doughty & Long, 2003). On the other hand, pedagogic procedures include
the potentially infinite range of local options for realizing the principles at the classroom level.
Choice among pedagogic procedures is determined by such factors as (a) teacher philosophy
and preference; (b) learner age, proficiency, literacy level, aptitude and cognitive style; (c) the
class of target linguistic features for which the procedures are to be used; and (d) the nature
of the learning environment. Selection among the great variety of numerous existing
pedagogic procedures available should vary, although rationally and systematically.

Any modern language teaching proposal must necessarily tackle some of the most
controversial issues in language teaching methodology. These issues deal with the nature of
foreign language competence, the importance of catering to individual differences in learners,
the contributions of both focus on meaning and on form, the role of both implicit and explicit
second language knowledge, the problems posed by the learners internal syllabus, and the
roles of input, output and interaction in modern language learning. A theory of language
teaching seeks to capture all those components, plus whatever else can be done to make
language teaching efficient.
The contemporary view of language development is that learning is constrained by
internal processes. From our standpoint, learning a foreign language is a creative construction
Jimnez Raya et al. Pages 7-18
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process which allows for the progressive elaboration of internal representation levels of the
new system. With regard to this process of elaboration of new knowledge, errors are treated
as an integral and necessary part of the process of foreign language acquisition.
In line with our principle-based approach to pedagogy for autonomy, the principles
advocated represent a variety of perspectives and are offered as a set of working
specifications for modern language pedagogy. The reason for this being the fact that SLA
theory cannot still provide definite answers to some of the most controversial issues in
language teaching theory presented above. Therefore, our proposal must be applied with
caution (Hatch, 1978). However, these disciplines provide the theoretical bases from which to
derive informed insights for language teaching. The following are examples of these language-
specific teaching principles:

Create a natural model language learning environment
There is a limited time available for language learning in a school context. This is why it is
crucial to make the most of the little time available. To this end, it is important to observe the
following (Hughes 2001: 19):
Language skills integration
Language which is contextualised
Language relating directly to the learner
Language which is linked to immediate and visible action
Language which is both verbal and non-verbal
Language which is meaningfully repetitive on a daily basis
Language which is large in quantity and occurs over an extended period of time.

Treat language holistically
Breaking language down into simpler components does not always make it easier for
students. Language learners need to experience language in its full complexity. From our
perspective, the classroom should be conceived of as a unique social environment in which we
have to foster rich learning experiences which generate realistically motivated
communication output, where learners speak for themselves, creating authentic texts, and
find solutions to relevant problems.

Focus on the development of implicit knowledge without neglecting explicit knowledge
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Current SLA theory asserts that instruction needs to be directed at developing both implicit
and explicit knowledge, giving priority to the former. However, teachers should not assume
that explicit knowledge can automatically be converted into implicit knowledge, as the extent
to which this is possible remains controversial. It is agreed that competence in a foreign
language is primarily a matter of implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is the declarative
knowledge of the phonological, lexical, grammatical, pragmatic and socio-critical features of
an L2 together with the metalanguage for labelling this knowledge (Ellis, 2004).


Create an acquisition rich classroom
Language learning, whether it occurs in a naturalistic or an instructed context, is an
enormously complex task. In this task input, output and interaction are necessary
components.
a) Input
"The input available to second language learners is the raw data from which they derive both
meaning and awareness of the rules and structures of the target language" (Chaudron 1985:
3). To ensure adequate access to the modern language, teachers need to:
1. Maximise use of the L2 inside the classroom.
2. Create opportunities for students to receive input outside the classroom.
In addition, input should be:
comprehensible. The task of the teacher is to make sure that the input is indeed
comprehensible and to provide non-linguistic means of encouraging comprehension.
Comprehension is a necessary condition for language acquisition but not sufficient.
interesting and/or relevant,
not grammatically sequenced because grammatically-based syllabi reduce the quality
of comprehensible input and distort the communicative focus,
sufficient in quantity,
elaborated. Both authentic and simplified texts are psycholinguistically inappropriate
for learners. Elaboration is the term given to the multitude ways native speakers
modify discourse to make meaning comprehensible. Most of the modifications occur
during negotiation for meaning. Since elaborated texts do this while keeping the new
lexical and grammatical items learners need to encounter in the input, while
preserving the semantic content of the genuine version (Long & Ross, 1993), and
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while presenting L2 samples that are closer to authentic target language use than
simplified versions, elaboration is clearly superior to simplification as a way of
modifying input for foreign language learners.
b) Output
In addition to input, it is also accepted that interaction plays a crucial role in the process of
learning a second language. It is absolutely essential that children are encouraged to experiment
with and play with language. The process of experimentation will give rise to numerous mistakes
along the way. Teachers need to admit that mistakes are part of an active and creative process of
language construction. What looks like a mistake can in fact be a sign of progress. Swain (1995)
summarizes the contributions that output can make:
1. Production serves to generate better input through the feedback that learners efforts
at production elicit.
2. It forces syntactic processing (i.e., obliges learners to pay attention to grammar).
3. It allows learners to test out hypotheses about the target language grammar.
4. It helps to automatize existing knowledge.
5. It provides opportunities for learners to develop discourse skills, for example by
producing long turns.
6. It is important for helping learners to develop a personal voice by steering
conversation on to topics they are interested in contributing to. Ellis (2003) adds one
other contribution of output:
7. It provides the learner with auto-input (i.e., learners can attend to the input provided
by their own productions).

c) Interaction
It has been hypothesized that the comprehensible input that results from input modifications
and, in particular, from interactional modifications facilitates the natural development of a
second language. Long (1983), for instance, has argued that allowing learners to negotiate for
meaning whenever a communication problem arises promotes acquisition. Johnson (1995)
identifies four key requirements for interaction to create an acquisition-rich classroom:
1. Creating contexts of language use where students have a reason to attend to language.
2. Providing opportunities for learners to use the language to express their own personal
meanings.
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3. Helping students to participate in language-related activities that are beyond their
current level of proficiency.
4. Offering a full range of contexts that cater for a full performance in the language.

Focus on both meaning and form
There is now a widespread acceptance that language acquisition requires that learners attend
both to meaning and form. Indeed, according to some theories of L2 acquisition, attention to
form is necessary for acquisition to take place. Schmidt (1994), for example, has argued that
there is no learning without conscious attention to form. According to Ellis (2005), modern
language instruction can cater to a focus on form in a number of ways:
1. Through grammar lessons designed to teach specific grammatical features by means
of input- or output processing. This can use both inductive and deductive strategies.
2. Through focused tasks. These are language learning tasks that aim at helping learners
to comprehend and process specific grammatical structures in the input, and/or to
produce the structures in the performance of the task.
3. By means of methodological options that induce attention to form in the context of
performing a task (Language awareness (James & Garret, 1991); consciousness raising
(Rutherford, 1987); input enhancement (Sharwood Smith, 1993).
Attention to meaning is even more central in the facilitation of language acquisition.
Acquisition is most likely to occur in meaning-focused instruction. Negotiation of meaning can
be directed at either avoiding problems that could otherwise arise in conversations or
correcting problems once they arise.

Foster the development of intercultural competence
Teaching intercultural competence provides a background and context which brings the speech
community to life, and helps the student visualize and vicariously experience that reality (Stern,
1992:223). Most materials for culture teaching in the classroom convey cultural biases. These
implicitly convey attitudes concerning the culture of the target language and the learners native
language culture.


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