Research Methods

Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference

Interviews Livingstone (2010) stated that
interviewing is gained by talking to
or directly asking the audience.
In explaining what interview is,
chr!der, "rotner, #line, and
$urray (200%) said it is &used as a
discursive generator 'or obtaining an
insight into the interpretative
repertoires at the disposal o' the
in'or(ants as they (ake sense o' a
speci'ic (edia product)
(Livingstone, 2010* +,-).
&. poorly conducted interview
(ay be (arked both by an
interviewee reluctant to speak
and by an interviewer who 'ails
to listen care'ully) (Livingstone,
2010* +/0).
&0y interviewing sa(ple, the
researcher is able to check
'indings with the( to test
their credibility)
(Livingstone, 2010* +,/).
1oi2er (200-) stated that
interview (ethods can
co(ple(ent and co(pensate
'or the li(itations o'
observational ones
(Livingstone, 2010* +,-).
1. Livingstone, ., 2010.
34iving 5eople a 6oice*
7n the 8ritical 9ole o'
the Interview in the
1istory o' .udience
9esearch:.
8o((unication, 8ulture
; 8riti<ue, % (2010),
+,,=+/1.
1
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Surveys >rench (2012a) described surveys as
&a (ethod to provide a
co(prehensive statistical and
<ualitative analysis) (>rench, 201?*
1@2).
&Ahe survey (ethod does not
per(it de'initive state(ents
about causal relationships, but it
does per(it generaliBation
beyond a s(all sa(ple and
enables insight) (parks and
$iller, 2001* 101).
&Ahere is always possible that
so(e un(easured third variable
accounts 'or the relationship
that was observed) (parks and
$iller, 2001* 10@).
8ox and Laura (1@@2) stated
that &survey allows the use
slightly updated versions o'
the sa(e <uestions asked
when the last (a2or industry
survey was undertaken)
(>rench, 201?* 1@2).
.lso, &surveys produce
<uantitative reporting,
including tables) (>rench,
201?* 1@%).
&Ahe use o' rando( sa(ples
o' larger populations enables
so(e (eaning'ul
generaliBation o' research
'indings) (parks and $iller,
2001* 111).
1. >rench, L., 201?. 34ender
then, gender now*
surveying wo(enCs
participation in
.ustralian 'il( and
television industries:.
8ontinuu(* Dournal o'
$edia ; 8ultural
tudies, 2-(2), 1--=200.
2. parks, 4. and $iller,
E., 2001. 3Investigating
the relationship between
exposure to television
progra(s that depict
paranor(al pheno(ena
and belie's in the
paranor(al:.
8o((unication
$onographs, ,-(1), @-F
11%.
2
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Content Analysis 8ontent analysis is to &exa(ine
characteristics o' a studied sub2ect to
deter(ine practices co((on a(ong
the sub2ect, to construct a pro'ile, and
to contextualiBe the patterns we 'ind
in ter(s o' how those salient
characteristics) (5otter and 9iddle,
200/* @1).
9a(asubra(anian (200+) described
that content analysis is exa(ined
using units o' analysis and coding
categories.
trauss and 8orbin (1@@0) stated that
content analysis can involve three
stages o' coding* open, axial, and
selective coding (Dohnson and
1ol(es, 200@* %+/). &8oding is 'or
identi'ying in'or(ation) (5otter and
9iddle, 200/* @?).
5otter and 9iddle (200/) stated
that content analysis is not a
(ethod to generate data 'or
direct e''ects.

&Ahere are ti(es when
authors use data generated
through a content analysis to
develop a substantial
argu(ent) and content
analysis &can co(pare the
(ore recent pattern to older
patterns) (5otter and 9iddle,
200/* @+).
1. Dohnson, #.9. and
1ol(es, 0.$., 200@.
38ontradictory $essages*
. 8ontent .nalysis o'
1ollywoodF5roduced
9o(antic 8o(edy
>eature >il(s:.
8o((unication
Guarterly, +/(%), %+2F
%/%.
2. 9a(asubra(anian, .,
200+. 3. 8ontent
.nalysis o' the 5ortrayal
o' India in >il(s
5roduced in the Eest:.
1oward Dournal o'
8o((unications, 1,(?),
2?%F2,+.
%. 5otter, E.D. and 9iddle,
#., 200/. 3. 8ontent
.nalysis o' the $edia
H''ects Literature:.
Dournalis( ; $ass
8o((unication
Guarterly, -?(@0), @0F
10?.
%
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Textual Analysis LesterF9oushanBa(ir and 9a(an
(1@@@* /0%) explained &textual
analysis proceeds 'ro( a long soak in
the (aterial to an extre(ely close
reading o' a speci'ic text as de'ined
by the researcher) (5ainter and
>errucci, 2012).
0ordwell (1@-@a) stated the
researcher:s role is to apply a
selected theoretical perspective to
textual cues in a studied (aterial in
order to arrive at an interpretation o'
what the (aterial I(eansI (Joung,
2000).
.ccording to 0erger (1@@-* 2%),
researchers using textual analysis
&assu(e that behavioral patterns,
values, and attitudes 'ound in this
(aterial re'lect and a''ect the
behaviors, attitudes and values o' the
people who create the (aterial)
(5ainter and >errucci, 2012).
Ei((er and "o(inick (1@-%)
listed out the three 'actors can
detract 'ro( the credibility o'
the <ualitative (ethod o' textual
analysis which are*
co(pleteness o' the data,
selective perception, and
reactivity
Joung said that textual analysis
is &li(ited in its ability to
exhaustively explore the 'ull
range o' audience reactions)
(Joung, 2000* ?+0).
Larsen (1@@1K 122) stated
that &textual analysis brings
out the whole range o'
possible (eanings) in a
(aterial studied (5ainter and
>errucci, 2012).
$oreover, #avoori (1@@@)
said that textual analysis is
not li(ited to written text but
also spoken text, visual
'eatures such as type o' shot,
content, se<uencing, and
graphics can be analysed
(5ainter and >errucci, 2012).
1. 5ainter, 8. and >errucci,
5., 2012.
3Lnpro'essional,
Ine''ective, and Eeak* .
Aextual .nalysis o' the
5ortrayal o' >e(ale
Dournalists on ports
Might:. Dournal o' $ass
$edia Hthics, 2/(?), 2?-F
2,2.
2. Joung, ."., 2000.
3$ovies as e<uip(ent 'or
living* . develop(ental
analysis o' the
i(portance o' 'il( in
everyday li'e:. 8ritical
tudies in $edia
8o((unication, 1/(?),
??/F?,-.
?
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Semiotic Densen (1@@/) explained se(iotic as
a way o' analyBing a sub2ect in which
signi'ication, (eanings, and actions
are con'igured within social contexts.
Aseng explained that se(iotic
analysis is looking into &how
characters: actions and interactions
can be syste(atically constructed
based on the coFpatterning o' textual
ele(ents in 'il( and how the patterns
provide an analytical 'oundation 'or
understanding and interpreting
characters) (Aseng, 201%* +-/).
Aseng (201%) supported his state(ent
with .nderson (1@@,* 1%+), &as
observers, the analogy to 2udging
characters in 'il( is direct* the 'irst
ti(e we see a character, he behaves
in a certain way, and based upon the
behaviour, we categorise the
character.)
Densen (1@@/) said that se(iotic
analysis is lacking in
(ethodological re'lexivity in
analysing data as data is
analysed as a discursive
construct, and not as a direct
representation o' audience
sub2ectivity.
Densen (1@@/) said that using
se(iotic as an analysis,
researchers are able to
IrecontextualiBeI the(selves
as audience (e(bers.
.dding to that, Aseng and
0ate(an (2012) said that it
has a strong potential 'or
syste(atically re'lecting the
viewer:s narrative in'erences
and expectations (Aseng,
201%).
Aseng 'urther elaborated that
se(iotic can &syste(atically
uncover the collaborative
e''ect o' visual, verbal and
audio cues in the viewer:s
narrative co(prehension)
(Aseng, 201%* +--).
In 'il( research, &ca(era
(ove(ents can be conceived
as e<uivalent to linguistic
operations used to construct
an ongoing discourse)
(7:Leary, 200%* /).
1. 7CLeary, 0., 200%.
31ollywood 8a(era
$ove(ents and the >il(s
o' 1oward 1awks* .
>unctional e(iotic
.pproach:. Mew 9eview
o' >il( and Aelevision
tudies, 1(1), /F%0.
2. Aseng, 8., 201%.
3.nalysing charactersC
interactions in 'il(ic text*
a 'unctional se(iotic
approach:. ocial
e(iotics, 2%(+), +-/F
,0+.
%. Densen, #., 1@@/. 3Ahe
ocial e(iotics o' $ass
8o((unication:.
8anadian Dournal o'
8o((unication, 22(1).
+
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Discourse Analysis $oha((ed said &the use o' the ter(
discourse has tended to i(ply
assu(ptions about the nature o'
language and language research)
($oha((ed, 2012* ,+?). >airclough
(2000* %10) stated that &the language
used in representing a given social
practice 'ro( a particular point o'
view) (4artside, 201%).
Ahere'ore, 9ichardson (200/* 2?)
said &discourse analysis is what
people do with language. 9esearch
which adopts this de'inition o'
discourse assu(es that language is
used to (ean and do so(ething and
that the 3(eaning: and 3doing: are
linked to the context o' their usage.
Ahe 'ocus in this analysis is on how
and what language co((unicates
when it is used in a context)
($oha((ed, 2012).
Hisenhart and Dohnstone (200-* @)
listed &two related ideas about
discourse* (1) the idea that texts and
conversations are shaped, 2ust as
sentences are, by 3gra((ar:
(repeatable patterns o' structure) and,
(2) the idea that the structure o'
language is shaped in part by its
'unction) ($oha((ed, 2012).
&Linguistics itsel' si(ply had
little to o''er to those interested
in the analysis o' (edia
discourse as linguistic gra((ars
were li(ited to rather abstract
descriptions o' isolated
sentences and did not account
'or the various levels or
di(ensions o' whole NtextsC)
(6an "i2k, 1@-+* ,@)
1. $oha((ed, "., 2012.
3"iscourse analysis o' the
representations o' wo(en
in $oroccan broadcast
news:. Ahe Dournal o'
Morth .'rican tudies,
1/(?), ,+%F,/0.
2. 4artside, E., 201%. 3Ahe
1ostel 9hetoric o'
Aorture* . "iscourse
.nalysis o' Aorture
5orn:. 0erghahn Dournals,
/(1), -1=@@.
%. 6an "i2k, A., 1@-+.
3Introduction* "iscourse
.nalysis in ($ass)
8o((unication:.
9esearch "iscourse and
8o((unication, ,@F@%.
,
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Ethnography 1a((ersley and .tkinson (1@@+*
2+) said &ethnography is based on a
re'lexive position that allows the
observation o' how people construct,
reFconstruct, and (ake (eanings = o'
the internet in this case) (0eneitoF
$ontagut, 2011).
Lindlo' and Aaylor (2002* 1,) call it
&a holistic description o' cultural
(e(bership) which &entails studying
people within their own cultural
environ(ent through intensive
'ieldwork... Ahe researcher goes to
the data, rather than sitting in an
o''ice and collecting it. It typically
involves inFdepth investigation o' a
s(all nu(ber o' cases, so(eti(es
2ust a single case) (inger, 200@*
1@1)
Hthnography encourages
&care'ul and in'or(ed
interaction o' researcher and
participants) (0eneitoF
$ontagut, 2011* /1-)
0eneitoF$ontagut (2011)
said that the s(all sa(ple o'
ethnography enables the
researcher to keep in touch
and continued interaction
with the participants which
allows results to be checked
and widened.
1. 0eneitoF$ontagut, 9.,
2011. 3Hthnography goes
online* towards a userF
centred (ethodology to
research interpersonal
co((unication on the
internet:. Gualitative
9esearch, 11(,), /1,=
/%+.
2. inger, D.0., 200@.
3Hthnography:.
Dournalis( ; $ass
8o((unication
Guarterly, -,(1), 1@1F
1@-.
/
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Online Interviews the typed word rather than spoken
word
to generate asynchronous written
dialogue between us and each o' our
participants, and trans'or( the
3space: (ti(e) in which, potentially,
our participants could re'lect on their
experiences in response to our
<uestions, rather than being
co((itted to replying pro(ptly F 2
peci'ic sy(bols such as
e(oticons (ay be used by so(e
whilst (ore novice users (ay
'ind this level o' expertise
inti(idating F 1
Ahe researcher is reliant upon
participants having access to a
suitable co(puter, so(e
technical knowledge and a
considerable level o' (otivation
F 1
Internet access re(ains
restricted to certain groups o'
peopleK there'ore, the potential
'or research outside these user
groups is li(ited F 1
'aceFtoF'ace interviews
would be i(practical, costly
and ti(e consu(ing because
our respondents were
geographically widely
dispersed. .part 'ro( the
distance 'actor both the
researchers and the
respondents had young
children andOor were
pregnant, (aking the
traditional interview
un'easible F 1
Internet based interview
'oru( see(ed to be a logical,
low cost, convenient and
innovative research (ethod F
1
respondents can post their
reply at anyti(e F 1
(ore at ease with the
environ(ent than the
interviewers. F 1
1. 7C8onnor, 1. and $adge,
8., 2001. C8yberF
$others* 7nline
ynchronous
Interviewing using
8on'erencing o'twareC.
ociological 9esearch
7nline, +(?).
2. Da(es, M. and 0usher, 1.,
200/. 3Hthical issues in
online educational
research* protecting
privacy, establishing
authenticity in e(ail
interviewing:.
International Dournal o'
9esearch ; $ethod in
Hducation, %0(1), 101F
11%.
-
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Online Focus group an organiBed group discussion
around a given topic, which is
(onitored, guided i' necessary, and
recorded by a researcher. Ahey are
distinguished by their explicit use o'
group
interaction to produce data F 1
carried out in Internet chat roo(s
rather than in person (0ird, 1@@?K
5arks, 1@@/). .ll o' the participants
and the (oderator are online in the
chat roo( si(ultaneously. Ahey type
their co((ents over the course o' the
session F 2
(ay lead to rapid group atrophy,
characteriBed by a lack in
posting, the absence o' any
group identity and a nonchalant
attitude towards the research F 1
di''icult 'or the researcher to
co(pare participants: presented
identities to those that they
present
elsewhere when the 'ocus group
setting is the only 'ield o'
investigation and observations
o' the sa(e users are not being
(ade elsewhere F 1
5articipants in online 'ocus
groups
are likely to be unrepresentative
o' the overall population,
because only Internet users can
be included. In addition,
experience has suggested that
the noFshow rate is o'ten high in
online 'ocus groups that is, a
relatively large nu(ber o'
people agree to take part and
then do not appear in the chat
roo( as scheduled (Eeiss(an,
1@@-). Ahose who do take part
can so(eti(es encounter
technical di''iculties and lose
their Internet connection F 2
a speedy and viable way o'
collecting rich data although
not without signi'icant
ethical obstacles (har',
1@@@) F 1
allowed a geographically
dispersed sa(ple to be used,
with participants
si(ultaneously contributing F
1
allows the collapse o'
geographical restrictions F 1
can involve respondents
located anywhere in the
country or the world F 2
be used to study the opinions
o' people in widely dispersed
places rather than in 2ust one
area. .lso, online 'ocus
groups are relatively
inexpensive
because they do not re<uire a
(eeting roo(, re'resh(ents,
transcription, videotaping, or
participant travel (Landreth,
1@@-K $addox, 1@@-K $iller,
1@@?). Ahe results are
available
<uickly, because the
transcript is co(plete and
1. tewart, #. and Eillia(s,
$., 200+. 39esearching
online populations* the
use o' online 'ocus
groups 'or social
research:. Gualitative
9esearch, +(?), %@+ F ?1,.
2. chneider, ., et al.,
2002. 38haracteristics o'
the "iscussion in 7nline
and >aceFtoF>ace >ocus
4roups:. ocial cience
8o(puter 9eview, 20 (1),
%1F?2.
@
Research Methods
Methods Definition/ Explanation Challenges Advantages Reference
Online Ethnography analyses hu(an practices in the
context o' culture and now the
internet is part o' our culture, with
(eanings, sy(bols, and a 3syste( o'
conceptions expressed in sy(bolic
'or(s by (eans o' which (en
co((unicate, perpetuate and
develop their knowledge about
attitudes towards li'e: (4eertB, 1@/%*
-@) (0enitoF$ontagut, 2011)
computer-mediated communication as a
viable arena for social enquiry - 1 - :6
Markham (1998) notes certain users
simply describe this technolo!y as a
conduit that transmits information from
one place to another treatin! the internet
as a tool -1
&traditional) (odes o' co((unication
('aceFtoF'ace, telephone, and writing), are
no longer the only, or in so(e settings,
even the pri(ary (eans o'
co((unication F 2
>or online ethnography,
researcher could not physically
be present (8arter, 200?K 1ine,
2000K Lyslo'', 200%) F 1
the lack o' physical presence
and the resulting anony(ity
provided by the (ediu( F 2
is the researcher able to write in
a convincing way about the
people studied when anony(ity
inherent in internet interactions
casts doubts upon the identities
o' research participantsP
1ow does the participant
observer (anage their identity
in settings (ediated by text and
graphics, and what i(pact (ight
this have on data collectionP
1ow are researchers to
conceptualiBe the boundaries o'
online settings and the
experiences o' those observedP F
1
unobtrusive observation F 2
disclosing one:s presence to
ask 'or consent (ay sacri'ice
participants: anony(ity and
disturb naturally occurring
behaviour (oukup 1@@@) F 2
1. Eillia(s, $., 200/.
3.vatar watching*
participant observation in
graphical online
environ(ents:.
Gualitative 9esearch,
/(1), +=2?.
2. 4arcia, .., et al., 200@.
3Hthnographic
.pproaches to the
Internet and 8o(puterF
$ediated
8o((unication:. Dournal
o' 8onte(porary
Hthnography, %-(1), +2F
-?.
%. 0eneitoF$ontagut, 9.,
2011. 3Hthnography goes
online* towards a userF
centred (ethodology to
research interpersonal
co((unication on the
internet:. Gualitative
9esearch, 11(,), /1,=
/%+.
10