Laser Physics

Dr. Dr.
Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

Physics of Materials for B. Tech (CSE/ECE) II Sem Physics of Materials for B. Tech (CSE/ECE) II Sem
Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur
1 1 PH 103 PH 103
Laser is a photonic device. Laser is a photonic device.
Attenuation of light in an medium: Attenuation of light in an medium:
When light enters in a medium, a gradual decrease in its intensi When light enters in a medium, a gradual decrease in its intensity ty
occurs mainly because of two processes: occurs mainly because of two processes:
(i) Light Absorption: (i) Light Absorption:
Part of the incident energy is transferred into the energy of th Part of the incident energy is transferred into the energy of the motion of e motion of
the atoms. the atoms.
(ii) Scattering of light: (ii) Scattering of light:
Light is scattered when it encounters obstacles of sizes smaller Light is scattered when it encounters obstacles of sizes smaller than the than the
wavelength wavelength
where is incident intensity, attenuation coeffic where is incident intensity, attenuation coefficient or ient or
absorption coefficient absorption coefficient
Laser Physics
Laser Physics
x
e I I

=
0
0
I
Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar
2 2 PH 103 PH 103
Thermal Equilibrium: Thermal Equilibrium:
A material is composed of identical atoms, which are A material is composed of identical atoms, which are
characterized by a system of specific energy levels. These characterized by a system of specific energy levels. These
energy levels are common to all the atoms of a particular energy levels are common to all the atoms of a particular
medium. medium.
So a certain number of atoms occupy a certain energy level. So a certain number of atoms occupy a certain energy level.
The number of atoms per unit volume that occupy a given The number of atoms per unit volume that occupy a given
energy level is known as the population of the energy level. energy level is known as the population of the energy level.
The number of atoms N The number of atoms N
i i
at the energy level having energy at the energy level having energy E E
i i
can be found with the help of can be found with the help of Boltzman Boltzman law: law:
,
kT
E
i
i
e N

=
K =1.38 X 10 K =1.38 X 10
- -23 23
J/K J/K
is is Boltzman Boltzman Constant Constant
3 3 PH 103 PH 103
Suppose if we have two energy levels E Suppose if we have two energy levels E
1 1
and E and E
2 2
then then
kT
E
kT
E
e N and e N
2 1
2 1

= =
kT E E
e
N
N
/ ) (
1
2
1 2

=
Hence the relative population depends on the (i) temperature and Hence the relative population depends on the (i) temperature and
(ii) the energy difference (E (ii) the energy difference (E
2 2
- -E E
1 1
) )
Consider an example of hydrogen atom Consider an example of hydrogen atom
E E
1 1
= =- -13.6eV and E 13.6eV and E
2 2
= =- -3.4eV , T=300 3.4eV , T=300 K(room K(room temp.), temp.), kT kT=0.025eV =0.025eV
0
408
1
2

e
N
N
i.e., at room temperature all the atoms are in ground state. i.e., at room temperature all the atoms are in ground state.
For higher T = 6000 K For higher T = 6000 K
10
1
2
10
4
N
N
4 4 PH 103 PH 103
Hence at all the temperatures Hence at all the temperatures
Such distribution is known as Such distribution is known as Normal distribution Normal distribution
2 1
N N >>
If we consider then If we consider then
T
1
1
2
N
N
If we consider then If we consider then
0 ) (
1 2
E E
1
1
2
N
N
In any case the population in higher level can not exceed the In any case the population in higher level can not exceed the
population of lower level. population of lower level.
5 5 PH 103 PH 103
Interaction of light with matter Interaction of light with matter
Absorption : Absorption : absorption of a photon will occur only when the absorption of a photon will occur only when the
quantum energy of the photon precisely matches the energy of the photon precisely matches the energy
gap between the initial and final states. gap between the initial and final states.
In the interaction of In the interaction of radiation with matter radiation with matter, if there is no pair of , if there is no pair of
energy states such that the photon energy can elevate the energy states such that the photon energy can elevate the
system from the lower to the upper state, then the matter will system from the lower to the upper state, then the matter will
be be transparent transparent to that radiation. to that radiation.
6 6 PH 103 PH 103
The number of absorption transitions at any instant in any The number of absorption transitions at any instant in any
material are proportional to the material are proportional to the
(i) (i) Number of atoms in the lower level E Number of atoms in the lower level E
1 1
i.e. N i.e. N
1 1
(ii) (ii) Density of photons in the incident beam Density of photons in the incident beam
The rate of absorption is given by: The rate of absorption is given by:
1 12
) ( N B R
abs
=
B B
12 12
is known as is known as Einstein Einstein s coefficient for induced absorption s coefficient for induced absorption
Spontaneous Emission : Spontaneous Emission : The atom can not stay in the The atom can not stay in the
excited state. In a time of about 10 excited state. In a time of about 10
- -8 8
sec. the atom reverts to sec. the atom reverts to
the lower energy state by releasing a photon of energy equal the lower energy state by releasing a photon of energy equal
to the difference of energies. to the difference of energies.
1 2
E E hv =
2 21
N A R
sp
=
A A
21 21
is known as is known as Einstein Einstein s coefficient for spontaneous emission s coefficient for spontaneous emission
The rate of spontaneous emission is given by: The rate of spontaneous emission is given by:
7 7 PH 103 PH 103
Spontaneous Emission Spontaneous Emission
1 2
E E hv =
Characteristic of spontaneous emission: Characteristic of spontaneous emission:
(i) The process of spontaneous emission is natural and can not b (i) The process of spontaneous emission is natural and can not be e
controlled from outside. controlled from outside.
(ii) The instant of transition, direction of propagation, plane (ii) The instant of transition, direction of propagation, plane of of
polarization, initial phase of each photon are random. polarization, initial phase of each photon are random.
(iii) The light emitted through this process is incoherent. (iii) The light emitted through this process is incoherent.
8 8 PH 103 PH 103
Stimulated Emission Stimulated Emission
1 2
E E hv =
If an atom is already in an excited state (an upper energy level If an atom is already in an excited state (an upper energy level, in , in
contrast to its lowest possible level or "ground state"), then a contrast to its lowest possible level or "ground state"), then an n
incoming photon for which the quantum energy is equal to the incoming photon for which the quantum energy is equal to the
energy difference between its present level and a lower level ca energy difference between its present level and a lower level can n
"stimulate" a transition to that lower level, producing a second "stimulate" a transition to that lower level, producing a second
photon of the same energy. photon of the same energy.
9 9 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
When a sizable population of electrons resides in upper levels, this
condition is called a "population inversion", and it sets the stage for
stimulated emission of multiple photons. This is the precondition for
the light amplification which occurs in a laser, and since the emitted
photons have a definite time and phase relation to each other, the
light has a high degree of coherence.
10 10 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
The rate of stimulated emission depends on The rate of stimulated emission depends on
(i) (i) Number of atoms in the excited level E Number of atoms in the excited level E
2 2
i.e. N i.e. N
2 2
(ii) (ii) Density of photons in the incident beam Density of photons in the incident beam
The rate of stimulated emission is given by: The rate of stimulated emission is given by:
2 21
) ( N v B R
st
=
B B
21 21
is known as is known as Einstein Einstein s coefficient for stimulated emission s coefficient for stimulated emission or or
induced emission induced emission
Characteristic of stimulated emission: Characteristic of stimulated emission:
(i) The process of stimulated emission is controllable from outs (i) The process of stimulated emission is controllable from outside. ide.
(ii) The photon induced in this process propagates in the same (ii) The photon induced in this process propagates in the same
direction as that of stimulating photon direction as that of stimulating photon
(iii) The induced photon has identical features (frequency, phas (iii) The induced photon has identical features (frequency, phase, e,
plane of polarization etc.) as of the stimulating photon plane of polarization etc.) as of the stimulating photon
(iv) Multiplication of photons (iv) Multiplication of photons
11 11 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
(v) Since all the photon generated in the same direction are due (v) Since all the photon generated in the same direction are due to the to the
photons of incident light. All the photons i.e., light waves ar photons of incident light. All the photons i.e., light waves are coherent e coherent
and hence interfere constructively. and hence interfere constructively.
So the net intensity of light will be proportional to the square So the net intensity of light will be proportional to the square of the of the
number of atoms radiating the light. number of atoms radiating the light.
I N I
total
2
=
So the light emitted through the process of stimulated emission So the light emitted through the process of stimulated emission is of is of
very high intensity and hence amplified. very high intensity and hence amplified.
Einstein Einstein s relations: s relations:
Under the thermal equilibrium the population N Under the thermal equilibrium the population N
1 1
and N and N
2 2
in the lower in the lower
and upper energy levels remain constant. and upper energy levels remain constant.
This condition requires that the number of transitions from E This condition requires that the number of transitions from E
2 2
to E to E
1 1
must be equal to the number of transitions from E must be equal to the number of transitions from E
1 1
to E to E
2 2
12 12 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
number of atoms number of a number of atoms number of atoms emitting toms emitting
absorbing photons = absorbing photons = photons photons per second per unit per second per unit
per second per unit volume per second per unit volume volume volume
1 12
) ( N v B
The number of atoms The number of atoms
absorbing photons = absorbing photons =
per second per unit volume per second per unit volume
The number of atoms The number of atoms
emitting photons = emitting photons =
per second per unit volume per second per unit volume
2 21 2 21
) ( N v B N A +
Hence Hence
=
1 12
) ( N v B
2 21 2 21
) ( N v B N A +
13 13 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
2 21 2 21 12 1
] )[ ( N A N B B N v =
(
=
12
21
2
1
12
21
2 21 12 1
2 21
] [
) (
B
B
N
N
B
A
N B B N
N A
v
kT hv kT E E
e e
N
N
/ / ) (
1
2
1 2

= =
(
=
12
21
12
21
) (
B
B
e
B
A
v
kT
hv

14 14 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
(
(
|
|
\
|
=
1
1 8
) (
3
3 3
kT
hv
e
c
hv
v

1
12
21
=
B
B
To maintain the thermal equilibrium, the system must release ene To maintain the thermal equilibrium, the system must release energy rgy
in the form of electromagnetic radiation. It is required that t in the form of electromagnetic radiation. It is required that the radiation he radiation
be identical with the black body radiation and consistent with t be identical with the black body radiation and consistent with the he
Plank Plank s black body radiation formula. According to that the radiation s black body radiation formula. According to that the radiation
density is given by density is given by
Comparing the two formulae for density Comparing the two formulae for density
|
|
\
|
=
3
3 3
12
21
8
c
hv
B
A
and and
These two relations are known as These two relations are known as Einstein Einstein s Relations s Relations
21
3 3
3
21 12
8
A
hv
c
B B
|
|
\
|
= =

(i) The coefficient for both absorption and stimulated emission (i) The coefficient for both absorption and stimulated emission are equal. are equal.
(ii) The ratio of coefficients of spontaneous versus stimulated (ii) The ratio of coefficients of spontaneous versus stimulated emissions emissions
is proportional to third power of frequency is proportional to third power of frequency
15 15 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
Hence the process of spontaneous emission dominates over the Hence the process of spontaneous emission dominates over the
stimulated emission. stimulated emission.
Ratio of rates of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission: Ratio of rates of stimulated emission to spontaneous emission:
) (
) (
21
21
2 21
2 21
1
v
A
B
N A
N v B
R
R
R
sp
st
= = =
Using Einstein relation and expression of density Using Einstein relation and expression of density
(
(
=
(
(
|
|
\
|
|
|
\
|
=
1
1
1
1 8
8
3
3 3
3 3
3
1
kT
hv
kT
hv
e e
c
hv
hv
c
R

If we assume If we assume =5 X 10 =5 X 10
14 14
Hz and T = 300 K then Hz and T = 300 K then v
R R
1 1
=10 =10
- -58 58
16 16 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
In general N In general N
1 1
>>N >>N
2 2
, hence the a photon traveling through the medium , hence the a photon traveling through the medium
is more likely to get absorbed than to stimulate an excited atom is more likely to get absorbed than to stimulate an excited atom to emit to emit
a photon. Therefore the process of absorption dominates over th a photon. Therefore the process of absorption dominates over the e
process of stimulated emission. process of stimulated emission.
Ratio of rates of stimulated emission to absorption: Ratio of rates of stimulated emission to absorption:
1
2
1 12
2 21
2
) (
) (
N
N
N v B
N v B
R
R
R
abs
st
= = =
Since B Since B
12 12
= B = B
21 21
But for the light amplification, we require that the stimulated But for the light amplification, we require that the stimulated
emission occur almost exclusively or exceeds in a large sense emission occur almost exclusively or exceeds in a large sense
to the other two processes. to the other two processes.
17 17 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
(i) (i) The population at the excited level should be greater than the The population at the excited level should be greater than the
population at the ground level i.e. N population at the ground level i.e. N
2 2
>N >N
1 1
i.e. i.e. Population Inversion Population Inversion, ,
(ii) (ii) The ratio B The ratio B
21 21
/A /A
12 12
should be large, should be large,
(iii) (iii) a very high radiation density should be present in the medium. a very high radiation density should be present in the medium.
These three are the basic requirements for the light amplificati These three are the basic requirements for the light amplification. on.
Conditions for the domination of stimulated emission over the Conditions for the domination of stimulated emission over the
absorption and spontaneous emission: absorption and spontaneous emission:
(i) (i) The The Population Inversion Population Inversion is achieved by the pumping mechanism. is achieved by the pumping mechanism.
(ii) (ii) A large value of B A large value of B
21 21
/A /A
12 12
is achieved by choosing a is achieved by choosing a Metastable Metastable State State
as the higher energy level. Since the spontaneous emission is as the higher energy level. Since the spontaneous emission is
forbidden from the forbidden from the metastable metastable state hence A state hence A
12 12
will become smaller. will become smaller.
(iii) (iii) A large value of radiation density is achieved by enclosing the A large value of radiation density is achieved by enclosing the
emitted radiation in an optical resonant cavity formed by two emitted radiation in an optical resonant cavity formed by two
parallel mirrors. parallel mirrors.
18 18 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
For achieving and maintaining the condition of population invers For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion, ion,
we need to rise the atoms from lower level to upper level. It we need to rise the atoms from lower level to upper level. It
requires a large amount of energy to be supplied to system. requires a large amount of energy to be supplied to system.
Pumping is the process of supplying energy to the laser medium Pumping is the process of supplying energy to the laser medium
such that it transfers the system in the state of population inv such that it transfers the system in the state of population inversion. ersion.
In this mechanism of pumping a large amount of energy is require In this mechanism of pumping a large amount of energy is required. d.
There are various pumping techniques available to achieve popula There are various pumping techniques available to achieve population tion
inversion: inversion:
Optical pumping: a light source is used to illuminated the laser Optical pumping: a light source is used to illuminated the laser
medium (solid state laser) medium (solid state laser)
Electrical discharge: The electric field causes ionization of th Electrical discharge: The electric field causes ionization of the e
medium and rises it to the excited state medium and rises it to the excited state
Direct conversion: of electrical energy into the light energy Direct conversion: of electrical energy into the light energy
(semiconductor diode laser) (semiconductor diode laser)
Pumping Pumping
19 19 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
The atom can stay in the excited state for a very The atom can stay in the excited state for a very
short time (10 short time (10
- -9 9
sec or less). However to achieve sec or less). However to achieve
the population inversion, the accumulation of the population inversion, the accumulation of
atoms in the excited state is required. i.e., we atoms in the excited state is required. i.e., we
require an energy state with a larger life time i.e. require an energy state with a larger life time i.e.
metastable metastable state. Because of certain state. Because of certain
conservation principles, the atom can not return conservation principles, the atom can not return
to its ground state immediately from the to its ground state immediately from the
metastable metastable state. These state have a life time in state. These state have a life time in
the range 10 the range 10
- -6 6
to 10 to 10
- -3 3
seconds. seconds.
Metastable Metastable State State
20 20 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
Three level pumping scheme Three level pumping scheme
21 21 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
Four level pumping scheme Four level pumping scheme
22 22 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
Optical resonant cavity Optical resonant cavity
23 23 PH 103 PH 103
1 2
E E hv =
Lasing Action Lasing Action
24 24 PH 103 PH 103
Ruby is an aluminum oxide crystal in which some of the Ruby is an aluminum oxide crystal in which some of the
aluminum atoms have been replaced with chromium atoms. aluminum atoms have been replaced with chromium atoms.
Chromium gives ruby its characteristic red color and is Chromium gives ruby its characteristic red color and is
responsible for the lasing behavior of the crystal. Chromium responsible for the lasing behavior of the crystal. Chromium
atoms absorb green and blue light and emit or reflect only atoms absorb green and blue light and emit or reflect only
red light. red light.
Construction: Construction: For a ruby laser, a crystal of ruby is formed For a ruby laser, a crystal of ruby is formed
into a cylinder. A fully reflecting mirror is placed on one end into a cylinder. A fully reflecting mirror is placed on one end
and a partially reflecting mirror on the other. A high and a partially reflecting mirror on the other. A high- -intensity intensity
lamp is spiraled around the ruby cylinder to provide a flash lamp is spiraled around the ruby cylinder to provide a flash
of white light that triggers the laser action. of white light that triggers the laser action.
Ruby Laser
Ruby Laser
25 25 PH 103 PH 103
Working: Working:
The green and blue wavelengths in the flash excite electrons The green and blue wavelengths in the flash excite electrons
in the chromium atoms to a higher energy level. Upon in the chromium atoms to a higher energy level. Upon
returning to their normal state, the electrons emit their returning to their normal state, the electrons emit their
characteristic ruby characteristic ruby- -red light. The mirrors reflect some of this red light. The mirrors reflect some of this
light back and forth inside the ruby crystal, stimulating other light back and forth inside the ruby crystal, stimulating other
excited chromium atoms to produce more red light, until the excited chromium atoms to produce more red light, until the
light pulse builds up to high power and drains the energy light pulse builds up to high power and drains the energy
stored in the crystal. stored in the crystal.
The optically pumped, solid The optically pumped, solid- -state laser uses sapphire as the state laser uses sapphire as the
host lattice and chromium as the active ion. The emission host lattice and chromium as the active ion. The emission
takes place in the red portion of the spectrum. takes place in the red portion of the spectrum.
26 26 PH 103 PH 103
27 27 PH 103 PH 103
Energy Levels of Ruby Laser Energy Levels of Ruby Laser
28 28 PH 103 PH 103
This system is a This system is a three level laser three level laser with lasing transitions with lasing transitions
between E between E
2 2
and E and E
1 1
The excitation of the Chromium ions is done by The excitation of the Chromium ions is done by light pulses light pulses
from flash lamps (usually Xenon). from flash lamps (usually Xenon).
The The Chromium ions Chromium ions absorb light at wavelengths around 545 absorb light at wavelengths around 545
[nm] (500 [nm] (500- -600 [nm]). As a result the ions are transferred to the 600 [nm]). As a result the ions are transferred to the
excited energy level E excited energy level E
3 3
. .
From this level the ions are going down to the From this level the ions are going down to the metastable metastable
energy level energy level E E
2 2
in a in a non non- -radiative radiative transition transition. The energy . The energy
released in this non released in this non- -radiative radiative transition is transferred to the transition is transferred to the
crystal vibrations crystal vibrations and changed into and changed into heat heat that must be that must be
removed away from the system. removed away from the system.
The lifetime of the The lifetime of the metastable metastable level (E level (E
2 2
) is about 5 [ ) is about 5 [msec msec]. ].
Ruby laser has another absorption band which can be used for Ruby laser has another absorption band which can be used for
pumping, in the spectrum range: 350 pumping, in the spectrum range: 350- -450 [nm]. 450 [nm].
29 29 PH 103 PH 103
He
He
-
-
Ne
Ne
Laser
Laser
A helium-neon laser, usually called a He-Ne laser, is a
type of small gas laser. He-Ne lasers have many
industrial and scientific uses, and are often used in
laboratory demonstrations of optics. Its usual operation
wavelength is 632.8 nm, in the red portion of the visible
spectrum.
Construction:
The gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name,
is a mixture of helium and neon gases, in a 5:1 to 20:1
ratio, contained at low pressure (an average 50 Pa per cm
of cavity length) in a glass envelope.
30 30 PH 103 PH 103
The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by an
electrical discharge of around 1000 volts through an anode
and cathode at each end of the glass tube. The optical cavity
of the laser typically consists of a plane, high-reflecting mirror
at one end of the laser tube, and a concave output coupler
mirror of approximately 1% transmission at the other end
He-Ne lasers are normally small, with cavity lengths of
around 15 cm up to 0.5 m, and optical output powers
ranging from 1 mWto 100 mW.
The red HeNe laser wavelength is usually reported as
632nm.
31 31 PH 103 PH 103
Physics of Materials for B. Tech (CSE/ECE) II Physics of Materials for B. Tech (CSE/ECE) II
Sem Sem
32 32
He
He
-
-
Ne
Ne
LASER
LASER
33 33 PH 103 PH 103
34 34 PH 103 PH 103
Energy Level Diagram of He
Energy Level Diagram of He
-
-
Ne
Ne
Laser
Laser
35 35 PH 103 PH 103
36 36 PH 103 PH 103
The laser process in a He The laser process in a He- -Ne Ne laser starts with collision of laser starts with collision of electrons electrons
from the electrical discharge with the helium atoms in the gas. from the electrical discharge with the helium atoms in the gas. This This
excites helium from the excites helium from the ground state ground state to the long to the long- -lived, lived, metastable metastable
excited states. Collision of the excited helium atoms with the excited states. Collision of the excited helium atoms with the
ground ground- -state neon atoms results in transfer of energy to the neon state neon atoms results in transfer of energy to the neon
atoms, exciting them into the 2s and 3s states. This is due to a atoms, exciting them into the 2s and 3s states. This is due to a
coincidence of coincidence of energy levels energy levels between the helium and neon atoms. between the helium and neon atoms.
Semiconductor Laser
Semiconductor Laser
Lasers which use semiconductor as active medium. The majority Lasers which use semiconductor as active medium. The majority
of semiconductor materials are based on a combination of of semiconductor materials are based on a combination of
elements in the third group of the Periodic Table (such as Al, elements in the third group of the Periodic Table (such as Al, Ga Ga, ,
In) and the fifth group (such as N, P, As, In) and the fifth group (such as N, P, As, Sb Sb) hence referred to as ) hence referred to as
the III the III- -V compounds V compounds
37 37 PH 103 PH 103
Semiconductor lasers Semiconductor lasers are said to be "the laser of the future". The are said to be "the laser of the future". The
reasons are: reasons are:
They are compact They are compact
They have the potential of mass production They have the potential of mass production
They can be easily integrated They can be easily integrated
Their properties are in rapid improvement Their properties are in rapid improvement
They are becoming more and more powerful and efficient and they They are becoming more and more powerful and efficient and they
have found a widespread use as pumps for solid have found a widespread use as pumps for solid state lasers. state lasers.
38 38 PH 103 PH 103
A semiconductor laser converts electrical energy into light. Thi A semiconductor laser converts electrical energy into light. This is s is
made possible by using a semiconductor material, whose ability made possible by using a semiconductor material, whose ability
to conduct electricity is between that of conductors and insulat to conduct electricity is between that of conductors and insulators. ors.
By doping a semiconductor with specific amounts of impurities, By doping a semiconductor with specific amounts of impurities,
the number of negatively charged electrons or positively charged the number of negatively charged electrons or positively charged
holes can be changed. holes can be changed.
Compared to other laser types, semiconductor lasers are Compared to other laser types, semiconductor lasers are
compact, reliable and last a long time. Such lasers consist of t compact, reliable and last a long time. Such lasers consist of two wo
basic components, an optical amplifier and a resonator. The basic components, an optical amplifier and a resonator. The
amplifier is made from a direct amplifier is made from a direct- -bandgap bandgap semiconductor material semiconductor material
based on either gallium arsenide ( based on either gallium arsenide (GaAs GaAs) or ) or InP InP substrates. These substrates. These
are compounds based on the Group III and Group V elements in are compounds based on the Group III and Group V elements in
the periodic table. Alloys of these materials are formed onto th the periodic table. Alloys of these materials are formed onto the e
substrates as layered structures containing precise amounts of substrates as layered structures containing precise amounts of
other materials. other materials.
39 39 PH 103 PH 103
The resonator continuously The resonator continuously recirculates recirculates light through the amplifier light through the amplifier
and helps to focus it. This component usually consists of a and helps to focus it. This component usually consists of a
waveguide and two plane waveguide and two plane- -parallel mirrors. These mirrors are parallel mirrors. These mirrors are
coated with a material to increase or decrease reflectivity and coated with a material to increase or decrease reflectivity and to to
improve resistance to damage from the high power densities improve resistance to damage from the high power densities
The performance and cost of a semiconductor depends on its The performance and cost of a semiconductor depends on its
output power, brightness, and operating lifetime. Power is output power, brightness, and operating lifetime. Power is
important because it determines the maximum throughput or feed important because it determines the maximum throughput or feed
rate of a process. High brightness, or the ability to focus lase rate of a process. High brightness, or the ability to focus laser r
output to a small spot, determines power efficiency. Lifetime is output to a small spot, determines power efficiency. Lifetime is
important because the longer a laser lasts, the less it costs to important because the longer a laser lasts, the less it costs to
operate, which is especially critical in industrial applications operate, which is especially critical in industrial applications
40 40 PH 103 PH 103
The simplest semiconductor lasers consist of a single emitter th The simplest semiconductor lasers consist of a single emitter that at
produces over one watt of continuous wave power. To increase produces over one watt of continuous wave power. To increase
power, bars and power, bars and multibar multibar modules or stacks have been developed. modules or stacks have been developed.
A bar is an array of 10 to 50 side A bar is an array of 10 to 50 side- -by by- -side individual semiconductor side individual semiconductor
lasers integrated into a single chip and a stack is a two lasers integrated into a single chip and a stack is a two- -
dimensional array of multiple bars. Bars can produce 50 watts of dimensional array of multiple bars. Bars can produce 50 watts of
output power and last over 5,000 hours. Because such high output power and last over 5,000 hours. Because such high
powers produce a lot of heat, cooling systems must be powers produce a lot of heat, cooling systems must be
incorporated into the design. incorporated into the design.
The conventional semiconductor laser consists of a compound The conventional semiconductor laser consists of a compound
semiconductor, gallium arsenide. This material comes in the form semiconductor, gallium arsenide. This material comes in the form
of ingots that are then further processed into substrates to whi of ingots that are then further processed into substrates to which ch
layers of other materials are added. layers of other materials are added.
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Design Design
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The basic design of a semiconductor laser consists of a "double The basic design of a semiconductor laser consists of a "double
heterostructure heterostructure." This consists of several layers that have different ." This consists of several layers that have different
functions. functions.
An active or light amplification layer is sandwiched between two An active or light amplification layer is sandwiched between two
cladding layers. These cladding layers provide injection of cladding layers. These cladding layers provide injection of
electrons into the active layer. electrons into the active layer.
Because the active layer has a refractive index larger than thos Because the active layer has a refractive index larger than those of e of
the cladding layers, light is confined in the active layer the cladding layers, light is confined in the active layer
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Semiconductor lasers are Semiconductor lasers are lasers lasers based on semiconductor based on semiconductor gain gain
media media, where optical gain is usually achieved by , where optical gain is usually achieved by stimulated stimulated
emission emission at an at an interband interband transition under conditions of a high transition under conditions of a high
carrier density in the conduction band. carrier density in the conduction band.
The physical origin of gain in a semiconductor (for the usual ca The physical origin of gain in a semiconductor (for the usual case se
of an of an interband interband transition) is illustrated in Figure. Without transition) is illustrated in Figure. Without
pumping, most of the electrons are in the valence band. A pump pumping, most of the electrons are in the valence band. A pump
beam with a beam with a photon photon energy slightly above the energy slightly above the bandgap bandgap energy energy
can excite electrons into a higher state in the conduction band, can excite electrons into a higher state in the conduction band,
from where they quickly decay to states near the bottom of the from where they quickly decay to states near the bottom of the
conduction band. conduction band.
At the same time, the holes generated in the valence band move At the same time, the holes generated in the valence band move
to the top of the valence band. to the top of the valence band.
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Electrons in the conduction band can then recombine with these Electrons in the conduction band can then recombine with these
holes, emitting photons with an energy near the holes, emitting photons with an energy near the bandgap bandgap energy. energy.
This process can also be This process can also be stimulated stimulated by incoming photons with by incoming photons with
suitable energy. suitable energy.
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Most semiconductor lasers are Most semiconductor lasers are laser diodes laser diodes, which are pumped , which are pumped
with an electrical current in a region where an n with an electrical current in a region where an n- -doped and a p doped and a p- -
doped semiconductor material meet. doped semiconductor material meet.
However, there are also However, there are also optically pumped optically pumped semiconductor lasers, semiconductor lasers,
where carriers are generated by absorbed pump light, and where carriers are generated by absorbed pump light, and
quantum cascade lasers quantum cascade lasers, where , where intraband intraband transitions are utilized. transitions are utilized.
A Applications pplications of semiconductor lasers are extremely widespread, of semiconductor lasers are extremely widespread,
including areas as diverse as including areas as diverse as optical data transmission optical data transmission, optical , optical
data storage, data storage, metrology metrology, spectroscopy, material processing, , spectroscopy, material processing,
pumping pumping solid solid- -state state lasers ( lasers ( diode diode- -pumped lasers pumped lasers), and various ), and various
kinds of medical treatments. kinds of medical treatments.
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Holography
Holography
Holography is " Holography is "lensless lensless photography" in which an image is photography" in which an image is
captured not as an image focused on film, but as an interference captured not as an image focused on film, but as an interference
pattern at the film. pattern at the film.
Typically, coherent light from a Typically, coherent light from a laser laser is reflected from an object is reflected from an object
and combined at the film with light from a reference beam. This and combined at the film with light from a reference beam. This
recorded interference pattern actually contains much more recorded interference pattern actually contains much more
information than a focused image, and enables the viewer to view information than a focused image, and enables the viewer to view
a true three a true three- -dimensional image which exhibits parallax. dimensional image which exhibits parallax.
That is, the image will change its appearance if you look at it That is, the image will change its appearance if you look at it from from
a different angle, just as if you were looking at a real 3D obje a different angle, just as if you were looking at a real 3D object. ct.
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The Holographic Image The Holographic Image
Some of the descriptions of Some of the descriptions of holograms holograms are are
Image formation by Image formation by wavefront wavefront reconstruction reconstruction
lensless lensless photography photography
freezing an image on its way to your eye, and then reconstructin freezing an image on its way to your eye, and then reconstructing g
it with a laser it with a laser
A consistent characteristic of the images as A consistent characteristic of the images as viewed viewed
The images are true three-dimensional images, showing depth
and parallax and continually changing in aspect with the viewing
angle
Any part of the hologram contains the whole image
The images are scalable. They can be made with one wavelength
and viewed with another, with the possibility of magnification
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Construction of Hologram Construction of Hologram
The
The
coherent
coherent
light from the laser is split to form an
light from the laser is split to form an
object beam and a reference beam. The light from
object beam and a reference beam. The light from
the illuminated object and the reference beam form
the illuminated object and the reference beam form
an
an
interference pattern
interference pattern
on the film. This pattern
on the film. This pattern
(hologram) contains the information about the object
(hologram) contains the information about the object
which can then be
which can then be
viewed
viewed
as a
as a
three dimensional
three dimensional
image
image
.
.
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Reconstruction of a Hologram
Reconstruction of a Hologram
Holography Holography is is lensless lensless photography. The image is captured in the photography. The image is captured in the
interference pattern interference pattern on the film, and the image can be on the film, and the image can be
reconstructed for viewing by shining the reconstructed for viewing by shining the coherent coherent light of a light of a laser laser
on the hologram. The eye is focused behind the film to see the on the hologram. The eye is focused behind the film to see the
image suspended in space. It shows the unique image suspended in space. It shows the unique characteristics of characteristics of
holographic images holographic images. .
The diverged laser beam should be placed in the same orientation The diverged laser beam should be placed in the same orientation
with respect to the film as the reference beam which was used to with respect to the film as the reference beam which was used to
make the hologram. Then the image will be seen in the same make the hologram. Then the image will be seen in the same
position as the original object with respect to the film. It is position as the original object with respect to the film. It is as if the as if the
light from the object was frozen in the film, and then continues light from the object was frozen in the film, and then continues to to
your eye when reconstructed with the laser light. your eye when reconstructed with the laser light.
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Three Three- -Dimensional Image Dimensional Image
Holograms Holograms are true three are true three- -dimensional images. This is evidenced by dimensional images. This is evidenced by
the fact that you can move your head while the fact that you can move your head while viewing the image viewing the image and and
see it in a different perspective. This includes revealing part see it in a different perspective. This includes revealing part of the of the
image which was hidden at another viewing angle. image which was hidden at another viewing angle.
Shown below are three images from the same hologram, obtained by Shown below are three images from the same hologram, obtained by
looking through it at different angles. Note that the pawn appea looking through it at different angles. Note that the pawn appears rs
in different perspective in front of the king behind it. in different perspective in front of the king behind it.
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When a piece is the whole
When a piece is the whole
Every part of a Every part of a hologram hologram contains the image of the whole contains the image of the whole object. object.
You can cut off the corner of a hologram and see the entire imag You can cut off the corner of a hologram and see the entire image e
through it. For every viewing angle you see the image in a through it. For every viewing angle you see the image in a
different perspective, as you would a real object. different perspective, as you would a real object.
Each piece of a hologram contains a particular perspective of th Each piece of a hologram contains a particular perspective of the e
image, but it includes the entire object. image, but it includes the entire object.
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Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

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