Inagined Nonconnunilies NalionaI IndiJJevence as a Calegov oJ AnaIsis

AulIov|s) Tava ZaIva

Souvce SIavic Beviev, VoI. 69, No. 1 |Spving, 2010), pp. 93-119
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies NalionaI IndiJJevence
as a
Calegov
oJ
AnaIsis
Tava ZaIva
Lasl CIvislnas I convinced
n
JalIev lo
dig up
sone oId
JaniI
Iellevs.
M gvandJalIev,
a
JevisI
laxi dvivev Jvon Nev
YovI,
sevved in lIe U.S.
Avn
in
Oevnan duving
WovId Wav II. He vvole
veeII
Iellevs Ione lo
n
gvandnolIev,
and I
Ioped lIe nigIl
sevve as a souvce Jov
n
nev
veseavcI
pvojecl.
In
an
evenl,
I vas
cuvious aIoul vIal
n
gvandJalIev
Iad lo
sa
aIoul Nazi
Oevnan.
I vas
quicII disappoinled,
Iovevev. Il
luvns oul lIal
n gvandJalIev
vas nove
inlevesled in
decIaving
Iis un
ding
Iove Jov Iis
Jall
al Ione and
pvonising giJls
oJ siII
slocIings
lIan
in
anaIzing poIilicaI
condilions in vavline
Euvope.
TIe Iellevs
nigIl
as
veII Iave Ieen vvillen Jvon
BvooIIn
as
Jvon Bavavia. TIe
onI pvooJ
I Iave lIal
n gvandJalIev
sel Jool
on
Oevnan soiI al aII is a
pIolo
oJ
Iin
Ieaning againsl
a
vaII in
BuIenIein,
in lIe BIineIand
|popuIalion
446)
in 1945. On lIe IacI oJ lIe
pIolo
Ie
vvole, BuIenIein,
Oevnan.
FIenl
cIose lo IeII.
Was
n gvandJalIev
indiJJevenl lo lIe
poIilicaI
dvanas
unJoIding
avound Iin? He died vIen I vas
eigIl eavs
oId,
so I Iave no
va
oJ
Inoving.
Bul
veading
lIose Iellevs
pusIed
ne lo lIinI aIoul indiJJev
ence lo
poIilics
and lIe Ivoadev issues il
poses
Jov Iislovians. IndiJJevence
vaises
pavlicuIav cIaIIenges
Jov sociaI and cuIluvaI Iislovians?lIose oJ
us
expIicilI
inlevesled in
uncoveving
lIe
expeviences
oJ noneIiles and
convinced lIal
ovdinav
Iives Iave
sonelIing inpovlanl
lo leII us
aIoul
sociel, poIilics,
cuIluve,
and IislovicaI
cIange.
WIal iJ ouv
suIjecls
seen
lo
sIvug
lIeiv sIouIdevs al lIe
queslions
lIal inlevesl us? Boes il nean ve
need lo
asI diJJevenl
queslions?
Ov can
appavenl
indiJJevence ilseIJ Ie
a
signiJicanl
cIue aIoul lIe
pasl?
TIis avlicIe
expIoves
lIe
polenliaI
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence
as a cale
gov
oJ
anaIsis
in lIe
Iislov
oJ nodevn cenlvaI and easlevn
Euvope.
Since
lIe IivlI oJ nodevn
nass
poIilicaI
novenenls in lIe nineleenlI
cenluv,
Euvopean
nalionaIisls acvoss
lIe
poIilicaI speclvun
Iave Ianenled lIe
JaiIuve oJ lIeiv consliluenls lo
vespond
lo lIe siven-caII oJ nalionaI avaI
ening.
In
1908,
CzecI nalionaIisls in novlIevn BoIenia
conpIained,
On
lIe
Ianguage
Jvonliev ve
vveslIe Jov
evev
incI oJ
soiI,
and ve nusl nol
onI JigIl
vilI lIe
Oevnans,
Iul aIso vilI
venegades
and vilI CzecI
apa
lI
and nalionaI indiJJevence.1
Bul vIiIe nalionaI indiJJevence Ias
Iong
Ieen an
oIsession oJ nalion
aIisl aclivisls in easl cenlvaI
Euvope,
il Ias
onI vecenlI
Iecone a
suIjecl
oJ IislovicaI veseavcI. SevevaI Iislovians oJ easl
cenlvaI
Euvope
Iave ve
I lIanI Fielev
Judson, Jeven King,
lIe
pavlicipanls
al lIe 2008 ConJevence Siles oJ In
diJJevence lo Nalion in
HaIsIuvg
CenlvaI
Euvope
al lIe
Univevsil
oJ
AIIevla,
and lIe
anonnous
veJevees Jov SIavic Beviev Jov lIeiv
IeIpJuI
JeedIacI on
eavIiev dvaJls oJ lIis
essa.
1.
Vvocn zpvava
navodn
jednol
sevevocesIe
|1908),
4.
SIavic Beviev
69,
no. 1
|Spving
2010)
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
94 SIavic Beviev
cenlI
nade nalionaI indiJJevence
ov
anIiguil
in easlevn
Euvope
a cen
lvaI Jocus oJ lIeiv vovI.2 Bul vIal is nalionaI indiJJevence
exaclI,
and
vI
Ias il allvacled Iislovians' allenlion? Hov Iave Jovns and
expvessions
oJ
nalionaI indiJJevence
cIanged
ovev line? Hov does lIe
concepl
oJ indiJ
Jevence inlevsecl vilI olIev
nelIodoIogicaI appvoacIes
lIal
allenpl
lo
see
Ieond
lIe
nalion-slale,
sucI
as
vegionaI Iislov,
IovdevIand
sludies,
and lvansnalionaI
Iislov?
And
JinaII,
vIal
nelIodoIogicaI cIaIIenges
Jace veseavcIevs vIo
allenpl
lo excavale lIe
Iislov
oJ nalionaI indiJ
Jevence?
MaIing
indiJJevence
visiIIe,
I
avgue,
enaIIes Iislovians lo Iel
lev undevsland lIe Iinils oJ nalionaIizalion and
lIeveI cIaIIenges
lIe
nalionaIisl
navvalives,
calegovies,
and JvanevovIs lIal Iave
lvadilionaII
doninaled lIe
IisloviogvapI
oJ easlevn
Euvope.
IndiJJevence and lIe BenalionaIizalion oJ
Hislov
Tvenl-Jive
eavs ago,
anlIvopoIogisls Iegan
lo veJIecl
on
lIe coIoniaIisl
ovigins
oJ lIeiv
discipIine.
In a
seninaI 1973
avlicIe,
Biane Levis
vvole,
Since
anlIvopoIog enevged aIong
vilI lIe
expansion
oJ
Euvope
and
lIe coIonizalion oJ lIe non-Weslevn
vovId,
anlIvopoIogisls
Jound lIen
seIves
pavlicipanls
in lIe coIoniaI
sslen
vIicI
ovganized veIalionsIips
Ielveen Weslevnevs and non-Weslevnevs.3 TIis
cvilique pvovoIed
de
cades oJ
souI-seavcIing, lIvougI
vIicI
anlIvopoIogisls sougIl
lo decoIo
nize IolI lIeiv veseavcI
slvalegies
and lIeiv lIeovelicaI
assunplions.
His
lovians
ave
cuvvenlI
in lIe nidsl oJ
a
siniIav
pvocess,
as ve Jace
up
lo ouv
discipIine's
vecovd
as a
JailIJuI
acconpIice
in
nalion-IuiIding pvojecls.
Becenl inlevesl in nalionaI indiJJevence
anong
Iislovians oJ easl cenlvaI
Euvope
is inexlvicaIIe Jvon lIis Ivoadev novenenl lo vescue
Hislov
Jvon lIe Nalion.4
2.
Oav
CoIen dvev Iislovians' allenlion lo nalionaI indiJJevence aInosl
lIivl eavs
ago I IigIIigIling
lIe sociaI
dnanics
oJ nalionaI aJJiIialion in
Fvague.
See
Oav
B. Co
Ien,
TIe FoIilics
oJ
ElInic SuvvivaI Oevnans in
Fvague,
1861-1914
|Fvincelon, 1981).
Move
vecenlI,
see,
Jov
exanpIe,
Fielev M.
Judson,
Ouavdians
oJ
lIe Nalion Aclivisls on lIe Lan
guage
Fvonlievs
oJ InpeviaI
Auslvia
|CanIvidge,
Mass., 2006):
Jeven King,
Budveisevs inlo
CzecIs and Oevnans A LocaI
Hislov oJ
BoIenian
FoIilics,
1848-1948
|Fvincelon, 2002):
EagIe
OIassIein,
NoIIe NalionaIisls TIe
TvansJovnalion oJ
lIe BoIenian
Avislocvac |CanIvidge,
Mass., 2005):
CIad
Bvanl, Fvague
in BIacI Nazi BuIe and CzecI NalionaIisn
|CanIvidge,
Mass., 2007):
Janes BjovI,
NeilIev Oevnan nov FoIe CalIoIicisn and NalionaI
IndiJJevence
in a
CenlvaI
Euvopean
BovdevIand
|Ann
AvIov, 2008):
TinolI Sndev,
TIe Beconslvuclion
oJ
Na
lions
FoIand, UIvaine, LilIuania, BeIavus,
1569-1999
|Nev
Haven, 2003):
TIeodova Bva
goslinova, SpeaIing
NalionaI
NalionaIizing
lIe OveeIs oJ
BuIgavia,
SIavic Beviev
67,
no. 1
|Spving
2008) 154-81:
Tava
ZaIva,
Kidnapped
SouIs NalionaI
IndiJJevence
and lIe BallIe
Jov
CIiIdven in lIe BoIenian
Lands,
1900-1948
|IlIaca, 2008).
3. Biane
Levis,
AnlIvopoIog
and
CoIoniaIisn,
Cuvvenl
AnlIvopoIog
14,
no. 5
|Be
cenIev
1973)
581-602. Fov an
eavI cvilique
oJ
anlIvopoIog's veIalionsIip
lo coIoniaI
isn,
see TaIaI
Asad, ed.,
AnlIvopoIog
and lIe CoIoniaI Encounlev
|London, 1973).
4. TIis
pIvase
cones Jvon
Fvasenjil
Buava's
Bescuing Hislov Jvon
lIe Nalion
Ques
lioning
Navvalives
oJ
Modevn CIina
|CIicago,
1995).
On lIe doninance oJ lIe nalionaI
pavadign
in lIe IislovicaI
pvoJession,
see aIso SleJan
Bevgev,
A Beluvn lo lIe NalionaI
Favadign?
NalionaI
Hislov Wviling
in
Oevnan, IlaI,
Fvance,
and Bvilain Jvon 1945 lo
lIe Fvesenl

JouvnaI oJ
Modevn
Hislov
77,
no. 3
|SeplenIev
2005)
629-78.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies
95
Hislovians oJ
Euvope
Iave
noslI allenpled
lo delIvone lIe nalion
slale
I sIiJling
lIe scaIe oJ IislovicaI
anaIsis. Conpavalive Iislov,
lvans
Jev
Iislov,
Iisloive
cvoisee,
gIoIaI Iislov,
inlevnalionaI
Iislov, vegionaI
Iis
lov,
IocaI
Iislov,
and,
JinaII,
lvansnalionaI
Iislov
eacI Iave dislinclive
nelIods and
cIains,
Iul aII Iave lIe
polenliaI
lo
cIaIIenge
lIe
pviviIeged
posilion
oJ lIe nalion-slale
as lIe
suIjecl
and
agenl
oJ IislovicaI
cIange.5
In lIeiv eJJovls lo
expIove
lIe Iinils oJ
nalionaIizalion,
Iislovians oJ cen
lvaI and easlevn
Euvope
Iave
luvned,
in
pavlicuIav,
lo lIe
slud
oJ Iovdev
Iands, IocaIisn,
and
vegionaIisn.6 IniliaII,
sludies oJ
vegionaIisn
and Iov
devIands in nodevn
Euvope
Jocused
IavgeI
on
undevslanding
Iov IocaI
and
vegionaI
idenlilies
veve vendeved
conpaliIIe
vilI
Iavgev
nalionaI
izing pvojecls.
AIon
ConJino,
Jov
exanpIe, anaIzed
Iov lIe
concepl
oJ
Heinal in
Oevnan acluaII IeIped
lo consoIidale Oevnan nalionaI
unil
in lIe WiIIeInine
enpive.
TIe nolion oJ
Heinal,
ConJino
avgues,
en
Iodied lIe nalion in lIe
IocaIil, enaIIing
cilizens lo veconciIe divevse
IocaI and
vegionaI IoaIlies
vilI
a
Iavgev
ideaI oJ Oevnan nalionaI
unil.
LiIevise,
eavI
sludies oJ IovdevIand
vegions
in
Euvope,
nosl
nolaII
Felev SaIIins
Boundavies,
denonslvaled Iov nalionaI connunilies veve
consoIidaled
on
lIe
pevipIev
oJ nalion-slales. TIese sludies iIIuninaled
lIe
dnanics
oJ successJuI
nalion-IuiIding pvojecls
valIev lIan
expIoving
lIe Iinilalions oJ nalionaIizalion.7
5. Heinz-OevIavd
Haupl
and
Jiivgen
KocIa,
OescIicIle und
VevgIeicI
Ansdlze und
EvgeInisse
inlevnalionaI
vevgIeicIendev OescIicIlsscIveiIung
|FvanIJuvl
an
Main, 1996):
Jiivgen
KocIa,
Conpavison
and
Beond, Hislov
and
TIeov
42,
no. 1
|FeIvuav
2003) 39-44:
Heinz-OevIavd
Haupl
and
Jiivgen
KocIa,
Conpavalive Hislov
MelIods, Ains,
FvoI
Iens,
in BeIovaI CoIen and Mauva
O'Connov, eds.,
Conpavison
and
Hislov Euvope
in
Cvoss-NalionaI
Fevspeclive
|Nev YovI, 2004),
23-41. Fov
insigIlJuI
veJIeclions on
lIe
pvon
ises and
pilJaIIs
oJ
conpavalive Iislov,
see aIso
Nanc
L.
Oveen,
Fovns oJ
Conpavison,
BeIovaI
CoIen,
Conpavalive Hislov Buev
Bevave,
and Felev
BaIdvin,
Conpaving
and
OenevaIizing WI
AII
Hislov
Is
Conpavalive,
Yel No
Hislov
Is
SocioIog,
aII in Co
Ien and
O'Connov, eds.,
Conpavison
and
Hislov,
41-56, 57-70,
1-22.
6. On
vegionaIisn
and
IocaIisn, see,
anong
olIevs,
Lauvence
CoIe, ed.,
BiJJevenl
FalIs
lo lIe Nalion
BegionaI
and NalionaI Idenlilies in CenlvaI
Euvope
and
IlaI,
1830-1870
|Nev
YovI, 2007):
FIiIipp
TIev and HoIn
SundIaussen,
BegionaIe Bevegungen
und
BegionaI
isnus in
euvopaiscIen
ZviscIenvdunen seil dev Mille des 19.
JaIvIundevls |MavIuvg,
2003):
Bavid BIacIIouvn and
Janes
BelaIIacI, eds., LocaIisn,
Landscape,
and lIe
AnIiguilies oJ
FIace
Oevnan-SpeaIing
CenlvaI
Euvope,
1890-1930
|Tovonlo, 2007):
Felev
HasIingev
and
JoacIin
von
FullIanev, eds., Slaal,
LoaIilal
und MindevIeilen in OslnilleI- und
Sudosleuvopa
1918-1941
|MunicI, 2007).
On
IovdevIands,
see BoIJ Felvi and MicIaeI
MuIIev,
Bie Na
lionaIisievung
von Ovenzen Zuv KonslvuIlion nalionaIev Idenlildl in
spvacIIicI geniscIlen
Ovenz
vegionen |MavIuvg,
2002):
Felev
HasIingev,
ed.,
Ovenze in
KopJ Beilvage
zuv
OescIicIle dev
Ovenze in
OslnilleIeuvopa
|Nev YovI, 1999):
CailIin
MuvdocI,
CIanging
FIaces
MoIiIizing
Sociel,
CuIluve,
and
Tevvilov
in CenlvaI
Euvope
s
BovdevIands,
1870-1946
|Ann AvIov, 2010).
7.
See,
Jov
exanpIe,
CeIia
AppIegale,
A
Euvope
oJ
Begions
BeJIeclions on lIe His
loviogvapI
oJ SuI-NalionaI FIaces in Modevn
Tines,
Anevican HislovicaI Beviev
104,
no. 4
|OcloIev 1999) 1157-82:
AIon
ConJino,
TIe Nalion as a LocaI
MelapIov WuvllenIuvg,
InpeviaI Oevnan,
and NalionaI
Menov,
1871-1918
|CIapeI
HiII, 1997):
SlepIane
Oevson,
TIe Fvide
oJ
FIace LocaI Menovies and FoIilicaI CuIluve in
NineleenlI-Cenluv
Fvance
|IlIaca,
2003):
CavoIine
Fovd,
Cvealing
lIe Nalion in FvovinciaI Fvance
BeIigion
and FoIilicaI
Idenlil
in
Bvillan
|Fvincelon, 1993):
CeIia
AppIegale,
A Nalion
oJ
FvovinciaIs TIe Oevnan Idea
oJ
Heinal
|BevIeIe,
1990):
Felev
SaIIins,
Boundavies TIe
MaIing oJ
Fvance and
Spain
in lIe
Fvenees |BevIeIe,
1989).
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
96
SIavic Beviev
Move
vecenlI,
Iislovians oJ
vegionaIisn,
IocaIisn,
and IovdevIands in
easl cenlvaI
Euvope
Iave vediscoveved
popuIalions
and individuaIs vIo
veve nol so
easiI
svaIIoved
up
I
lIe Jovces oJ nalionaIizalion. TIe Was
sevpoIen
and Masuves in
SiIesia,
lIe scIvenIendes VoIIslun oJ Cavin
lIia,
lIe LenIos oJ lIe
CavpalIians,
lIe HuIlscIinevs oJ Movavian
SiIesia,
TvansIvania's
SzeIIevs,
BoIenia's
Budveisevs,
lIe
lulejzsie
in lIe
Ives
oJ lIe Jovnev FoIisI-LilIuanian
ConnonveaIlI,
Islvians in lIe
JuIian
MavcI?aII seened on
lIe suvJace lo
vesisl lIe nonenlun oJ nodevn
nalion-IuiIding pvojecls.8
AII oJ lIese
appvoacIes
Iave
IeIped
lo
siluale
lIe nalion-slale in a
Ivoadev veIalionaI and
spaliaI
conlexl.
A veIaled
slvaleg
Ias Ieen lo
scvulinize lIe
Iislov
oJ individuaI con
sciousness and
suIjeclivil.
Hislovians Iave asIed lo
vIal exlenl
individu
aIs
acluaII
JeIl
nalionaI,
and
I
exlension,
lo vIal exlenl
lIe
did nol JeeI
nalionaI. TIis
appvoacI
Ias aIso vendeved nalionaI indiJJevence nove
visiIIe lo
Iislovians.9 TIe canonicaI vovIs oJ nalionaIisn
lIeov,
incIud
ing
Benedicl Andevson's
Inagined
Connunilies,
Evnesl OeIInev's Nalions
and
NalionaIisn,
Tevence
Bangev
and Evic HoIsIavn's TIe Invenlion
oJ
Tvadilion,
Evic HoIsIavn's Nalions and NalionaIisn since
1780,
and Eu
gen
WeIev's Feasanls inlo FvencInen aII Jocused
expIicilI
on
lIe aIsence
oJ nalionaI
IoaIlies
IeJove lIe nodevn eva.
B lvacing
lIe
painslaIing
IaIov oJ nalion
IuiIding,
lIese scIoIavs
deJiniliveI
disnanlIed lIe
pvi
novdiaIisl cIains oJ nalionaIisls and eslaIIisIed a
Jivn consensus
anong
Iislovians lIal nalions ave
nodevn,
IislovicaII
and
poIilicaII
conslvucled
connunilies.10
AIlIougI
lIese scIoIavs
posed
JalaI
cIaIIenges
lo
pvinovdiaIisl
navva
lives oJ nalionaI
avaIening, lIe
did IillIe lo
queslion
lIe
vesonance oJ
nalionaIisl cIains and
IoaIlies
in lIe nodevn eva.
Inagined
connuni
lies
na
Iave Iecone so
uIiquilous
in IislovicaI veseavcI lIal ve Iave
inadvevlenlI
Iecone IIind lo individuaIs vIo venained
aIlogelIev
aIooJ
lo lIe nalion's
appeaI.
BeseavcI
on
lIe
Iislov
oJ nalionaIisn since 1980
Ias
lended,
aIove
aII,
lo
anaIze
lIe conlesled
cuIluvaI,
poIilicaI,
and
so
ciaI conlenl oJ nalionaIisl
ideoIogies
and
discouvses,
valIev lIan
pvoIing
lIe oulev Iinils oJ
nalionaIizing pvojecls.
Even as
Iislovians assevl lIal
8. On indiJJevence in lIe
Ives,
see Kale
Bvovn,
A
BiogvapI oJ
No FIace Fvon ElInic
BovdevIand lo Soviel HeavlIand
|CanIvidge,
Mass., 2004):
Sndev,
Beconslvuclion
oJ
Nalions.
On lIe
WindiscIe,
see Andveas
MovilscI,
Bas WindiscIe?eine nalionaIe HiIJsideoIo
gie,
in Andveas
MovilscI, ed.,
FvoIIenJeIdev
dev OescIicIle und
OescIicIlsscIveiIungdev
Kdvnl
nevSIovenen
|KIagenJuvl,
1995),
15-29.
9. Fov a
cvilique
oJ lIe elInicisl
pvesunplions doninaling
lIe
Iislov
oJ easl cen
lvaI
Euvope,
see
Jeven King,
TIe NalionaIizalion oJ Easl CenlvaI
Euvope
ElInicisn,
ElInicil,
and
Beond,
in
Nanc
M.
WingJieId
and Mavia
Bucuv, eds.,
Slaging
lIe Fasl
TIe FoIilics
oJ
Connenovalion in
HaIsIuvg
CenlvaI
Euvope,
1848 lo lIe Fvesenl
|Wesl
LaJaelle,
2001),
112-52.
10. Benedicl
Andevson,
Inagined
Connunilies
BeJIeclions
on lIe
Ovigin
and
Spvead oJ
NalionaIisn
|London, 1983):
Evnesl
OeIInev,
Nalions and NalionaIisn
|IlIaca, 1983):
Tev
ence
Bangev
and Evic
HoIsIavn, eds.,
TIe Invenlion
oJ
Tvadilion
|CanIvidge, Eng.,
1983):
Evic
HoIsIavn,
Nalions and NalionaIisn since 1780
Fvogvanne, MlI, BeaIil |CanIvidge,
Eng.,
1990):
Eugen
WeIev,
Feasanls inlo FvencInen TIe Modevnizalion
oJ
BuvaI
Fvance,
1870
1914
|SlanJovd, 1976).
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 97
nalionaI
gvoups
ave
inagined
connunilies,
lIe
Iave conlinued lo vvile
lIe
Iislov
oJ easlevn
Euvope
in
pavlicuIav
vilI nalionaI
gvoups
in slav
ving
voIes,
anaIzing
veIalions Ielveen lIe
CzecIs,
lIe
Oevnans,
lIe
FoIes,
lIe
SIovenes,
as
lIougI
lIese coIIeclives
veve
seIJ-evidenl enli
lies. Il
na
Ie
line,
in
sIovl,
lo nove
Ieond inagined
connunilies and
lo considev lIe
Iislov
oJ individuaIs vIo slood oulside
ov on lIe
navgins
oJ lIose connunilies.
In Iis
essa
ElInicil
vilIoul
Ovoups, Bogevs
BvuIaIev
cIaIIenges
sociaI scienlisls and Iislovians lo aIandon lIe
assunplion
lIal individu
aIs
IeIong
lo
gvoups
and lIal nalionaI
gvoups
ave
coIevenl sociaI
agenls.
AnaIzing gvoupness
as an
evenl valIev lIan
anaIzing
nalions
as
IislovicaI
aclovs,
Ie
suggesls,
aIevls
us lo lIe
possiIiIil
lIal
gvoupness
na
nol
Iappen,
lIal
IigI
IeveIs oJ
gvoupness na
JaiI lo
cvslaIIize,
de
spile
lIe
gvoup-naIing
eJJovls oJ
elInopoIilicaI enlvepveneuvs,
and
even
in silualions oJ inlense eIile-IeveI elInic conJIicl.11 Bul vIal does il nean
in
pvaclice
Jov Iislovians lo naIe
JaiIed gvoupness
lIeiv
suIjecl?
Evnesl
OeIInev's
dogs
lIal JaiIed lo IavI
pose
deep cIaIIenges
lo
nan
oJ lIe
Iasic
assunplions
lIal Iave
lvadilionaII
slvucluved lIe
Iislov
oJ easl
cenlvaI
Euvope.12
In
pavlicuIav,
cuIluvaI and sociaI Iislovians oJ nalionaI
isn Iave
IavgeI
devoled lIenseIves lo
denonslvaling
lIal nalionaIisls in
easl cenlvaI
Euvope successJuII
inJused
evev
veaIn oJ
daiI
IiJe vilI
na
lionaIisl
signiJicance, IveaIing
dovn dislinclions Ielveen
pulalive puIIic
and
pvivale spIeves.
BvuIaIev, Iovevev,
painls
a
vev
diJJevenl
picluve
oJ IiJe in
poslconnunisl CIuj.
In
spile
oJ lIe
IigII
elInicized vIelovic
lIal Jvanes
poIilicaI
discouvse
lIeve,
Ie
suggesls,
nosl
Hungavians,
IiIe
nosl
Bonanians,
ave
IavgeI
indiJJevenl lo
poIilics,
and
pveoccupied
vilI
pvoIIens
oJ
evevda IiJe?pvoIIens
lIal ave nol
inlevpveled
in elInic
levns.13
Heve,
BvuIaIev uses lIe levn
poIilics
as
sIovlIand Jov
IigI,
nalionaI
poIilics.
He nainlains lIal ve cannol
sinpI
assune
lIal lIe nalionaIiza
lion oJ eIile
poIilicaI
discouvse veJIecls lIe
inlensil
oJ nalionaI
aIIegiances
ov
poIavizalion
in
daiI
IiJe. Bul Iis
inpIicil
conlvasl
Ielveen lIe veaIns
oJ
IigI poIilics
and
evevda
IiJe vaises a
lvouIIing queslion
Jov
so
ciaI Iislovians. IJ ve
discovev lIal noneIiles veve nol
nalionaIized,
ov
lIal
lIe
veve
indiJJevenl lo
nalionaIisl
appeaIs,
is il Iecause
lIe
veve nol
poIilicized
al aII? On lIe
suvJace,
lIis viev
seens lo
veinJovce lIe
Iinav
opposilion
Ielveen
IigI poIilics
and
evevda
IiJe lIal sociaI and cuI
luvaI
Iislovians,
Iislovians oJ
gendev
in
pavlicuIav,
Iave vovIed Iavd lo
undevnine in lIe
pasl lIivl eavs.
TIe
goaI
oJ lIis avlicIe is lIeveJove lo
Iislovicize nalionaI indiJJev
ence
and lo
expIove
ils
polenliaI
as a
calegov
oJ
anaIsis,
vilIoul vein
scviIing inagined
Ioundavies Ielveen lIe
puIIic |poIilicaI) spIeve
and
lIe
pvivale |apoIilicaI)
vovId oJ
evevda
IiJe and vilIoul
evacualing
noneIiles Jvon
poIilics.
Inslead,
I
avgue
lIal lensions Ielveen nalionaIisl
11.
Bogevs
BvuIaIev,
ElInicil
vilIoul
Ovoups |CanIvidge,
Mass.,
2004),
12.
12.
OeIInev,
Nalions and
NalionaIisn,
43.
13.
BvuIaIev,
ElInicil
vilIoul
Ovoups,
22.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
98
SIavic Beviev
aspivalions
and
popuIav vesponses
lo lIeiv denands oJlen
pvopeIIed
po
IilicaI
cIange
and vadicaIizalion in nodevn easl cenlvaI
Euvope.
In lIe
ve
naindev oJ lIis
avlicIe,
I
expIove
lIvee veIaled
queslions
WIal is nalionaI
indiJJevence and does il Iave
a
Iislov?
WJial IislovicaI and inleIIecluaI
Jovces Iave
conspived
lo oIscuve nalionaI indiJJevence? Hov does lIe
calegov
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence inlevsecl vilI
ov
conpIicale
lIe lIeo
velicaI
agenda
oJ lvansnalionaI
Iislov?
BeJining
IndiJJevence
IndiJJevence lo nalionaIisn is nol a nev
discovev
in easl
Euvopean
Iis
lov.
Il is valIev
a nev IaIeI Jov
pIenonena
lIal Iave
Iong
allvacled lIe
allenlion oJ Iislovians and
poIilicaI
aclivisls. WTial ve
nigIl
caII indiJ
Jevence Ias
gone I nan
olIev nanes
|oJlen
devogalov)
in lIe
pasl
vegionaIisn, cosnopoIilanisn,
CalIoIicisn, sociaIisn, IocaIisn,
IiIinguaI
isn,
inlevnavviage, oppovlunisn, innovaIil,
IacIvavdness,
sluIIovn
ness,
and JaIse
consciousness,
lo nane a
Jev. Nov is nalionaI indiJJevence
a
pevJecl
levn,
since indiJJevence ilseIJ cavvies
a
pejovalive
connolalion.
AIlevnalives,
sucI
as
nalionaI
apalI,
anIivaIence,
IaIiIil,
ov Iinalion
aIisn,
IavdI
seen
pveJevaIIe?indiJJevence
can
enconpass
Iul is nol
Iiniled lo
an
one
oJ lIese
pIenonena.
TIe aIsence oJ
a
suilaIIe levn
lo descviIe nonnalionaI and
nalionaII
anIivaIenl
popuIalions aculeI
veJIecls lIe exlenl lo vIicI nalionaIisl
assunplions
Iave
sIaped
lIe
vo
caIuIav
oJ sociaI scienlisls.
TIe levn nalionaI
indiJJevence
can
aIso
appI
lo
nan
diJJevenl Iinds oJ
IeIaviov and
peopIe.
TIis is Iecause
possiIiIilies
Jov and Jovns oJ nalionaI
indiJJevence Iave
cIanged vadicaII
ovev
line,
sIiJling
vilI lIe Ioundav
ies oJ slales and lIe
poIilicaI,
sociaI,
and
IegaI
slvucluves in vIicI
peopIe
Iived. NalionaI indiJJevence in easl cenlvaI
Euvope
vas no nove
slaIIe
ov
consislenl in ils Jovn
ov
neaning
lIan nalionaIisn ilseIJ in lIe nineleenlI
and lvenlielI cenluvies. IndiJJevence
can and sIouId Ie Iislovicized.
Al Jivsl
gIance,
il
nigIl
seen lIal nalionaI indiJJevence
vas
sinpI
a
pvenodevn
veIic?a veJIeclion oJ
IocaI,
vegionaI, dnaslic,
ov
veIigious Io
aIlies lIal veve
gvaduaII viped
oul
I
lIe Jovces oJ
nodevnizalion,
slale
IuiIding,
and nodevn
nass
poIilics.
TIis
assunplion,
oJ
couvse,
Iies al lIe
Ieavl oJ lIe nodevnisl
pavadign
eslaIIisIed
I
Andevson, HoIsIavn,
Bangev,
OeIInev,
and WeIev. In lIese
navvalives, nalionaIizalion,
viding
on lIe laiIvinds oJ
nodevnizalion, induslviaIizalion,
and slale
IuiIding,
appeavs
lo Ie a
one-va
licIel lo a
singIe
deslinalion?lIe
Ionogenous
nalion-slale. Move vecenl veseavcI Ias
suggesled,
Iovevev,
lIal indiJJev
ence lo nalionaIisn
acluaII
JIouvisIed in lIe
ee
oJ lIe nalionaIisl slovn
in
Euvope
Ielveen 1880 and 1948. Fav Jvon
Ieing
a
pvenodevn
veIic,
nalionaI indiJJevence
vas oJlen
a
vesponse
lo nodevn
nass
poIilics.
WeIev's seninaI Feasanls inlo FvencInen iIIuslvales
sone
oJ lIe
pilJaIIs
oJ lIe nodevnisl
pavadign.
WeIev
JanousI cIaIIenged
lIe
pvevaiIing
assunplion
lIal
nineleenlI-cenluv
FvencI
peasanls
and vovIevs
veve
acluaII
FvencI. Fvon
Vosges
lo
Bvillan,
FvencI
peasanls
in lIe nine
leenlI
cenluv
veve
aIlogelIev
indiJJevenl lo
poIilicaI
deIale and lo is
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 99
sues
lIal did nol aJJecl lIen
diveclI,
Ie nainlains.14 FvencI vovIevs
and
peasanls
veve nove
connecled lo lIeiv
IocaI,
vegionaI, pvoJessionaI,
JaniIiaI,
and
veIigious
connunilies lIan lo
an
ovevavcIing
FvencI
na
lionaI
connunil. FevIaps
nosl
leIIingI,
in
Euvope's quinlessenliaI
nalion-slale,
FvencI
vas a
Joveign longue
lo IaIJ lIe
popuIalion
in 1870.15
WeIev
uIlinaleI
concIudes lIal lIe nodevn viev oJ lIe nalion as a
Iod
oJ
peopIe
uniled
accovding
lo lIeiv ovn viII and
Iaving
cevlain allviIules
in connon
|nol
Ieasl
Iislov)
vas al Iesl
duIiousI appIicaIIe
lo lIe
Fvance oJ 1870.16
Feasanls inlo FvencInen deaIl
a sevious IIov lo lIe
pvinovdiaIisl
cIains
oJ nalionaIisl
IisloviogvapI.
IJ
Fvance,
lIe
quinlessenliaI
nalion-slale,
vas nol a
uniJied nalionaI slale in lIe nineleenlI
cenluv,
vIal slale couId
IegilinaleI
cIain lo Ie a Iona Jide nalion-slale? And
el
WeIev's navvalive
is
IigII leIeoIogicaI, IinIing
nodevnizalion and slale
IuiIding
inexlvica
II
lo
nalionaIizalion. Feasanls inlo FvencInen lIus descviIes lIe FvencI
TIivd
BepuIIic's
veIenlIess
canpaign
lo naIe
peasanls
inlo FvencInen
I IauncIing
an
avn
oJ
civiIizing
scIooIleacIevs and civiI sevvanls inlo
lIe IacIvavd
counlvside,
vIeve
lIe suppvessed
IocaI
diaIecls,
lvadi
lions,
supevslilions,
and
veIigious pvaclices
and
inposed
a
nodevn,
uni
Jied FvencI cuIluve and
Iuveaucvac.
Hislovians oJ FvencI
vegionaIisn
and lIe FvencI
enpive
Iave since
cIaIIenged
lIis
lop-dovn
accounl oJ
lIe
veIalionsIip
Ielveen
vegionaIisn,
coIoniaIisn,
and nalion
IuiIding
in nodevn Fvance.17 Bul Feasanls inlo
FvencInen,
IiIe
nan
eavI
sludies oJ
nalions
as
inagined
connunilies,
sinuIlaneousI acInovIedges
nalionaI
indiJJevence and
veIegales
il lo a
pvenodevn pasl.18
I
avgue,
in
conlvasl,
lIal nalionaI indiJJevence
pevsisled
veII inlo lIe lvenlielI
cenluv
and
lIal il
vas
pvoduced
and veinJovced
I
nodevn
nass
poIilics.
BeseavcI on
sevevaI dislincl
vegions
oJ easlevn and soulIeaslevn Eu
vope
conJivns lIal nalionaI anIivaIence vas nol
viped
oul
I
lIe lidaI
Jovce oJ nodevnizalion. TIe
Uppev
SiIesians sludied
I BjovI
veve
pev
Iaps
lIe nosl
JanousI
indiJJevenl
popuIalion
in
lvenlielI-cenluv
cenlvaI
Euvope.
In
1906,
FalIev
Jan Kapica posed
lIe
queslion,
WIal
is an
Uppev
SiIesian? Is Ie
a
Oevnan,
a
FoIe,
a
Fvussian,
sinpI
an
Up
pev
SiIesian,
ov
sinpI
a
CalIoIic
ov,
pevIaps,
even
jusl
an
aIslvacl Iu
nan
Ieing?19
His
queslion
vas nevev
deJiniliveI
vesoIved,
Iul lIis vas
nol Iecause SiIesians veve
navooned in
pvenodevnil.
LiIe BoIenia
and
AIsace-Lovvaine,
Uppev
SiIesia al lIe luvn oJ lIe lvenlielI
cenluv
Ioasled neav
univevsaI
Iilevac, videspvead
induslviaIizalion,
and
a
viIvanl
associalionaI cuIluve.
BjovI
sIovs lIal
a
vesiIienl CalIoIic suIcuIluve in
14.
WeIev,
Feasanls inlo
FvencInen,
343.
15.
IIid.,
67-94.
16.
IIid.,
485.
17.
See,
Jov
exanpIe,
Fovd,
Cvealing
lIe
Nalion: Oevson,
Fvide
oJ
FIace:
Janes BaugIlon,
An
Enpive
Bivided
BeIigion, BepuIIicanisn,
and lIe
MaIing oJ
FvencI
CoIoniaIisn,
1880-1914
|Nev YovI, 2006).
18.
WeIev,
Feasanls inlo
FvencInen,
494. TIe concIusion can Ie vead as an
apoIog
Jov
FvencI coIoniaIisn.
19.
Quoled
in
BjovI,
NeilIev Oevnan
nov
FoIe,
1.
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100
SIavic Beviev
Uppev
SiIesia,
pvonoled I
a
nalionaII
indiJJevenl
cIevg,
nonelIeIess
conpIicaled
nalionaIizalion in lIe
vegion.
TIe
slov
oJ
Uppev
SiIesia
cIaIIenges
lIe
leIeoIogicaI assunplion
lIal
nalionaIizalion vas ivvevevsiIIe. TIe
pevsislence
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence
in SiIesia veII inlo lIe lvenlielI
cenluv
Jovces Iislovians lo conJvonl lIe
possiIiIil
lIal
peopIe
na
Ie
suIjecled
lo
nuIlipIe
pvocesses
oJ nalion
aIizalion vilIoul
Ieconing ivvelvievaII
innevsed in
an
oJ
lIen,
BjovI
avgues.20
AJlev
a
IvieJ
peviod
oJ nalionaIisl
poIavizalion
Ielveen 1897 and
1907,
lIe
ulvaquisl
CalIoIic Cenlev
Favl
and lIe SociaI Benocvals
ve
enevged
as
lIe nosl
povevJuI poIilicaI pavlies
in
Uppev
SiIesia in lIe
eIeclions oJ 1912. TIe
nalionaII anIiguous pvoJiIes
oJ lIese lvo
pav
lies
acluaII
JaciIilaled lIeiv eIeclovaI
success,
accovding
lo
BjovI.
Ivoni
caII,
lIe
vev
slvidenc
oJ lIe Oevnan and FoIisI nalionaIisl novenenls
aIienaled SiIesians and
IeIped
lo
augnenl
lIe vanIs oJ lIe
nalionaII
uncevlain. WIiIe lIe Oevnan
inpeviaI govevnnenl's vepvessive Iinguislic
poIicies sougIl
lo evadicale lIe FoIisI
Ianguage
Jvon
puIIic
IiJe,
FoIisI
nalionaIisls conslvued
an
use
oJ Oevnan as a
Jovn oJ nalionaI lveason.
Bul neilIev nalionaI
canp's Iinguislic
aIsoIulisn vesonaled vilI SiIe
sians vIo veve
accusloned lo
Iiving
in a
nalionaII
and
IinguislicaII
Iel
evogeneous
envivonnenl. TIe vesuIl vas a
gvoving polenliaI
conslilu
enc
Jov
a
supvanalionaI poIilics
in vIal Iad
so
vecenlI
seened IiIe a
no-nan's-Iand Ielveen nalionaIisl
canps.21
In BaInalia in lIe nid-nineleenlI
cenluv, Boninique
BeiII Ias Jound
a
siniIav
veIalionsIip
Ielveen lIe vise oJ nodevn nalionaIisl novenenls
and
a
JIouvisIing
cuIluve oJ nalionaI
anIiguil. Man
BaInalian eIiles seIJ
consciousI
assevled lIal
lIe
veve
IolI IlaIian and
SIavic,
insisling
lIal
lIeiv
speciaI deslin
vas lo nediale Ielveen lIe lvo cuIluves.22 In lIe
Ju
Iian
MavcI, neanvIiIe,
a
vegion
oJ lIe Jovnev BaIIans divided Ielveen
pvesenl-da
Cvoalia,
IlaI,
and
SIovenia,
FaneIa
BaIIingev
Ias sIovn lIal
Islvians aIso
deveIoped seIJ-consciousI IIvid
idenlilies in
vesponse
lo
inlense
poIilicaI
and sociaI
pvessuve
Jvon
conpeling
nalionaIisl
nove
nenls.23 And in lIe BoIenian Lands in lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv,
nalion
aIisl
conpelilion engendeved
a
vivluaI
Iidding
vav Jov lIe souIs oJ cIiIdven.
BolI CzecI and Oevnan scIooIs and veIJave inslilulions oJJeved
pavenls
Jvee
IuncIes, lexlIooIs,
cIolIing,
and even CIvislnas
giJls
lo allvacl
IigIev
envoIInenls and
expand
lIe vanIs oJ lIe nalion. Il is
IavdI suvpvising
lIal
vIen
queslioned
aIoul Iis nalionaI
IoaIlies
in
1948,
one
IiIinguaI Jaclov
vovIev
JvanII vepIied,
Il is
a nallev oJ vIo is
giving
nove.24
Acvoss easlevn
Euvope, conpelilion
Ielveen
popuIav
nalionaIisl
novenenls on
lIe
gvound acluaII encouvaged
nalionaI indiJJevence. Bul
20.
IIid.,
4.
21.
IIid., 172, 129,
and 131. On
Uppev
SiIesia,
see aIso Kai Slvuve and
FIiIipp
TIev,
eds.,
Ovenzen dev Nalionen IdenlilalenvandeI in OIevscIIesien in devNeuzeil
|MavIuvg,
2002).
22.
Boninique
BeiII,
A Mission oJ Medialion BaInalia's MuIli-NalionaI
BegionaI
isn Jvon lIe
1830s-60s,
in
CoIe, ed.,
BiJJevenl
FalIs lo lIe
Nalion,
16-36.
23. FaneIa
BaIIingev, Hislov
in ExiIe
Menov
and
Idenlil
al lIe Bovdevs
oJ
lIe BaIIans
|Fvincelon, 2002),
262.
24.
JoseJ HuvsI, Zjislovdni
ndvodnosli
|Fvague,
1947),
92-94.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies
101
lIe Jovns oJ nalionaI indiJJevence did
cIange dvanalicaII
ovev
line and
acvoss
vegines.
Fov
sone,
pavlicuIavI
in
HaIsIuvg
Auslvia,
indiJJevence
lo nalionaIisn couId enlaiI lIe
conpIele
aIsence oJ nalionaI
IoaIlies?a
cIain lo Ie neilIev CzecI
nov
Oevnan,
neilIev FoIisI nov
BulIene,
nei
lIev Oevnan
nov
SIovene. In lIe Iale nineleenlI
cenluv,
Iovevev,
as
OevaId SlouvzI and
King
Iave
sIovn,
lIe Auslvian slale ilseIJ
Iegan
lo
nuIlinalionaIize,
acInovIedging
lIe so-caIIed
vigIls
oJ nalionaI coIIec
lives in ovdev lo deJuse nalionaI lensions.25 TIis nade nalionaI
agnosli
cisn Iess
viaIIe,
pavlicuIavI
in
vegions
aJJecled
I
lIe so-caIIed nalionaI
conpvonises
oJ lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv |Movavia, OaIicia, BuIovina).
Once cilizens
veve
Jovced lo
vegislev
lIeiv
nalionaIil
in ovdev lo exevcise
Iasic civiI
vigIls
sucI
as
lIe
vigIl
lo vole ov lo a
pvinav
scIooI
educalion,
venaining
on lIe nalionaI sideIines
vas no
Iongev sinpIe.
TIe
coIIapse
oJ lIe
HaIsIuvg enpive
inlo seIJ-decIaved nalion-slales
in 1918 vendeved lIe
oulvigIl
veJusaI oJ
nalionaIil neavI inpossiIIe.
TIe dissoIulion oJ lIe Auslvian
enpive
navIed lIe denise oJ lIe nalion
aII
indiJJevenl
ov
neulvaI slale in easl cenlvaI
Euvope.
TIe
CzecIosIovaI,
FoIisI,
and
YugosIav govevnnenls
aII
JovciII
cIassiJied
cilizens,
Ioping
lo Ioosl lIe
Iegilinac
oJ lIeiv slales
doneslicaII
and
inlevnalionaII I
veducing
lIe nunIev oJ
peopIe
counled
as
nenIevs oJ
ninovil gvoups.26
AIlIougI
inlevvav CzecIosIovaIia and
YugosIavia
veve
IolI
oJJiciaII
supvanalionaI,
neilIev
govevnnenl
vas
nalionaII
indiJJevenl. CzecIosIo
vaIia
vas
aIvas
conceived oJ as a
nalion-slale,
EIizaIelI BaIIe Ias
avgued.
TIe CzecIosIovaI nalion vas
deJined in levns oJ sIaved cuIluvaI
vaIues,
lIe cIoseness oJ lIe CzecI and SIovaI
Ianguages,
and vaciaI
IinsIip,
and
nol
sinpI
in levns oJ civic
IoaIlies.
Oevnans,
Hungavians, Opsies,
and
FoIes couId nol Ie CzecIosIovaIs.27 TIeve
vas
aIso
vev
IillIe
Yugo
sIavisn in inlevvav
YugosIavia,
eilIev al lIe IeveI oJ
poIilicaI pavlies,
lIe
educalionaI
sslen,
ov cuIluvaI and
veIigious ovganizalions.28 YugosIavisn
sIaved lIe
excIusionav Iogic
oJ lIe
nalion-slale,
CIavIes
JeIavicI
Ias
av
gued,
since lIe
non-SIavs,
lIe
AIIanians, Oevnans, OveeIs,
Hungavians,
Bonanians, TuvIs,
and
olIevs,
veve nol a
pavl
oJ lIe
equalion.29
TIe Soviel Union is oJ couvse lIe cIassic
exanpIe
oJ Iov
an
oJJiciaII
supvanalionaI
slale
acluaII
conlviIuled lo lIe evadicalion oJ nalionaI in
25.
King,
Budveisevs, 114-53:
OevaId
SlouvzI,
Bie
OIeicIIevecIligung
dev NalionaIildlen
in dev
VevJassung
und
VevvaIlung
OslevveicIs
|Vienna, 1985).
26. On nalionaI
cIassiJicalion,
see Tava
ZaIva,
TIe
'Minovil
FvoIIen' and NalionaI
CIassiJicalion in lIe FvencI and CzecIosIovaI
BovdevIands,
Conlenpovav Euvopean Hislov
17,
no.
2
|Ma
2008)
137-65.
27. EIizaIelI
BaIIe,
TIe
MaIing
oJ CzecIosIovaIisn in lIe Fivsl CzecIosIovaI
BepuIIic,
in Mavlin
ScIuIze-WesseI, ed.,
LoaIildlen
in dev TscIecIosIovaIiscIen
BepuIIiI,
1918-1938
|MunicI, 2004),
23-44.
28. SvecIo M.
Bzaja,
Bie
poIiliscIe
BeaIildl des
JugosIavisnus
|1918-1991) |MunicI,
2002):
See aIso CIavIes
JeIavicI,
SoulI SIav Educalion Was TIeve
YugosIavisn?
and Av
noId
Suppan, YugosIavisn
vevsus
SevIian, Cvoalian,
and SIovene NalionaIisn
FoIilicaI,
IdeoIogicaI,
and CuIluvaI Causes oJ lIe Bise and FaII oJ
YugosIavia,
IolI in Novnan M.
NainavI and
HoII
Case, eds.,
YugosIavia
and Ils Hislovians
Undevslanding
lIe BaIIan Wavs
|SlanJovd, 2003),
93-115 and 116-39.
29.
JeIavicI,
SoulI SIav
Educalion,
95.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
102 SIavic Beviev
diJJevence. Becenl veseavcI
I Tevv
Mavlin,
Fvancine
HivscI,
Yuvi SIez
Iine,
and olIevs Ias slvessed lIe cenlvaI voIe oJ lIe Soviel
govevnnenl
in
nalionaIizing
lIe Soviel
popuIalion.
Soviel
poIicnaIevs slvalegicaII
consoIidaled nalionaI connunilies in lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv,
oJlen
culling
lIen Jvon vIoIe cIolI
lIvougI
nalionaI cIassiJicalion and nalion
aIizing Iinguislic,
cuIluvaI,
and educalion
poIicies.
In lIe
Iong-vun,
Soviel
oJJiciaIs
Ioped
lo
pIacale poIilicaI
nalionaIisn
I encouvaging
cuIluvaI
nalionaIisn.30
BuiIding
on
lIese
avgunenls,
Bvovn's
BiogvapI oJ
No FIace lvaces lIe
JvaugIl
encounlevs Ielveen Soviel oJJiciaIs and vuvaI
popuIalions
in lIe
Ives,
lIe IovdevIand
vegions
Ielveen Iislovic FoIand and Bussia. In lIese
vegions,
Soviel oJJiciaIs
quicII
discoveved lIal indiJJevence lo nalionaI
isn vas nove
lIe
novn
lIan lIe
exceplion.
In
1925,
Jov
exanpIe, Jan
SauIevicI,
Secvelav
Jov lIe UIvainian Connission Jov NalionaI
Minovil
AJJaivs,
vas
cIavged
vilI lIe lasI oJ
laIing
a nalionaI
invenlov
oJ lIe
Ives,
in ovdev lo
inpIenenl
Soviel
pIans
Jov lIe eslaIIisInenl oJ
a
UIvai
nian aulononous
vegion.
He
vepovled
vilI
disna
lIal UIvainians and
FoIes
IavdI
diJJev Jvon one anolIev in lIeiv naleviaI exislence
Ieond
lIeiv convevsalionaI
Ianguage?Iovevev, Ianguage
loo is
pvoIIenalic
Iecause lIe IocaI FoIisI sounds
vev
nucI IiIe lIe IocaI UIvainian. To
conpIicale
nallevs,
nucI oJ lIe
popuIalion
vas
IiIinguaI.31
ConJounded,
oJJiciaIs
allenpled
lo asI
peopIe
aIoul lIeiv nalionaI
IoaIlies,
Iul lIis
vas
IavdI IeIpJuI.
LocaI FoIisI- and
UIvainian-speaIevs
aIiIe oJlen insisled
lIal
lIe
veve
sinpI peasanls.
OlIevs
vepIied
lIal
lIe IeIonged
lo lIe
CalIoIic
nalionaIil.
Sone idenliJied lIenseIves
as
lulejzsie,
ov
peopIe
Jvon Ieve. One
peasanl
cIained lIal Ie
spoIe
lIe CalIoIic
Ianguage,
vIiIe olIevs
sinpI
insisled lIal
lIe spoIe
in lIe
peasanl va
ov in lIe
Ianguage
oJ Ieve.32
OJ
couvse,
JovciIIe cIassiJicalion venl a
Iong
va
lovavd
evadicaling
lIis Iind oJ nalionaI
anIiguil. IncveasingI,
aJlev 1918 in easlevn
Euvope,
nalionaIil
Iecane
an
expIicil
Iasis Jov
cilizensIip vigIls
and Jov
secuving
voling pviviIeges,
educalion,
and sociaI sevvices in lIe
HaIsIuvg
successov
slales and in lIe Soviel Union. NalionaIisl aclivisls lIenseIves
gIeeJuII
ceIeIvaled lIe denise oJ nalionaI indiJJevence in lIe aJlevnalI oJ lIe vev
oIulion oJ 1918.
Hugo
HeIIev,
a
Oevnan cIiId veIJave aclivisl in
BoIenia,
Ioasled
lIal,
aJlev lIe
vevoIulion,
nalionaIisl enlIusiasn vusIed in IiIe
a
JvesI
spving, avaIening
IiJe
lIvougIoul
aII oJ Oevnan
BoIenia,
neIling
lIe snov and ice oJ nalionaI
anIivaIence,
dispevsing
lIe cIouds vIicI
Iad
pavaIzed
and
depvessed
nalionaIisl
lIougIl, JeeIing,
and viII.
. . .
TIose veve lIe
good
lines!33
30.
Tevv
Mavlin,
TIe
AJJivnalive
Aclion
Enpive
Nalions and NalionaIisn in lIe Soviel Un
ion,
1923-1939
|IlIaca, 2001):
Fvancine
HivscI,
Enpive oJ
Nalions
ElInogvapIic KnovIedge
and lIe
MaIing oJ
lIe Soviel Union
|IlIaca, 2005):
Yuvi
SIezIine,
TIe USSB as a ConnunaI
Apavlnenl,
ov Hov
a SociaIisl Slale Fvonoled ElInic
FavlicuIavisn,
SIavic Beviev
53,
no.
2
|Sunnev 1994)
414-52.
31.
Bvovn,
BiogvapI oJ
No
FIace,
33.
32.
IIid.,
39.
33.
Hugo
HeIIev,
Bie
EvzieIung
zun deulscIen Wesen
|Fvague,
1936),
9.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 103
SadI
Jov HeIIev and Iis nalionaIisl
Jviends, Iovevev,
lIe
good
lines
did nol Iasl. TIe
coIIapse
oJ easlevn
Euvope's
conlinenlaI
enpives
in 1918
did nol
speII
lIe end oJ nalionaI indiJJevence Iul valIev
encouvaged
ils
expvession
in diJJevenl Jovns. In lIe BoIenian
Lands,
Jov
exanpIe,
nan
CzecI-speaIevs
conlinued lo
navv
Oevnan-speaIevs
and
vice-vevsa,
and
in sucI
JaniIies,
IiIinguaIisn
and JIuid nalionaI
IoaIlies
veve lIe novn.
OlIev cilizens aIso venained
on
lIe Jence vIen il cane lo nalionaI aJJiIi
alion. TIese individuaIs svilcIed sides
depending
on
poIilicaI
and sociaI
civcunslances. TIe nunIev oJ
Oevnan-speaIevs
in CzecIosIovaIia de
cIined
I
400,000
Jvon 1910 lo
1921,
Jov
exanpIe.
In sone lovns sucI
as
Budejovice/Budveis,
lIe nunIev oJ
peopIe vegisleving
as
Oevnans
dvopped I
as
nucI
as 50
pevcenl.34
WIeve did aII lIe Oevnans
go?
Sone died in lIe
vav,
sone
enigvaled
lo Auslvia
ov
Oevnan,
sone
gave
in lo slale
pvessuve
lo Iecone CzecIo
sIovaIs,
and sone
vegisleved
as
nenIevs oJ lIe
nevI
cvealed
JevisI
na
lionaIil. Man
olIevs, Iovevev,
veve
sinpI
side-svilcIevs,
vIo
sav
lIal
nenIevsIip
in lIe nalion-slale couId Iave ils
pviviIeges.
Even nove in
dividuaIs
na
Iave consideved lIenseIves
noninaII
CzecIs, Oevnans,
FoIes,
ov
Hungavians, aIlIougI lIe vejecled
lIe slvidenl denands oJ na
lionaIisl
poIilicians.
NalionaIisl
ovganizevs
in lIe
eavI lvenlielI-cenluv
vovIed
liveIessI
lo educale cilizens aIoul lIe
nan
dulies lIal
acconpa
nied nalionaI
IeIonging. Being
a
good
Oevnan did nol
sinpI
enlaiI casl
ing
a IaIIol Jov nalionaIisl
poIilicians
on
eIeclion
da. LoaI
Oevnans veve
lo
sIop excIusiveI
in Oevnan-ovned
sloves,
visil
endangeved
Oevnan
Ianguage
Jvonlievs
on
vacalion,
join
Oevnan cIovaI
gvoups,
Jive
con
panies,
and associalions
|and
veguIavI
naIe JinanciaI
conlviIulions),
speaI onI
Oevnan al
Ione,
navv
Oevnans,
Iive Oevnan
nannies,
and
send lIeiv cIiIdven
excIusiveI
lo Oevnan
Iindevgavlens,
sunnev
canps,
and scIooIs.35 Nol
suvpvisingI, veIaliveI
Jev individuaIs
nanaged
lo
Ieep
up
vilI lIe
exIausling
denands oJ lIe nalionaIisl
IiJeslIe. B
1930 in
CzecIosIovaIia,
so-caIIed aclivisl
pavlies,
sucI as lIe SociaI
Benocvals,
lIe
Agvavian Favl,
and lIe CIvislian SociaI
Favl, enjoed
lIe
suppovl
oJ
a
JuII 75
pevcenl
oJ lIe Oevnan
popuIalion.
TIese
pavlies
veve
pvinaviI
ovganized
avound non-nalionaIisl concevns
and issues.
OnI
in lIe nid
19308,
vIen lIe Oveal
Bepvession Iegan
lo inJIicl lIe vovsl on
Oevnan
speaIing
induslviaI
vegions,
did
Oevnan-speaIevs incveasingI
luvn lo
vavd lIe nalionaIisl Sudelen Oevnan
Favl.36
Nov vas
indiJJevence
easiI
IanisIed Jvon inlevvav FoIand and Hun
gav.
TIousands oJ
Oevnan-speaIing
Fvoleslanls in cenlvaI and easlevn
FoIand decIaved lIenseIves FoIes on
inlevvav FoIand's Jivsl census in
1921. In
Lodz,
FoIand's second
Iavgesl cil,
sucI individuaIs veve
Inovn
as
LodzevnenscIen.
JoseJ SpicIevnann,
a
deIegale
lo lIe
Sejn
Jvon
34.
King,
Budveisevs,
164-66.
35.
See,
Jov
exanpIe, Judson,
Ouavdians
oJ
lIe
Nalion:
Nanc
M.
WingJieId, FIag
Wavs
and Slone Sainls Hov lIe BoIenian Lands Becane CzecI
|CanIvidge,
Mass.,
2007):
EIizaIelI
Havve,
Wonen and lIe Nazi Easl
Agenls
and Wilnesses
oJ
Oevnanizalion
|Nev Haven, 2003):
Bvanl, Fvague
in
BIacI: ZaIva,
Kidnapped
SouIs.
36.
ZaIva,
Kidnapped
SouIs,
144.
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104
SIavic Beviev
Lodz,
veIenenlI vejecled pan-Oevnanisn
in a
speecI
in MavcI
1919,
decIaving,
We,
lIe cilizens oJ Oevnan
elInicil,
considev FoIand ouv
FalIevIand.
. . .
Ouv enlive
pscIe
is
conpIeleI
diJJevenl Jvon lIal oJ
lIe Oevnans
on
lIe olIev side oJ lIe Iovdev.
. . .
We
ave
vead
lo
give
ouv
pvopevl
and
ouv
Iives in ovdev lo do
evevlIing
ve can lo cveale a
slvong
and
povevJuI
FoIand.37 In
Hungav
in
1941, neanvIiIe, 174,995
individuaIs decIaved Oevnan
as
lIeiv nalive
longue
on lIe
Hungavian
census
Iul
sinuIlaneousI vegisleved
as
nenIevs oJ lIe
Hungavian
na
lionaIil.
A
vepovl I
a
IocaI census oJJiciaI indicaled lIal nosl Oevnan
speaIing Hungavians
caved
nove
aIoul
pvolecling
lIeiv Iand and
pvop
evl
lIan aIoul
pvesevving
a
Oevnan nalionaI
idenlil, expIaining,
TIe
SvaIian
popuIalion
JeeIs al Ione
Ieve,
vanls lo
sla
Ieve,
is allacIed
lo lIe Iand.
TIe
ave
viIIing
lo disavov nol
onI
lIeiv
nalionaIil
Iul
aIso lIeiv nolIev
longue
iJ lIal snaII
pvice
vouId aIIov lIen lo venain
Ieve.38 In lIe
BuvgenIand vegion
oJ
Auslvia, neanvIiIe,
lIe Nazi
pavl
successJuII
vecvuiled
Hungavian-
and
Cvoalian-speaIevs
in lIe Iale
1930s,
and
even
ovganized
IocaI
pavl
vaIIies and evenls in
Hungavian
and
Cvoalian.39
NalionaIisl
poIilicians
acvoss easl cenlvaI
Euvope
decvied sucI indi
viduaIs
as
oppovlunisls,
coIIaIovalovs,
and lvailovs. In inlevvav CzecIosIo
vaIia,
Jov
exanpIe,
leacIevs
aIIeged
lIal
Oevnan-speaIing pavenls
vIo
senl lIeiv cIiIdven lo CzecI scIooIs
seviousI danage
lIeiv nalion and
lIeveI
vovI Jov ils exlinclion. TIis is lIe vesuIl oJ.
. .
nalionaI indiJJev
ence
lIal sIouId Ie a
punisIaIIe
oJJense.40 Bul sucI individuaIs
veve
nol
necessaviI
viclins oJ JaIse
consciousness,
poIilicaI
and econonic
pves
suve,
ov novaI
Iassilude?lIe sinpI
did nol
ovganize
lIeiv Iives
ov
poIili
caI
aIIegiances accovding
lo nalionaIisl
pviovilies.
Oiven lIe
divevsil
oJ IeIaviovs and alliludes lIal can Ie
gvouped
undev lIe vuIvic oJ nalionaI
indiJJevence,
il is vovlI
asIing
iJ lIe levn
is loo Ivoad lo Ie useJuI. TIe coIevence oJ lIe
calegov,
I
IeIieve,
uI
linaleI
Iies in nalionaIisls'
ovn use oJ il lo noIiIize
polenliaI
vecvuils.
BegavdIess
oJ divevse nolivalions and
inlevesls,
nalionaII
indiJJevenl in
dividuaIs
veve
denounced,
Iocolled,
and vaIIied Jov lIe nalionaI
cause as
lIougI lIe IeIonged
lo a connon
species.
To nalionaIisls in
HaIsIuvg
Auslvia and ils successov
slales,
lIese
Jvuslvaling
individuaIs veve Inovn
as
IevnapIvodiles, anpIiIians, venegades, ulvaquisls,
and Iovdev
Iand souIs. TIe Nazi
vegine
anoinled lIen lIe in-Ielveen Slvala and
ne-loo Oevnans. And aJlev WovId Wav II
lIe
veve
JinaII
denounced
37.
Quoled
in
Ingo
Esev,
'LoaIilal'
aIs MilleI dev
Inlegvalion
odev BeslviIlion? Fo
Ien und seine deulscIe
MindevIeil, 1918-1939,
in
HasIingev
and von
FullIanev, eds.,
Slaal,
LoaIilal
und
MindevIeilen,
23-24.
38. OevIavd
Seevann,
'UngavndeulscIlun'
aIs
IdenlilalsIonzepl
und
poIiliscIe
Bessouvce,
in
HasIingev
and
von
FullIanev, eds., Slaal,
LoaIilal
und
MindevIeil, 20,
99-126.
39. OevIavd
Baungavlnev
and UvsuIa
HeneleI,
6
x
OslevveicI OescIicIle und aIlueIIe
Silualion dev
VoIIsgvuppen |KIagenJuvl,
1995),
60.
40.
Anonnous,
Unseve deulscIe ScIuIen und das
VevnicIlungsgeselz |Egev,
1920),
7.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 105
and sonelines
expeIIed
as
nalionaII
IaIiIe
oppovlunisls
ov
sinpI
as
lvailovs.
NalionaI indiJJevence is lIeveJove
JundanenlaII
a
negalive
and na
lionaIisl
calegov.
IndiJJevence
onI
exisled
as sucI in lIe
ees
oJ lIe na
lionaIisl IeIoIdev.
IvonicaII,
Iovevev,
lIis
inagined nonconnunil
vas
IvougIl
lo IiJe and inslilulionaIized
lIvougI
nalionaIisls'
ovn
pevsislenl
eJJovls lo evadicale il. As
Iislovians,
lIis
neans ve
need lo
pvoceed
vilI
caulion Iesl ve JaII inlo lIe
lvap
oJ
using
nalionaIisl
calegovies
oJ
pvaclice
as
calegovies
oJ
anaIsis.41
TIis does nol nean
sIunning
lIe
calegov
oJ
nalionaI indiJJevence
aIlogelIev,
Iovevev,
an
nove
lIan
ve
avoid lIe
levns nalion ov
nalionaIisn. Once
inagined,
indiJJevence lo nalionaIisn
Iecane
as
veaI and
neaningJuI
a
calegov
as
lIe nalion ilseIJ and Iad
signiJicanl
sociaI, cuIluvaI,
and
poIilicaI
consequences.
NalionaI indiJJevence
cane lo Ie
pevceived
as a
sociaI and
poIilicaI
pIenonenon lIvougI
nalionaIisl
aclivisn,
Iul
nalionaI,
inpeviaI,
and
even inlevnalionaI aulIovilies
incveasingI acInovIedged
ils exislence and
inslilulionaIized il. AJlev
1918,
Jov
exanpIe, guavanlees
oJ
ninovil vigIls
in inlevnalionaI lvealies and in easlevn
Euvopean
conslilulions vaised Iil
lev
dispules
aIoul vIo
IeIonged
lo lIese ninovilies and vIo vouId lIus
Ie enlilIed lo cIain
ninovil vigIls.
NalionaI indiJJevence Iecane lIe
Jocus oJ inlevnalionaI
dipIonalic dispules
as
veII
as
IIisleving
doneslic
conJIicls. A
1922
agveenenl
Ielveen FoIand and
Oevnan vegavding Up
pev
SiIesia,
Jov
exanpIe, speciJied
lIal Oevnan cIiIdven in lIal
pvovince
veve lo
enjo
lIe
ninovil vigIl
lo allend
Oevnan-Ianguage
eIenen
lav
scIooIs. Bul vIicI cIiIdven veve Oevnan and vIicI veve FoIisI?
Bispules
ovev
lIe
Ianguage
aIiIilies and nalionaI aJJiIialions oJ individuaI
cIiIdven
uIlinaleI
veacIed lIe nev
League
oJ Nalions WovId Couvl.42
TIe WovId Couvl
oJJiciaII vecognized
nalionaI
indiJJevence,
conceding
lIal neilIev
nalionaIil
nov
Ianguage
aIiIilies veve
lvanspavenl
in SiIesia
TIeve is veason lo IeIieve lIal in lIe condilions vIicI exisl in
Uppev
SiIesia
. . .
lIe
queslion
oJ vIelIev a
pevson
IeIongs
lo a
ninovil
. . .
does nol
cIeavI appeav
Jvon lIe Jacls. SucI an
uncevlainl nigIl
Jov
exanpIe
exisl,
as
vegavds Ianguage,
vIeve eilIev
a
pevson
does nol
speaI
Iilevav
Oevnan ov
Iilevav
FoIisI,
ov
vIeve Ie Inovs and naIes use oJ
sevevaI
Ianguages,
and
as
vegavds
vace,
in lIe case oJ nixed
navviages.43
TIis is
jusl
one
exanpIe
oJ Iov nalionaI indiJJevence
gvaduaII
Iecane
41. On lIe
dangev
oJ
conJIaling calegovies
oJ
anaIsis
vilI
calegovies
oJ
pvaclice,
see
BvuIaIev,
ElInicil
vilIoul
Ovoups: Bogevs
BvuIaIev,
Mavgil
FeiscInidl,
Jon
Fox,
and Li
ana
Ovancea,
NalionaIisl FoIilics and
Evevda ElInicil
in a
TvansIvanian
Tovn
|Fvincelon,
2006).
42. Fov lIe delaiIs oJ lIe
case,
see
ManIe
O.
Hudson, ed.,
WovId Couvl
Bepovls
A
CoIIeclion
oJ
lIe
Judgnenls,
Ovdevs and
Opinions oJ
lIe Fevnanenl Couvl
oJ
InlevnalionaI
Juslice,
voI.
2,
1927-1932
|WasIinglon,
B.C., 1935), 268-320,
690-91.
43.
Hudson, ed.,
WovId Couvl
Bepovls,
292. Fov nove on lIe issue oJ SiIesian
scIooIs,
see
CavoIe
FinI,
BeJending
lIe
BigIls oJ
OlIevs TIe Oveal
Fovevs,
lIe
Jevs,
and InlevnalionaI Mi
novil
Fvoleclion,
1878-1938
|Nev YovI, 2004):
CIvislian Bailz von
Fvenlz,
A Lesson
Fovgol
len
Minovil
Fvoleclion undev lIe
League oJ
Nalions TIe Case
oJ
lIe Oevnan
Minovil
in
FoIand,
1920-1934
|Nev YovI, 1999).
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
106
SIavic Beviev
Jav nove
lIan a
lIovn in lIe side oJ nalionaIisl
agilalovs.
In an
age
oJ
na
lionaIizing
slales and inlevnalionaI
ninovil-vigIls pvoleclions,
indiJJev
ence lo
nalion vas al lIe Ieavl oJ IolI doneslic and
dipIonalic
conJIicls,
nev Jovns oJ inlevnalionaI
Iav,
and nev ideaIs oJ
ninovil vigIls.
Finding
IndiJJevence
FavadoxicaII,
nalionaIisls IolI invenled nalionaI indiJJevence
and,
unliI
vecenlI, deIiIevaleI
oIscuved il. In lIe easl
Euvopean
conlexl,
nalionaI
indiJJevence Ias
Iong
Ieen eJJaced Jvon lIe IislovicaI vecovd
I
lIe
na
lionaIisl
JvanevovIs, navvalives,
and
calegovies
lIal doninale IislovicaI
anaIsis
and lIe souvces
Iislovians
veI
on censuses
lIal denied lIe
ex
islence oJ
IiIinguaIisn,
coIov-coded
elInogvapIic naps,
sensalionaIisl
nevspapev
accounls lIal lvansJovned dvunIen Iav IvavIs and cIiIdven's
ganes
inlo Jievce IallIes Jov nalionaI suvvivaI.44 TIeve
ave aIso
pvaclicaI
cIaIIenges
lo
sluding
an
inagined nonconnunil.
IndiJJevenl
peopIe
ave
vaveI
veII
ovganized.
UnIiIe
nalionaIisn,
nalionaI indiJJevence Ias
nol IeJl nucI oJ a
papev
lvaiI,
since nosl slale
avcIives
ave
devoled
pve
ciseI
lo
docunenling
lIe
Iislov
oJ nalion-slales. NalionaI indiJJevence
vas nol
nenoviaIized vilI
puIIic
nonunenls ov
ceIeIvaled vilI Jesli
vaIs, coslunes,
and
songs.
TIeve vas no
Associalion Jov lIe Fvoleclion
oJ NalionaI
HevnapIvodiles
nov vas
lIeve a
NonnalionaI
FeopIes' Favl.
Allenpls
lo cveale sucI
pavlies,
sucI
as
lIe Movavian
MilleIpavlei
oJ
gveal
Iandovnevs al lIe luvn oJ lIe
cenluv, uIlinaleI
JaiIed.45 Auslvian
inpe
viaI inslilulions lIal
expIicilI
cIained lo lvanscend divisions oJ nalion
aIil
ov
Ianguage,
sucI as lIe SociaI Benocvalic
Favl,
lIe
noIiIil,
lIe
CalIoIic
CIuvcI,
lIe
avn,
and lIe civiI
sevvice,
vepvesenled
divevse
con
sliluencies lIal veve
unIiIeI
lo unile in deJense oJ nalionaI indiJJevence.
In lIe lvenlielI
cenluv, nan
oJ lIese
supvanalionaI
inslilulions veve
lIenseIves
incveasingI
nalionaIized. Il is no
coincidence, lIeveJove,
lIal
nalionaI indiJJevence
appeavs
nosl
cIeavI
in lIe avcIives al lIe nonenl
lIal nalionaIisls noIiIized lo
exlinguisI
il.
Il is lIeveJove
cIaIIenging
lo
quanliJ
indiJJevence,
nucI as ve
nigIl
IiIe lo Inov vIelIev lIe indiJJevenl consliluled a
signiJicanl
nass ov an
exolic
Jvinge gvoup.
TIe
vev sslens
devised Jov
counling
and
cIassiJing
popuIalions
in lIe nineleenlI
cenluv
veve
sIaped I
nalionaIisl
goaIs,
vilI
an
ee
lo
eIininaling
ov
oIscuving
indiJJevence.
OccasionaII,
lIeve
Iave Ieen oJJiciaI eJJovls lo
lvacI and
quanliJ
nalionaI indiJJevence in
easl cenlvaI
Euvope,
Iul lIese
lpicaII
nel
delevnined vesislance. In an
unusuaI concession lo lIe
nalionaII
indiJJevenl
popuIalion
in
1930,
Jov
exanpIe,
lIe CzecIosIovaI Slale SlalislicaI OJJice
pvoposed
lIal cilizens
Ie
pevnilled
lo decIave lIenseIves vilIoul
nalionaIil
|Iez navodnosli)
ov oJ unInovn
nalionaIil
|ndvodnosl nezndna)
on
lIe decenniaI
census,
44.
Seejudson,
Ouavdians
oJ
lIe
Nalion,
esp.
1-18.
45. On lIe
MilleIpavlei
in
Movavia,
see BoIevl B.
LuJl,
Bie
MilleIpavlei
des naIvi
scIen
OvossgvundIesilzes
1879-1918,
in Fevdinand
SeiIl, ed.,Bie
CIance dev
Vevsldndigung
AIsicIlen undAnsdlzezu uIevnalionaIev ZusannenavIeil in den IoIniscIen Ldndevn 1848-1918
|MunicI, 1987),
218-36.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies
107
jusl
as il vas
possiIIe
lo
vegislev
one's IacI oJ
veIigious
aJJiIialion. Nol aII
peopIe
Iave nalionaI
JeeIings
ov
consciousness,
ov
lIe desive lo
IeIong
lo
a
speciJic
nalionaI
connunil,
oJJiciaIs in lIe SlalislicaI OJJice conceded.
Bul CzecI nalionaIisls
IavsII vejecled
lIis viev. Aclivisls in lIe CzecI
NalionaI
CounciI,
an unIveIIa
ovganizalion
Jov CzecI
voIunlav
associa
lions and
poIilicaI pavlies,
vavned lIal
aIIoving
cilizens lo
opl
oul oJ lIe
nalion
on
lIe
census vouId naIe il
inpossiIIe
lo oIlain
a cIeav ovevviev
oJ lIe nalionaI
conposilion
oJ lIe
slale,
veaving
ava
al ils Iovdevs.46
TIeiv
vievpoinl pvevaiIed,
and lIe indiJJevenl
veve denied lIe cIance lo
Ie counled.
Il is
possiIIe,
Iovevev,
lo use cevlain slalislicaI
neasuves lo
|inpev
JeclI)
eslinale lIe nunIev oJ
nalionaII
anIivaIenl
peopIe
in a
given
line
ov
pIace.
In lIe BoIenian
Lands,
Jov
exanpIe,
one
denogvapIev
Jound lIal in
Fvague
in
1900,
16.6
pevcenl
oJ scIooIcIiIdven
veve IiIin
guaI.
In
Budejovice/Budveis,
lIe
pevcenlage
oJ
IiIinguaI
cIiIdven veacIed
16.2
pevcenl,
in
LiIevec/BeicIenIevg,
16.1
pevcenl,
and in
Mosl/Bvux,
22.4
pevcenl.47
TIese slalislics nusl Ie lvealed vilI
caulion,
as lIe
poIili
caI
pvessuve
lo
undevvepovl IiIinguaIisn
vas considevaIIe.
BiIinguaIisn,
noveovev,
Ias
no
inlvinsic
veIalionsIip
lo nalionaI indiJJevence.
Man
oJ lIe
eavI
CzecI nalionaIisl avaIenevs
veve
JanousI IiIinguaI,
Jov
exanpIe.48
Bul
I
lIe Iale nineleenlI
cenluv
in
HaIsIuvg
cenlvaI Eu
vope, nan
nalionaIisl educalion
expevls Iegan
lo see
IiIinguaIisn
as evi
dence oJ nalionaI indiJJevence.
SIovlI
aJlev lIe 1880 Auslvian
census,
Jan
Kapvas,
a
CzecI
gnnasiun
leacIev in
Bvno/Bvunn,
excovialed Movavian
pavenls
vIo vaised lIeiv cIiIdven in
IiIinguaI
IouseIoIds,
pvocIaining,
TIis is lIe cIass oJ
IinguislicaII
neulvaI
IevnapIvodiles,
vIo saiI lo
an
vind,
caIIing
lIenseIves CzecI
Ieve,
Oevnan
lIeve,
and
ave
educaled lo
conslanlI go
IacI
on lIeiv vovd.49
FIuclualions in census nunIevs oJJev anolIev
polenliaI
neasuve oJ
nalionaI
IaIiIil
lIe Ioss oJ
400,000
Oevnan-speaIevs
in lIe BoIenian
Lands Ielveen 1910 and 1921
suggesls
lIal side-svilcIevs
veve nol iso
Ialed eccenlvics. In
1946,
Minislv
oJ Inleviov oJJiciaIs in CzecIosIovaIia
eslinaled lIal al Ieasl
300,000
CzecIs Iad Iecone Oevnan
duving
lIe
Nazi
occupalion
oJ lIe BoIenian Lands.50 TIis so-caIIed ZviscIenscIicIl
oJ
nalionaII
anIivaIenl
peopIe
oIsessed Nazi oJJiciaIs in
occupied
easlevn
Euvope.
In
1940,
nan Oevnan-speaIevs
in lIe Fvoleclovale veve veIuc
lanl lo
vegislev
as
Oevnans,
vIelIev oul oJ
ideoIogicaI opposilion
lo lIe
Nazis ov
|nove oJlen)
Jeav oJ
Ieing
dvaJled inlo lIe WeIvnacIl.
TIvougI
46. Scilan Iidu
1930,
Meno Jvon lIe CzecI NalionaI CounciI lo lIe Slale SlalislicaI
OJJice and lIe Fvesidiun oJ lIe CounciI oJ
Minislevs,
16
Ma
1930,
Cavlon
183,
Navodni
vada
cesIa,
Navodni avcIiv
|NA),
Fvague.
47. HeinvicI
BaucIIevg,
Bev nalionaIe Besilzsland in BoInen
|Leipzig,
1905),
435.
48. On
eavI
CzecI
nalionaIisls,
see Felev
Bugge,
CzecI
Nalion-BuiIding,
NalionaI
SeIJ-Fevceplion
and
FoIilics,
1780-1914
|FIB diss.,
Univevsil
oJ
AavIus, 1994).
49.
Jan Kapvas,
Bec nalesId
ovgdnen sIoI
oIecne a
znaIen ndvodnosli
|Fvague,
1883),
9-10.
50.
Benjanin
Fvonnev,
NalionaI
CIeansing
BelviIulion
againsl
Nazi CoIIaIovalovs in
Foslvav CzecIosIovaIia
|CanIvidge, Eng.,
2005),
18.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
108 SIavic Beviev
lIe
pvoven
vovI oJ NalionaI SociaIisl educalion lIeve is
no
douIl lIal lIe
oJJspving
oJ
loda's
indecisive,
nadI IeIaving
VoIIsdeulscIe viII Iecone
lIe nosl vaIuaIIe nenIevs oJ lIe Oevnan
cilizenv,
Fvoleclovale oJJi
ciaIs veassuved lIenseIves.51
TIus even iJ lIe
nalionaII
indiJJevenl veve
acluaII
a
snaII
ninovil
I
lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv,
nalionaI indiJJevence vas
IislovicaII sig
niJicanl. In nalionaIisl
vIelovic,
nalionaI indiJJevence Iooned
Iavgev
lIan
IiJe and lIeveJove
pIaed
an
exlvaovdinav
voIe in
sIaping
nalionaIisl
ac
livisn and
poIilicaI
and sociaI inslilulions in nodevn easl cenlvaI
Euvope.
Fvon lIe nid-nineleenlI
cenluv
unliI aJlev WovId Wav
II,
nalionaIisls
oIsessed
ovev
lIe
pvoIIen
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence and devised
nev slval
egies
lo evadicale il.
TIe
lvied
IviIev
and
pevsuasion, seeIing
lo avaIen
lIe
IoaIlies
oJ
nalionaII
indiJJevenl cilizens vilI
genevous
oJJevs oJ veI
Jave IeneJils and caIIs lo conscience. Bul vIen
genlIev
nelIods
JaiIed,
nalionaIisl aclivisls and slale oJJiciaIs vesovled lo nove
discipIinav
laclics,
incIuding
JovciIIe nalionaI cIassiJicalion in inlevvav easlevn
Euvope
and
in
Nazi-occupied
easl cenlvaI
Euvope.
IndiJJevence vas
inpovlanl
lo lIe
deveIopnenl
oJ nodevn nalionaI
isn,
nol
onI
Iecause nalionaIisls veacled
so
slvongI
lo
il,
Iul Iecause il
conpeIIed
nalionaIisl novenenls lo deJine lIe Ioundavies oJ lIe nalionaI
connunil
nove
pveciseI.
Was lIe nalion
a
voIunlav connunil
oJ aII
lIose vIo IeIieved lIenseIves lo Ie
CzecIs, SIovenes, FoIes, FvencI,
ov
Oevnans,
ov
oJ lIose vIo Ieavned lo
speaI
a
Ianguage
ov
adopled
cev
lain cuIluvaI
pvaclices?
Ov vas lIe nalion deJined
I
descenl
ov
IIood
aIone? Was nalionaI
IeIonging
an
expvession
oJ
poIilicaI
connilnenls
|Jov
exanpIe,
lo Nazisn
ov lo
denocvac?)
Ov oJ cuIluvaI and econonic
slalus? TIe
ansvevs lo lIese
queslions
veve nevev
slaIIe,
Iul
lIe
oJlen
deveIoped pveciseI lIvougI
conJvonlalions Ielveen nalionaIisls and in
diJJevenl
popuIalions.
Fov
exanpIe,
CzecI
nalionaIisls, oJJiciaIs,
and
IegaI
expevls incveasingI
denanded
poIicies
oJ Jovced incIusion
ov nalionaI
ascviplion
in ovdev
lo
pvevenl
indiJJevenl
ov
oppovlunisl
CzecIs Jvon
joining
lIe Oevnan
canp.
In lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv, lIe
sIiJled
ava
Jvon
Ianguage
and lovavd descenl
as
lIe
deJining
navI oJ CzecI
nalionaIil
in ovdev
lo
veign
in
polenliaI
nalionaI
venegades.52
NalionaI
indiJJevence,
and
allenpls
lo evadicale
il,
veve nol conJined
lo easlevn
Euvope.
In AIsace-Lovvaine aJlev WovId Wav
I,
FvencI oJJiciaIs
aIso
adopled pvaclices
oJ JovciIIe nalionaI cIassiJicalion
as
lIe sougIl
lo
dislinguisI
Ielveen Oevnan
suIjecls
and FvencI cilizens and lo
punisI
lIe
vanquisIed
Oevnans.
Beginning
in
FeIvuav
oJ
1919,
FvencI oJJiciaIs
Iegan
lo
cIassiJ
lIe enlive
popuIalion
oJ AIsace inlo Jouv
calegovies,
issu
ing idenlil
cavds lIal enlilIed lIe IoIdevs lo diJJevenl Jovns oJ lvealnenl.
TIe Cavle A vas vesevved Jov AIsalians vIo
veve Iovn in AIsace and vIose
pavenls
ov
gvandpavenls
cavvied FvencI
cilizensIip
IeJove 1870. Individ
uaIs oJ so-caIIed nixed
Ievilage,
lIose vilI
one
pavenl
vIo Iad cavvied
51. OenevaIveJeval Juv
poIiliscIe AngeIegenIeilen, Fvague,
12
Augusl
1939. Cavlon
520,
UJad JissIeIo
pvoleIlova,
NA.
52.
ZaIva,
Kidnapped
SouIs,
193.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 109
FvencI
cilizensIip,
veve
assigned
lIe Cavle B. TIe Cavle C vas issued lo
Joveignevs
Jvon aIIied slales.
FinaII,
lIe Cavle B vas conJevved
on
indi
viduaIs vIo
veve Iovn in
Oevnan
ov Auslvia ov vIose
pavenls
ov
gvand
pavenls
veve Iovn in
Oevnan
ov
Auslvia.53 FvencI oJJiciaIs inlvoduced
lIese
idenlil
cavds
expIicilI
lo
slanp
oul vIal
lIe
sav as
lIe nenace
oJ nalionaI
anIiguil.
TIe
FvancopIiIe
AIsalian exiIe and Jovnev senalov
EniIe WellevIe
expIained
in
1915,
Too oJlen lIe
Auslvo-Oevnans,
vIo
don'l
sI
ava
Jvon
an disIoaI
naneuvev in ovdev lo assuve
lIeiv
ovn
inpunil,
Iave
allenpled
lo
pass
Jov IocaIs
...
lIose oJ us
vIo Iave
a
gveal
deaI oJ
pvaclicaI expevience
vilI lIe lvo
popuIalions
oJ ouv
pvovinces,
ve
can
vecognize
lIe lvue Oevnan and lIe lvue AIsalian
ov
Lovvainev oJ oId
slocI al Jivsl
gIance.
. . .
We sniJJ oul lIe Teulon IiIe
a
Iunling dog
sniJJs
ils
pve,
and I assuve
ou
lIal vilI
a
IillIe
pvaclice
il is nol
diJJicuIl,
Iecause
lIe odov is so
pavlicuIav
and
so
slvong.54
Undev Nazi
occupalion,
Oevnan oJJiciaIs insisled lIal lIe Oevnan
nalion vas
deJined
I
vace ov
IIood,
al Ieasl
vIelovicaII.
In
pvaclice,
Iov
evev,
Nazi oJJiciaIs aIso looI IiIevaI
advanlage
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence in
easlevn
Euvope, Ieeping
lIe doovs oJ lIe
VoIIsgeneinscIaJl open
lo
nan
non-Jevs
vIo
pvoJessed
lo Nazi ideaIs.
Oeovge
Kennan,
lIe Anevican
dipIonal,
oIsevved lIal
sIovlI
aJlev lIe Nazi
occupalion
oJ lIe BoIe
nian
Lands,
Il Iecane diJJicuIl lo leII vIeve lIe CzecI IeJl oJJ and lIe
Oevnan
Iegan.55
Bovis
Bevgen
Ias Jound lIal nalionaI indiJJevence in
Nazi-occupied
FoIand conlviIuled lo lIe escaIalion oJ anlisenilic vio
Ience. As
nalionaII anIiguous
individuaIs
allenpled
lo
inpvove
lIeiv
vanIing
on lIe Jouv-lieved Oevnan
VoIIsIisle,
sone
vesovled lo anlisenilic
Ianguage
and vioIence in ovdev lo
pvove
lIeiv
queslionaIIe IoaIlies
lo
Oevnandon.56 In eacI oJ lIese
cases,
lIe indiJJevenl
na
Iave Ieen
a
nunevicaI
ninovil
oJ lIe
popuIalion.
Bul in eacI
case,
lIe exislence oJ
lIis
ninovil exposed
lIe Iinils and conlvadiclions oJ nalionaIisl ideoIo
gies
and dvove slale oJJiciaIs lo devise nove vadicaI
slvalegies
Jov
poIicing
lIe Ioundavies oJ lIe nalion.
Bvoadev
IisloviogvapIicaI
and lIeovelicaI lvends veII oulside lIe JieId
oJ easl cenlvaI
Euvopean Iislov
Iave aIso
conspived
lo eJJace nalionaI
indiJJevence. Fov lIe Iasl
lvenl eavs, nan
sociaI and cuIluvaI Iislovians
Iave Jocused
pveciseI
on
lIe IislovicaI conslvuclion oJ
idenlilies,
espe
ciaII
vace,
gendev, sexuaIil,
and nalion. TIe
concepl
oJ nalionaI indiJ
53. On
AIsace,
see
CIvislopIev J.
FiscIev,
AIsace lo lIe AIsalians? Visions and Bi
visions oJ AIsalian
BegionaIisn,
1890-1930
|FIB diss.,
Univevsil
oJ NovlI
CavoIina,
CIapeI
HiII, 2003):
Laivd
BosveII,
Fvon LiIevalion lo
Fuvge
TviaIs in lIe
'MlIic
Fvov
inces'
Becasling
FvencI Idenlilies in AIsace and
Lovvaine, 1918-1920,
FvencI HislovicaI
Sludies2S,
no. 1
|Winlev 2000) 129-62: ZaIva,
TIe
'Minovil
FvoIIen.'
54. L'aIIe EniIe
WellevIe,
Ce
qu'elail
VAIsace-Lovvaine el ce
qu'eIIe
seva
|Favis, 1915),
305.
55. Ciled in
King,
Budveisevs,
176. Fvon
Oeovge
Kennan,
Fvon
Fvague aJlev
MunicI,
BipIonalic Fapevs
1938-1940
|Fvincelon, 1968),
134.
56. See Bovis
Bevgen,
TIe Nazi
Concepl
oJ 'VoIIsdeulscIe' and lIe ExacevIalion oJ
Anli-Senilisn in Easlevn
Euvope,
1939-45

JouvnaI oJ Conlenpovav Hislov
29,
no. 4
|Oc
loIev
1994) 569-82:
on Oevnanizalion in
Nazi-occupied Euvope,
see
aIso MavI
Mazovev,
HilIev's
Enpive
Hov lIe Nazis BuIed
Euvope
|Nev YovI, 2008).
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110 SIavic Beviev
Jevence vesls
soIidI
on lIis conslvuclivisl
scIoIavsIip,
vIicI Jivsl insisled
lIal nalionaI
IeIonging
is
a slale oJ nind valIev lIan
a
IioIogicaI
Jacl. Bul
a
Iasic
assunplion
IeIind nucI conslvuclivisl
scIoIavsIip
Ias Ieen lIal
idenlilies
nallev,
lIal
evevone
Ias
|and Iad) lIen,
lIal
lIe pvoJoundI
sIape
individuaI
expevience, poIilicaI
cuIluve,
and IislovicaI
cIange.57
WIiIe Iislovians Iave
anpI
docunenled lIe
vas
in vIicI
gendev,
va
ciaI, cIass,
and nalionaI
calegovies
Iave
ovevIapped,
lvansJovned,
Ieen
conlesled,
ov
deslaIiIized ovev
line,
lIe
Iave
paid
Iess allenlion lo in
dividuaIs vIo venained aIooJ lo lIe denands oJ nodevn
idenlil poIi
lics.
Idenlil
ilseIJ nallevs so
nucI in ouv cuvvenl
poIilicaI
and cuIluvaI
Iandscape
lIal il is
cIaIIenging
lo
inagine
a
line vIen il
nigIl
nol Iave
nalleved
so
nucI,
ov in lIe
sane
vas.
In a
pvovocalive
essa
enlilIed
Beond Idenlil, Bogevs
BvuIaIev
and FvedevicI
Coopev avgue
lIal
ve sIouId escIev lIe levn
idenlil
aIlo
gelIev. Idenlil, lIe
nainlain,
is loo lovn Ielveen ils Iavd and soJl
neanings
lo Ie useJuI. In ils Iavd
Jovn,
idenlil
essenliaIizes
peopIe I
assuning
lIal
lIe IeIong
lo
vigidI
deJined
gvoups.
In ils soJl
Jovn,
diIuled
I
a
slving
oJ
quaIiJicalions
|lIal
idenlil
is
nuIlipIe,
JIuid,
conlesled,
and
conslvucled)
idenlil
is
so
anIiguous
lIal il is nean
ingIess.
IJ
idenlil
is
evevvIeve,
il is
novIeve,
lIe suggesl.58 Man
scIoIavs Iave
vecenlI Iegun
lo suIslilule Iess veduclionisl
levns,
sucI
as
IoaIl,
aJJiIialion, idenliJicalion,
seIJ-undevslanding,
and
suIjecl
posilion.
Felev
HasIingev, JoacIin
von
FullIanev,
and Mavlin ScIuIze
WesseI
conlend,
Jov
exanpIe,
lIal lIe
concepl
oJ
IoaIl
enaIIes scIoI
avs lo
expIove
lIe
Iislov
oJ coIIeclive Jovns oJ consciousness vilIoul lIe
essenliaIizing Iaggage
oJ
idenlil poIilics.59
WIiIe
idenlil
conves
an
iIIusion oJ
slaIiIil,
and
appeavs
lo Ie
conslilulionaI,
lIe
concepl
oJ
IoaIl, lIe avgue,
Iellev undevscoves lIe
agenc
oJ lIe individuaI.60
LoaIl
is
cevlainI
a
pvoduclive
calegov
Jov IislovicaI veseavcI. Il does
nol, Iovevev,
necessaviI
IanisI lIe Iasic
assunplion
lIal
evevone
in easl
cenlvaI
Euvope
Iad a nalionaI aJJiIialion in lIe lvenlielI
cenluv?even
iJ ve ave nove
avave,
as BoIevl MusiI
JanousI
oIsevved,
lIal individuaIs
nigIl
Ioasl a
pvoJessionaI,
a
civic,
a
cIass,
a
geogvapIic,
a
sexuaI,
a con
scious,
an
unconscious,
and
possiII
even a
pvivale
cIavaclev lo Iool.61
BeseavcI
on
IoaIl
in easlevn
Euvope
lends lo
anaIze
lIe veasons
vI
individuaI
civic,
inpeviaI,
IocaI,
veIigious,
ov
vegionaI IoaIlies divevged
Jvon, veinJovced,
ovevIapped
vilI,
ov
conpeled
vilI nalionaI
IoaIlies.
Bul lIis veseavcI
vaveI queslions
lIe exislence oJ nalionaI
IoaIlies
ov
oJ
57.
BvuIaIev,
ElInicil
vilIoul
Ovoups,
3.
58.
Bogevs
BvuIaIev and Fved
Coopev, Beond 'Idenlil,' TIeov
and
Sociel
29,
no. 1
|FeIvuav
2000)
1.
59. Mavlin
ScIuIze-WesseI,
LoaIilal
aIs OescIicIlIicIev
OvundIegviJJ
und
FovscIungsIonzepl
Zuv
EinIeilung,
in
ScIuIze-WesseI, ed.,
LoaIilalen
in dev TscIecIosIo
vaIiscIen
BepuIIiI,
10.
60. Felev
HasIingev
and
JoacIin
von
FullIanev, SlaalsnacIl, MindevIeil,
LoaIilal
IonzeplioneIIe OvundIagen
an
BeispieI
OslnilleI und
Siidosleuvopas
in dev ZviscIen
Iviegzeil,
in
HasIingev
and
von
FullIanev, eds., Slaal,
LoaIilal
und
MindevIeilen, 2-3,
9.
61. BoIevl
MusiI,
TIe Man vilIoul
QuaIilies,
lvans.
SopIie
WiIIins
|Nev YovI,
1995),
30.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 111
nalionaI ninovilies as seIJ-evidenl connunilies.62 As vilI
idenlil,
il is
uIlinaleI
loo
eas
lo suIslilule
one
veduclionisl viev oJ
IoaIl
Jov an
olIev. In
expIoving
nalionaI
indiJJevence,
ve
sIouId nol seeI lo
vepIace
lIe nalion vilI
sonelIing
eIse,
assuning
lIal olIev nodes oJ coIIeclive
idenliJicalion
veve nove
aulIenlic, veaI,
conpeIIing,
ov
genuine
lIan
nalionaIil.
So-caIIed nalionaI
IevnapIvodiles
veve nol
veaII
CalIoIics,
vegionaIisls,
IocaIisls,
Jevs,
Auslvian
palviols, cosnopoIilans,
ov
sociaIisls.
Nov sIouId
ve Ie
seavcIing
Jov an
undevIing IievavcI
oJ
IoaIlies,
vanI
ing veIigion,
cIass, vace,
gendev,
ov
vegion againsl
ov
aIove nalion.
In addilion lo a
posl-1968
Jocus on
idenlil
and
idenlil poIilics
in
lIe Uniled
Slales,
indiJJevence lo nalionaIisn Ias Ieen eJJaced in
pavl
I
lIe cuIluvaI and
Iinguislic
luvns lIal Iave
so
enevgized
lIe
slud
oJ
nalion,
gendev,
and
vace as
calegovies
oJ
anaIsis.
In lIe 1960s and
1970s,
lIe
vovIing
cIass oJlen
pIaed
lIe
slavving
voIe in sociaI Iislovies lIal
sougIl
lo undevsland lIe
veIalionsIip
Ielveen cIass
expevience
and
po
IilicaI
agenc.
TIalcIevisn and lIe JaII oJ connunisn
IavgeI dispIaced
lIe
vovIing
cIass Jvon ils Ievoic voIe as lIe
agenl
oJ
Iislov
in lIe Iale
1980s,
and
nan
Iislovians Iovvoved
nev
nelIodoIogies
Jvon
Iilevav
sludies.
TIe
sIiJled lIeiv Jocus Jvon cIass and sociaI
expevience
lo lIe
Ivoadev veaIns oJ cuIluve and
poIilics.
In sone oJ lIe
lIeov
vavs nosl
divisive
nonenls,
pvaclilionevs
oJ lIe nev
cuIluvaI
Iislov
veve
accused
oJ
evacualing poIilics
Jvon
Iislov aIlogelIev.
In
Jacl,
lIe
appeaI
oJ cuI
luvaI sludies lo
nan
sociaI Iislovians vas
pveciseI
lIal il Iocaled
poIilics
and
povev evevvIeve,
and nol
jusl
in lIe vovds and aclions oJ eIiles. TIe
IIossoning
JieIds oJ
gendev
and
sexuaIil Iislov, poslcoIoniaI Iislov,
and
nalionaIisn sludies since lIe
eavI
1990s
ave
pevIaps
lIe nosl
inpovlanl
pvoducls
oJ lIis
insigIl.
Il is nol
aIvas eas
lo Jind vonen in lIe
Iislov
oJ eIile
poIilics,
Jov
exanpIe:
Iul,
as
Joan
Scoll
JanousI
noled,
gendev
slvucluves lIe
poIilicaI
and sociaI ovdev ilseIJ. Oendev is
evevvIeve,
even
vIeve vonen ave
scavce.63
TIe
nalion,
IiIe
gendev
and
vace,
Iecane
uIiquilous
lIanIs in
pavl
lo
Iislovians'
gvealev
Jocus on
lexluaI and cuIluvaI souvces. Il vas nevev
a
cIaIIenge
lo Jind nalionaIisn in lIe IaIIs oJ
pavIianenl
ov
pvovinciaI
diels oJ lIe Iale Auslvian
enpive
and ils successov
slales,
Iul in lIe
pasl
lvenl eavs
Iislovians Iave Iocaled nalionaIisn in
evev
nooI and
cvann
oJ
daiI
IiJe. ScIoIavs Iave sniJJed il oul in
Iilevaluve,
naps,
exIiIilions,
avcIilecluve, advevlisenenls, JiIns,
poslcavds,
scIooIIooIs,
Ione
decov,
and lvaveI
guides.
TIe
pvoIIen
is lIal Iislovians vIo
anaIze
nalions
as
62. WilI Jev
exceplions,
lIe
essas
in
HasIingev
and von
FullIanev's voIune on
slale,
IoaIl,
and ninovilies in easl cenlvaI and soulIeaslevn
Euvope
do nol
queslion
lIe exlenl
lo vIicI nalionaI ninovilies exisled as seIJ-evidenl connunilies. Tvo
exceplions
ave
AIIevl F.
Beilevev, AIIeIv, Widevsland,
LoaIilal
Bie MindevIeilen und die Evsle Oslev
veicIiscIe
BepuIIiI,
and EIena
Mannova,
IdenlilalsdisIuvse und IoIaIe LeIensveIlen
in dev
SiidsIovaIei,
IolI in
HasIingev
and von
FullIanev, eds., Slaal,
LoaIilal
und Min
devIeilen,
141 and 45-67.
63.
Joan
W.
Scoll,
Oendev A UseJuI
Calegov
oJ HislovicaI
AnaIsis,
Anevican His
lovicaI Beviev
91,
no. 5
|BecenIev 1986)
1053-75. On lIe
lvajeclov
Jvon sociaI lo cuI
luvaI
Iislov,
see
OeoJJ
EIe,
A CvooIed Line Fvon CuIluvaI
Hislov
lo lIe
Hislov oJ Sociel
|Ann
AvIov, 2005).
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112 SIavic Beviev
inagined
connunilies visI
venaining inpvisoned
vilIin nalionaIisls'
ovn
discuvsive
univevse,
anaIzing
lIe conlesled conlenl oJ nalionaIisl
ideoIogies
and cuIluves vilIoul
queslioning
lIe exlenl lo vIicI lIose
ideoIogies
vesonaled
anong
lIeiv audiences.
NalionaIisn's
appavenl uIiquil
in lIe veaIns oJ nodevn cuIluve and
discouvse Ias lIe
dangevous polenliaI
lo veinJovce a
lolaIilavian JvanevovI
Jov
undevslanding
easl cenlvaI
Euvopean poIilics
and
sociel.
Hislovians
Iave oJlen IinIed lIe vise oJ nalionaIisl and nass
poIilicaI
novenenls in
lIe Iale nineleenlI
cenluv
lo lIe so-caIIed deslvuclion
ov
invasion oJ
lIe
pvivale spIeve,
a
Ieginning slep
on
lIe
sIippev sIope
lovavd lolaIi
lavianisn. Bul navvalives
IinIing
nass
poIilics
lo lIe deslvuclion oJ lIe
pvivale spIeve
lend lo oveveslinale lIe inslilulionaI
povev
and
vesonance
oJ nalionaIisl vIelovic. UnliI 1918 in
HaIsIuvg
cenlvaI
Euvope,
nalionaI
isls
lpicaII
did nol Iave slale
povev
al lIeiv
disposaI, excepl
al lIe IocaI
ov
pvovinciaI
IeveIs. TIeiv
aIiIil
lo
inpose
lIeiv vovIdviev
on
olIevs
vas
seveveI
veslvicled. Even
vev
povevJuI
slales ave
Iiniled in lIeiv
aIiIil
lo
noId
popuIalions
al
viII,
as
vevisionisl
scIoIavsIip
on
IolI Nazisn and
connunisn Ias
suggesled
ovev
lIe
pasl
sevevaI decades. TIis Iilevaluve
Ias
pevsuasiveI IigIIigIled
lIe exlenl lo vIicI so-caIIed lolaIilavian
slales
sougIl
lo
negoliale
lIe consenl oJ lIe
govevned,
lIe voIe oJ denun
cialion and
popuIav pavlicipalion
in
poIicing,
and lIe
agenc
oJ cilizens
vilIin lIeiv
supposedI
lolaIilavian socielies.
SuvpvisingI,
Iovevev,
scIoI
avs
Iave Ieen sIovev lo
appI insigIls
aIoul lIe Iinils oJ slale
povev
lo lIe
Iislov
oJ nalionaIisn and
nalionaIizing
slales.64
Fvon
a
conlenpovav pevspeclive
il is diJJicuIl lo
give up
a
viev oJ lIe
Iale nineleenlI and
eavI
lvenlielI cenluvies
as an
exceplionaII poIili
cized and nalionaIized nonenl in lIe
Euvopean pasl.
Slandavd accounls
IoId lIal lIe
eavI
lvenlielI
cenluv
vas lIe
age
oJ
ideoIog
oJ nass
poIi
lics,
Ulopian
slale
pIanning,
and lIe vise oJ inlevvenlionisl veIJave
slales,
aII
jusliJied
in lIe
nane oJ
inpvoving
lIe nalion's coIIeclive IeaIlI and
veIJave.
Man
Iislovians Iave
avgued
lIal aJlev
1945,
I
conlvasl,
poIilics
ilseIJ
vas
dispIaced I
lIe navIel in lIe
vesl,
and lIe individuaIisl elI
ics oJ
capilaIisn,
consunevisn,
doneslicil,
and Iunan
vigIls lviunpIed
ovev coIIeclivisl ideaIs. SeIJ-veaIizalion looI
pIace
in lIe
sIopping
naII
and IilcIen valIev lIan in lIe union
IaII,
nalionaIisl
associalion,
ov on
lIe slveels.65 Bul
pevIaps
il is vovlI
consideving
vIelIev lIis navvalive
64. Fov a vecenl veJIeclion
on
vevisionisn in Soviel
IisloviogvapI,
see SIeiIa Filz
palvicI,
ed.,
SlaIinisn Nev Biveclions
|London, 2000):
SIeiIa
FilzpalvicI,
Bevisionisn in
Soviel
Hislov, Hislov
and
TIeov
46,
no. 4
|BecenIev 2007) 77-91:
SIeiIa
FilzpalvicI
and MicIaeI
Oeev,
Inlvoduclion AJlev TolaIilavianisn. SlaIinisn and Nazisn Con
paved,
in MicIaeI
Oeev
and SIeiIa
FilzpalvicI,
eds.,
Beond
TolaIilavianisn SlaIinisn and
Nazisn
Conpaved |CanIvidge, Eng.,
2009),
1-40. Sone
exanpIes
oJ lIis
appvoacI
in lIe
IisloviogvapI
oJ Nazi
Oevnan
incIude BoIevl
OeIIaleI, BacIing
HilIev Consenl and Co
evcion in Nazi
Oevnan
|OxJovd, 2001):
BelIev
FeuIevl,
Inside Nazi
Oevnan ConJovnil,
Opposilion,
and Bacisn in
Evevda LiJe
|Nev Haven, 1987).
65. On lIe
pvesuned lviunpI
oJ individuaIisn in
poslvav
vesl
Euvopean poIilics
and Iunan
vigIls
aclivisn,
see
Tonjudl,
Foslvav A
Hislov oJ Euvope
since 1945
|Nev YovI,
2005), 564-65:
FauI
Lauven,
TIe EvoIulion
oJ
InlevnalionaI Hunan
BigIls |FIiIadeIpIia,
1998):
MavI
Mazovev,
TIe
Slvange TviunpI
oJ Hunan
BigIls,
1933-1950,
TIe Hislovi
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Inagined
Nonconnunilies 113
oveveslinales lIe
poIilicaI
consciousness and connilnenls oJ
ovdinav
peopIe
in
an
eavIiev
eva,
as veII
as
lIe aIsence oJ
ideoIog
aJlev WovId
Wav II.66
Hislovians lend lo Jocus
on
poIilics
and
poIilicaI
connilnenls,
even
lo assune
lIen,
Iecause lIe
one
lIing uniling
us
nelIodoIogicaII
is an
inlevesl in
cIange.
We
opevale
on
lIe
assunplion
lIal
cIange
is a
pvod
ucl oJ
poIilicaI
connilnenl and
agenc, pavlicuIavI
since il is no
Iongev
lpicaII
seen as a
pvoducl
oJ diaIeclic cIass conJIicl
ov
anonnous
Jovces
oJ nodevnizalion. TIe
slud
oJ indiJJevence
IavdI
seens lo
gel
us
anvIeve?vIeve
is lIe
agenc
in
apalI?
Bul lIe soIulion is nol lo ves
uvvecl
inagined
divides Ielveen
puIIic
and
pvivale.
Nov sIouId
ve
dvav
lIe concIusion lIal noneIiles
veve
indiJJevenl lo nalionaIisn Iecause
lIe
veve
aIlogelIev
indiJJevenl lo
poIilics.
BalIev,
il
seens nove
pvoduclive
lo
anaIze
inaclion, evasion,
and indiJJevence
as
polenliaI
Jovns oJ
poIili
caI
agenc.67
BeseavcI
on
daiI
IiJe undev Nazisn and connunisn oJJevs useJuI
conpavalive insigIls
on
lIe
polenliaI poIilicaI
vaIence oJ nalionaI indiJ
Jevence. WIal sIouId ve
naIe,
Jov
exanpIe,
oJ lIe oJl-ciled
appeavance
oJ
novnaIil
in
daiI
IiJe
duving
WovId Wav II in
Oevnan?
Fev Iislo
vians vouId
avgue
lIal Oevnans
Iiving
novnaI Iives in 1942
veve nol
inpIicaled
in a
poIilicaI sslen
ov
veIevanl lo ils
Junclioning.68
Undev
vIal civcunslances vas
seening
indiJJevence lo
poIilics
a Jovn oJ
accon
nodalion lo
|and
even
suppovl
Jov)
a
poIilicaI vegine,
and undev vIal
civcunslances
vas
indiJJevence an acl oJ aclive ov
passive
vesislance?69 A
conscious velveal inlo
pvivale
IiJe
ov an
oulvavd
vejeclion
oJ
poIilics nigIl
Ie
inlevpveled
as a
poIilicaI
slalenenl undev
an
vegine
lIal denands
unvaveving
connilnenl.
IndiJJevence,
IiIe
siIence,
is nonelIeIess cIaI
Ienging
lo
inlevpvel
and can
onI
Ie undevslood
silualionaII.
Il does nol
IeIong
lo lIe LeJl ov
lIe
BigIl,
lo vonen ov
nen,
lo
covavdI
coIIaIova
lovs ov a Ievoic vesislance. Il vas nol
nonopoIized I veIigiousI
devoul
and IacIvavd
peasanls,
naleviaIislic
vovIevs,
ov
JevisI cosnopoIi
lans,
lIougI
sucI
sleveolpes
and
pvejudices
JIouvisIed in lIe nalionaI
caIjouvnaI
1,
no.
2
|Spving
2004) 386-88:
A. W. Bvian
Sinpson,
Hunan
BigIls
and lIe
End
oJ Enpive
Bvilain and lIe Oenesis
oJ
lIe
Euvopean
Convenlion
|OxJovd, 2001), 157-220:
EIizaIelI
Bovgvavdl,
A Nev BeaI
Jov
lIe WovId Anevica's Vision
Jov
Hunan
BigIls |CanIvidge,
Mass., 2005),
59.
66. Fov an
avgunenl conlesling
lIe
apoIilicaI
naluve oJ
poslvav Euvope,
see
Mav
NoIan,
Ulopian
Visions in a
Fosl
Ulopian
Eva Hunan
BigIls,
Anevicanisn,
MavIel Fun
danenlaIisn
|Ienole
addvess Jov conJevence on
Ulopia,
Oendev,
and Hunan
BigIls,
Vienna,
12 BecenIev
2007).
67. Fov veJIeclions on lIe
agenc
exevcised
I peasanls
lIvougI
evasion ov
inaclion,
see
Janes
C.
Scoll,
Weapons oJ
lIe WeaI
Evevda
Fovns
oJ
Feasanl Besislance
|Nev Haven,
1985).
68. On
novnaIil
and
Nazisn,
see
Ian
KevsIav,
'NovnaIil'
and Oenocide TIe
FvoIIen oJ
Hislovicizalion,
TIe Nazi
BiclalovsIip
FvoIIens and
Fevspeclives oJ Inlevpvelalion
|London, 1993): FeuIevl,
Inside Nazi
Oevnan: Havve,
Wonen in lIe Nazi
Easl:
AIJ
LiidlIe,
TIe
Hislov oJ Evevda LiJe
|Fvincelon, 1995).
69. See KIaus MicIeI MaiInan and OevIavd
FauI, Onniscienl,
Onnipolenl,
Onni
pvesenl? Oeslapo, Sociel,
and
Besislance,
in Bavid F.
Cvev, ed.,
Nazisn and Oevnan
Sociel,
1933-1945
|Nev YovI, 1994):
OeIIaleI, BacIing
HilIev.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
114
SIavic Beviev
isl
pvess.
Il vas nol a
navI oJ innocence.
Buving
and aJlev WovId Wav II
in
Oevnan,
indiJJevence
na
Iave
signaIed
a desive Jov
novnaIil
and
pvivac
in lIe aJlevnalI oJ TolaI
Wav,
anIivaIence aIoul Nazi
poIicies,
ov a
conscious ov
unconscious decision lo luvn a
IIind
ee
lo lIe
pevse
culion oJ olIevs vIiIe
IeneJiling
Jvon vaciaI
pIundev.70
TIe
exanpIe
oJ
Nazi
Oevnan
is
exlvene,
Iul in
lvenlielI-cenluv Euvope,
indiJJevence
lo
poIilics
Ias
vaveI
Ieen
enliveI apoIilicaI
and Ias inslead cavvied nuI
lipIe possiIIe poIilicaI neanings.
TIis neans
vesisling
lIe
lenplalion
lo
eilIev vonanlicize
ov
palIoI
ogize nalionaII
indiJJevenl
popuIalions.
Il vouId Ie
eas
lo lvansJovn
so-caIIed
IevnapIvodiles
ov
anpIiIians
Jvon lIe enenies oJ nalionaIisl
pedagogues
lo lIe Ievoes oJ nuIlicuIluvaI Janlasies. Bul in a
vovId oJ na
lionaI
IievavcIies,
idenlil
cavds,
and nalionaI
ascviplion, nan
veve sin
pI laIIing
IacI lo nalionaIisls in nalionaIisl levns. TIe nove slales and
nalionaIisl novenenls oIsessed
ovev
Jixing
and
vanIing
nalionaI
connu
nilies,
naIing
sucI aJJiIialion lIe Iasis Jov
cilizensIip
and sociaI
vigIls,
lIe nove
individuaIs slood lo
gain I Ieing
aIIe lo nove
easiI
Ielveen
lIose connunilies.
TvansnalionaIisn and IndiJJevence
TIe
enevging
JieId oJ lvansnalionaI
Iislov
inlevsecls vilI lIe
pvojecl
oJ
Iislovicizing
nalionaI
indiJJevence,
in lIal IolI veJIecl
a novenenl lo un
covev lIe IIind
spols
oJ nalionaI
Iislov.71
TIe JieId oJ lvansnalionaI Iis
lov
IuiIds
upon nan
inleIIecluaI
neigIIovs
and
pvedecessovs
lIal Iave
conlviIuled lo lIe
gvaduaI decenleving
oJ lIe nalion-slale in IislovicaI
anaIsis, incIuding conpavalive Iislov,
Iisloive
cvoisee,
lvansJev
Iislov,
poslcoIoniaI
sludies,
inlevnalionaI
Iislov,
AlIanlic
Iislov,
and
gIoIaI
Iis
lov.72
Fov Iislovians oJ easl cenlvaI
Euvope,
lIe
appeaI
oJ lvansnalionaI
Iislov
is aInosl
seIJ-evidenl,
since
lvansnalionaIil
Ias deJined lIe nod
70. On a
desive Jov
novnaIil
aJlev WovId Wav
II,
see BicIavd BesseI and BivI ScIu
nann, eds.,
LiJe aJlev
BealI
AppvoacIes
lo a CuIluvaI and SociaI
Hislov oJ Euvope duving
lIe
1940s and 1950s
|Nev YovI, 2003).
71. On lIe lIeovelicaI concevns oJ
lvansnalionaIisn,
see in
pavlicuIav Jiivgen
Oslev
IanneI and SeIaslian
Convad, eds.,
Bas KaisevveicI TvansnalionaI BeulscIIand in dev
WeIl,
1871-1914
|Oollingen,
2004):
TIonas
Bendev, ed.,
BelIinIing
Anevica in a
OIoIaI
Age
|BevIeIe,
2002):
FIiIipp
TIev,
Beond
lIe Nalion TIe BeIalionaI Basis oJ a
Conpava
live
Hislov
oJ
Oevnan
and
Euvope,
CenlvaI
Euvopean Hislov
36,
no. 1
|2003) 45-73:
Ule
Fvevevl,
Euvopeanizing Oevnan's
TvenlielI
Cenluv, Hislov
and
Menov
Sludies in
Bepvesenlalion oJ
lIe Fasl
17,
no.
1/2 |FaII 2005) 87-116:
Falvicia
CIavin,
BeJining
Tvans
nalionaIisn,
Conlenpovav Euvopean Hislov
14,
no. 4
|NovenIev 2005) 421-39:
Bavid
BIacIIouvn,
Euvopeanizing
Oevnan
Hislov
A
Connenl,
BuIIelin
oJ
lIe Oevnan Hislovi
caI Inslilule 36
|Spving
2005)
25-32.
72. On Iisloive cvoisee and lvansJev
Iislov,
see MicIeI
Espagne,
Les
lvansJevls
cuIluveIs
Jvanco-aIIenands
|Favis, 1999):
Benedicle Zinnevnann and MicIaeI
Wevnev, eds.,
Be Ia
conpavaison
a TIisloive cvoisee
|Favis, 2004).
Fov a
discussion oJ lIe diJJevences Ielveen Iis
loive cvoisee and cuIluvaI
lvansJev,
see
Haupl
and
KocIa,
Conpavalive Hislov,
31-33.
Fov
an
inlvoduclion lo
gIoIaI Iislov
in
lIeov
and
pvaclice,
see Bvuce MazIisI and AIiva
Ivie,
eds.,
TIe OIoIaI
Hislov
Beadev
|Nev YovI, 2005).
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 115
evn
Iislov
oJ easlevn
Euvope.
In lIe nineleenlI and lvenlielI
cenluvies,
easlevn
Euvope
Ias Ieen an
anpIe
souvce oJ
nigvanls
and
veJugees,
a
souvce oJ vav
naleviaIs and a navIel Jov
Euvopean goods, occupied I
sevevaI diJJevenl
vegines,
and
pavl
oJ sevevaI diJJevenl
enpives
and slales.
CounlIess individuaIs vIo Iived Ielveen
Oevnan
and Bussia
spoIe
nove
lIan
one
Ianguage,
veve
cilizens oJ nove
lIan
one
slale,
and idenliJied
vilI
nove
lIan
one
nalionaI
connunil
ovev
lIe couvse oJ lIeiv ovn
IiJelines.
Man
Iislovians oJ easl cenlvaI
Euvope
Iave lIeveJove
Iong
Ieen
lIinIing lvansnalionaII
aIoul
lopics
sucI as
enpive,
IovdevIands,
occu
palions, nigvalion,
and elInic
cIeansing.
TvansnalionaI
Iislov
aIso
seens lo oJJev lIe seduclive
possiIiIil
oJ
vviling
aIoul
sonelIing
olIev7Ian nalionaIisn?lIe
ideas,
peopIe, goods,
and inlevnalionaI
ovganizalions
lIal civcuIaled in easlevn
Euvope
vilI
IillIe allenlion lo lIe Iovdevs oJ nalion-slales. In lIis
sense,
lvansnalionaI
Iislov appeavs
lo oJJev
a
veJvesIing
aIlevnalive lo lIe
concepl
oJ nalionaI
indiJJevence.73 AJlev
aII,
vIiIe
cIaining
lo suIvevl
ov
cIaIIenge
nalionaI
calegovies,
nalionaI indiJJevence
uIlinaleI puls
lIe nalion
vigIl
IacI al
lIe cenlev oJ lIe
agenda,
aIIeil in a
negalive
Jovn. TvansnalionaI
Iislov,
I
conlvasl,
Ias lIe
polenliaI
lo oJJev a nev sel oJ lIenalic
concevns
and
a nev vindov on oId concevns.
Bul lvansnalionaI
Iislov
aIso cavvies lIe
dangev
oJ
assuning
lIe nalion
as
ils
slavling poinl.74
TIe
concepl
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence
can
acluaII
IeIp
Iislovians lo avoid lIis
pilJaII. CIaIIenging
lIe nalionaIisl
assunp
lions lIal
sIape
lIe
Iislov
and
nenov
oJ
Euvope
viII
vequive
nove
lIan
sinpI cIanging
scaIes
ov
seeIing
oul
inslilulions, idenlilies,
ov
pvocesses
lIal
appeav
lo JIoal
aIove, IeIov,
ov acvoss
lIe Iovdevs oJ nalion-slales
|nigvalion,
lvade,
enpive,
louvisn,
veIigion,
IocaIisn,
and
vegionaIisn,
lo
nane a
Jev).
In
Jacl,
il viII Ie
cIaIIenging
lo vvile lvansnalionaI Iislovies
lIal do nol
pvesune
lIe exislence oJ nalionaI coIIeclives unIess ve Jivsl
laIe nalionaI indiJJevence
seviousI.
Hislovians oJ nodevn
Oevnan,
Jov
exanpIe,
Iave
expvessed gvoving
inlevesl in lIe
Iislov
oJ
Oevnan's JvaugIl
veIalions vilI easlevn
Euvope
and in lIe
Iislov
oJ Oevnans in lIe easl. TIis
Bvang
nacI Oslen in Oev
nan
IisloviogvapI
Ias sevevaI souvces. In addilion lo a
Ivoadev inlevesl
in lvansnalionaI
Iislov,
il veJIecls eJJovls lo siluale lIe HoIocausl nove
deepI
in ils easl
Euvopean
conlexl.75 TIanIs lo lIe inJIuence oJ coIo
niaI and
poslcoIoniaI
sludies,
Oevnanisls Iave aIso
Iegun
lo
conJvonl
Oevnan's Iongev-levn inpeviaIisl agenda
in easl
cenlvaI
Euvope.
Easlevn
73. Fov an
exanpIe
oJ a
Iislov
lIal
cIaIIenges
nalionaI JvanevovIs
I vviling
lIe
Iislov
oJ
sonelIing
eIse,
see
AIison
FIeig
FvanI,
OiI
Enpive
Visions
oJ Fvospevil
in Aus
lvian OaIicia
|CanIvidge,
Mass., 2005).
74. On lIe
dangevs
oJ lvansnalionaI
Iislov,
see C. A.
BaI,
Sven
BecIevl,
MallIev
ConneII,
IsaIeI
HoJnev, Wend
KozoI,
and Falvicia
Seed,
AHB Convevsalion On Tvans
nalionaI
Hislov,
Anevican HislovicaI Beviev
111,
no. 5
|BecenIev 2006)
1442.
75.
See,
Jov
exanpIe,
Onev
Bavlov,
Easlevn
Euvope
as lIe Sile oJ
Oenocide,
JouvnaI
oJ
Modevn
Hislov
80,
no. 3
|SeplenIev
2008) 557-93:
TinolI Sndev,
HoIocausl TIe
Ignoved BeaIil,
Nev YovI Beviev
oJ
BooIs
56,
no.
12
|16
JuI
2009).
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
116
SIavic Beviev
Euvope,
Bavid BIacIIouvn Ias
avgued,
is
Oevnan's
India
ov
AIgevia
and is
vipe
Jov lvansnalionaI
slud.76 LooIing
easlvavd Ias
pvoduced
JvesI
pevspeclives
on
lIe lvansnalionaI dinensions oJ Oevnan
Iislov,
on
lIe
sIiJling
conlouvs oJ Oevnan nalionaIisn and
cilizensIip,
and
on
lIe ovi
gins
and
dnanics
oJ Nazi vaciaI
poIilics.
Bul lIe luvn
easlvavd aIso Ias ils
pilJaIIs. NaneI,
il is
a
nislaIe lo
assune lIal
Oevnan-speaIevs
in nodevn easl cenlvaI
Euvope
veve a
Iounded,
cIeavI
idenliJied
gvoup,
lIal
lIe
Iad
connon
Oevnan in
levesls,
lIal
lIe necessaviI oppvessed
ov
doninaled lIeiv SIavic
neigI
Iovs
ov
lIal
lIe
even sav
lIenseIves
as
diJJevenl Jvon lIose
neigIIovs.
We cannol vvile
Iislov
Jvon
nuIlipIe
sides vilIoul
queslioning
Iov
lIose sides veve Jivsl consliluled.77
B vaising
lIe JundanenlaI
queslion
oJ vIo
vas a
Oevnan and vIo
vas a
SIav,
lIe
concepl
oJ nalionaI indiJJev
ence can
IeIp
Iislovians lo vvile lvansnalionaI Iislovies lIal
successJuII
cIaIIenge
nalionaIisl
assunplions.
TIe
concepl
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence
nigIl
aIso
sevve as a
useJuI looI
in
nigvalion
sludies. BeIales aIoul lIe
expeviences
oJ
nigvanls
couId Ie
veconcepluaIized using
lIe
concepl
oJ nalionaI indiJJevence valIev lIan
sucI levns as
assiniIalion, accuIluvalion,
ov
IIvidil
lIal assune
pveexisling
nalionaI
IoaIlies
and coIevenl
gvoup
idenlilies. In
addilion,
Iislovians
couId exanine Iov
expeviences
oJ
nigvalion
and
dispIacenenl
sevved lo
accenluale ov
evadicale nalionaI indiJJevence. Becenl
scIoIavsIip
on
dis
pIacenenl
in
Euvope
aJlev WovId Wav II veJIecls lIis
appvoacI,
conIin
ing
a
lvansnalionaI
nelIodoIog
vilI allenlion lo nalionaI indiJJevence.
MucI oJ lIis veseavcI denonslvales lIal
expeviences
oJ
dispIacenenl
ac
luaII
JuvlIeved lIe nalionaIizalion oJ easl
Euvopean popuIalions,
sone
lines
lIvougI
oJJiciaI
calegovizalion I
inlevnalionaI veIieJ
ovganizalions,
vIicI
ovganized veJugees aIong
nalionaI Iines in ovdev lo JaciIilale
ve
palvialion.78
In
1951,
HannaI Avendl oIsevved lIal nol a
singIe gvoup
oJ
veJugees
ov
BispIaced
Fevsons Ias JaiIed lo
deveIop
a
Jievce, vioIenl,
76. See
BIacIIouvn/'Euvopeanizing
Oevnan
Hislov,
25-32. On
Oevnan
in lIe
easl,
see
Vejas
O.
LiuIevicius,
Wav Land on lIe Easlevn Fvonl
CuIluve,
NalionaI
Idenlil
and
Oevnan
Occupalion
in WovId Wav I
|CanIvidge, Eng.,
2000): LiuIevicius,
TIe Oevnan
MlI
oJ
lIe Easl 1800 lo lIe Fvesenl
|OxJovd, 2009):
IsaIeI
HuII,
AIsoIule Beslvuclion
MiIilav
CuI
luve and lIe Fvaclices
oJ
Wav in
InpeviaI Oevnan
|IlIaca, 2005):
Annenavie
Sannavlino,
TIe
InpossiIIe
Bovdev
Oevnan, Migvalion,
and lIe
Easl,
1914-1922
|IlIaca, 2010):
Havve,
Wonen and lIe Nazi
Easl: Mazovev,
HilIevs
Enpive,
Lova
WiIdenlIaI,
Oevnan Wonen
Jov
En
pive,
1884-1945
|BuvIan, 2001).
77. Fov nove on lIe luvn easlvavd in Oevnan
Iislov,
see Tava
ZaIva,
LooIing
Easl
Easl CenlvaI
Euvopean
'BovdevIands' in Oevnan
Hislov
and
HisloviogvapI, Hislov
Conpass
3,
no. 1
|Januav
2005)
1-23.
78. On lIe nalionaIizalion oJ
dispIaced
pevsons
and
veJugees,
see Avinoan
J.
Fall,
Finding
Hone and HoneIand
JevisI
YoulI and Zionisn in lIe
AJlevnalI oJ
lIe HoIocausl
|Belvoil,
2009):
Alina
Ovossnann,
Jevs,
Oevnans,
and AIIies CIose Encounlevs in
Occupied Oevnan
|Fvincelon, 2007):
FaneIa
BaIIingev,
Bovdevs oJ lIe
Nalion,
Bovdevs oJ
CilizensIip
IlaI
ian
Bepalvialion
and lIe BeJinilion oJ NalionaI
Idenlil
aJlev WovId Wav
II,
Conpavalive
Sludies in
Sociel
and
Hislov
49,
no. 3
|JuI
2007) 713-41:
WoIJgang JacoIsneev,
Von
ZvangsavIeilev
zun IeinalIosen AusIandev Bie
BispIaced
Fevsons in WesldeulscIIand 1945-51
|Oollingen,
1985):
Liisa
MaIIIi,
Fuvil
and ExiIe
VioIence,
Menov,
and NalionaI
CosnoIog
anong
Hulu
BeJugees
in Tanzania
|CIicago,
1995):
Tava
ZaIva,
Losl CIiIdven
BispIace
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 117
gvoup
consciousness and lo cIanov Jov
vigIls
as?and
onI
as?FoIes
ov
Jevs
ov
Oevnans,
elc.79 Foslvav
veJugees
veve
vesponding
lo lIeiv
ovn
expeviences
oJ
pevseculion
and
dispIacenenl duving
WovId Wav II as
veII
as lo lIe
IegaI
slvucluves cvealed
I
lIe AIIies aJlev lIe
vav.
IndividuaI
vigIls
lo
asIun,
lo
vepalvialion
ov
vesellIenenl
aIvoad,
and lo
Jood and
Iousing
veve
aII dislviIuled
IievavcIicaII
Iased
on
nalionaIil,
in
spile
oJ
lIe
univevsaIizing
discouvse oJ Iunan
vigIls.
Bul nalionaI
indelevninac
and
inposluve
did nol
disappeav
in Eu
vope's BispIaced
Fevsons'
canps. Man veJugees deIiIevaleI
oIscuved
ov
JaIsiJied lIeiv
nalionaIil
in ovdev lo
escape
JovciIIe
vepalvialion
lo lIe
Soviel
Union,
evade
inpvisonnenl
Jov coIIaIovalion vilI lIe
Nazis,
ov
sinpI
lo
gain
a
Javoved slalus Jov
enigvalion
scIenes,
Iousing,
ov
Jood
valions. In lIe
eavI
1950s,
Jov
exanpIe, JevisI agencies conpIained
lIal
nan JevisI veJugees
Jvon FoIand ov Bonania in
poslvav
Auslvia
veve
Jovced lo
pose
as
Sudelen Oevnans in ovdev lo
expedile
lIeiv
vequesls
Jov
cilizensIip, Iousing,
and sociaI
vigIls,
due lo
ongoing
anlisenilisn in
Auslvian
sociel. Legions
oJ Soviel cilizens vIo visIed lo
escape
JovciIIe
vepalvialion
neanvIiIe
posed
as
FoIes in
Euvope's poslvav dispIaced
pev
son
canps,
sonelines vilI
a
vinI and
a
nod Jvon
snpalIelic
lvansIalovs
and AIIied aulIovilies.80 Oovevnnenl oJJiciaIs in Auslvia veve
aIso
suspi
cious oJ lIe nalionaI
IoaIlies
oJ
expeIIees.
A 1947 neno Jvon lIe Aus
lvian
Minislv
oJ Inleviov
caulioned,
Il is nol
aIvas eas
Jov lIe Auslvian
aulIovilies lo decide in individuaI
cases iJ
lIe
ave
deaIing
vilI
an
elInic
Oevnan
ov an
elInic SIovene Jvon
YugosIavia,
Iecause IolI lIe VoIIs
deulscIe and lIe SIovenes
speaI
IolI
Ianguages equaII
veII,
ov
equaII
poovI,
and
lIe
can
lIeveJove cIain lo Ie Oevnans
ov
SIovenes
accovding
lo lIeiv ovn
needs.81
NalionaI
anIiguil
aIso conJounded lIe inlevnalionaI Iunanilavian
vovIevs Jaced vilI
unacconpanied dispIaced
cIiIdven aJlev WovId Wav II.
In ovdev lo
cIassiJ
cIiIdven
accovding
lo lIeiv covvecl
nalionaIil, lIe
vesovled lo exlensive inlevvievs vilI so-caIIed Iosl cIiIdven vIo Iad Jov
gollen
lIeiv ovn nanes and
ovigins.
One Uniled Nalions' sociaI vovIev
eIaIovaled in a 1946
vepovl
TIe
queslion
oJ
nalionaIil
is nosl
pevpIexing
in lIe cases oJ cIiIdven
coning
Jvon SiIesia Iecause oJ lIe nixed Oevnan and FoIisI
popuIa
lion in lIal avea
IeJove lIe vav. In lIe aIsence oJ
idenlil papevs
Iess de
pendaIIe
Jaclovs nusl Ie veIied
upon
in
delevnining nalionaIil....
Ouv
nosl
sIiIIJuI inlevvievevs
vepovl
lIal lIe cIiIdven's
pscIoIogicaI
veac
nevil,
FaniI
and Nalion in Foslvav
Euvope, JouvnaI oJ
Modevn
Hislov
81,
no. 1
|MavcI
2009)
45-86.
79. HannaI
Avendl,
TIe
Ovigins oJ
TolaIilavianisn
|Nev YovI, 1951),
292.
80. Menovandun oJ
Agudas
IsvaeI,
25
June
1953,
Cavlon
11, 12U-34,
Bundesninis
leviun des
Innevn,
AvcIiv dev
BepuIIiI,
OslevveicIiscIes
SlaalsavcIiv,
Vienna. On Soviel
dispIaced pevsons
and nalionaI
inposluve,
see Andvev
Janco,
TIe Soviel
BeJugees
in
Foslvav
Euvope
and lIe CoId
Wav,
1945-51
|FIB diss.,
Univevsil
oJ
CIicago,
2010).
81. Bas FvoIIen dev B.F.s in
OslevveicI,
29
ApviI
1947, 5,
Cavlon
35,
II-poI
1947,
Bundesninisleviun Juv
ausvavlige AngeIegenIeilen,
AvcIive dev
BepuIIiI,
Oslevvei
cIiscIes
SlaalsavcIiv,
Vienna.
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
118 SIavic Beviev
lions lo
queslions
aIoul
nalionaIil
ave
signiJicanl.
TIe
unqueslionaII
Oevnan cIiId
usuaII vepIies JveeI
and
pvonplI.
TIe
vesponse
oJ lIe
non-Oevnan
cIiId,
lIougI
Ie
sas
Ie is
Oevnan,
is oJlen cIavaclevized
I
enIavvassnenl, Iesilalion, conJusion,
ov
Jvanlic
appeaI
lo a nenIev
oJ lIe slaJJ Jov
IeIp
in
naIing vepI.82
No one
consideved lIe
possiIiIil
lIal
a SiIesian cIiId
nigIl
Iave Ieen
genuineI
conJused aIoul Iis
ov
Iev nalionaI aJJiIialion.
OnI
in
excep
lionaI
cases vas lIe
anIiguil
oJ nalionaI
IeIonging oJJiciaII vecognized,
as in
IlaI,
vIeve InlevnalionaI
BeJugee Ovganizalion
oJJiciaIs cvealed lIe
calegov
oJ Undelevnined Venezia OiuIians lo
designale veJugees
in
IlaI
Jvon Venezia OiuIia vilI indelevninale nalionaI
IoaIlies. BaIIingev
avgues
lIal lIe vovI oJ cIassiJicalion in
poslvav veJugee canps suggesls
lIal lIe
Iislov
oJ nalionaI
indelevninac
and indiJJevence in easl cenlvaI
Euvope
did nol
sinpI
end vilI elInic
cIeansing
in 1945.83 TIis veseavcI
on
poslvav dispIacenenl
aIso iIIuslvales lIe
vas
in vIicI lIe
Iislov
oJ
nalionaI indiJJevence inlevsecls vilI lIe
Iislov
oJ
nigvalion,
as
lIe
nove
nenl oJ
peopIe
acvoss Iovdevs
exposed
lIe Iinils oJ nalionaIizalion and
pvonpled
slale aulIovilies lo conJvonl and
cIassiJ nalionaII
indiJJevenl
popuIalions.
ElInic
cIeansing
in easlevn
Euvope
vas
uIlinaleI
an eJJovl
lo evadicale nalionaI indiJJevence
as
nucI
as an
allenpl
lo eIininale
na
lionaI ninovilies.
NalionaI indiJJevence Ias
a
Iong
and coIovJuI
Iislov
in nodevn Eu
vope.
Il
appeaved
on
lIe scene as an
inagined nonconnunil
in lIe nid
nineleenlI
cenluv,
caIIed inlo
Ieing I
nalionaIisls lIenseIves
lIvougI
lIeiv ovn
pavanoia.
LiIe lIe
inagined connunil
oJ lIe
nalion,
lIe
inagined nonconnunil
oJ lIe
nalionaII
indiJJevenl is Iesl undevslood
in ils IocaI
conlexls,
since IolI ils Jovn and
neaning
lvansJovned
acvoss
line and
space.
IndiJJevence Ias ils ovn Iislovies. Bul lIe
concepl
oJ na
lionaI indiJJevence
na uIlinaleI
Ie nosl
pvoduclive
as a
slavling poinl
Jov
scIoIavI
veseavcI valIev lIan
as a
pecuIiavil
ov
exceplion vequiving
expIanalion.
BalIev lIan
assuning
lIal
peopIe
in
Euvope IeIonged
lo
nalions,
pevIaps
ve sIouId
assune indiJJevence and
invesligale
Iov and
vI peopIe
aIIied lIenseIves
poIilicaII, cuIluvaII,
and
sociaII
Jvon lIe
gvound
up.
Move
IvoadI,
lIe
slud
oJ indiJJevence oJJevs
a
pvonising
slvaleg
Jov
pvoIIenalizing pveconceived veIalionsIips
Ielveen individuaI
suIjecliv
il
and coIIeclive aJJiIialion.
AIlIougI
I Iave Jocused
on nalionaI indiJJev
ence in easl cenlvaI
Euvope, poIilicaI
indiJJevence,
gendev
indiJJevence,
cIass
indiJJevence,
and
veIigious
indiJJevence
na
aIso
pvove
JvuilJuI cal
egovies
Jov scIoIavs inlevesled in lIe
Iislov
oJ
suIjeclivil, IoaIl,
and
cIassiJicalion. IndiJJevence
na
aIso
IeIp
sociaI and cuIluvaI Iislovians
lo
Iellev
inlegvale
lIe
Iislov
oJ individuaIs vIo
seen lo Ie
on lIe
navgins
oJ eIile
poIilics
inlo lIeiv
anaIsis.
IndiJJevence,
Jav Jvon
Ieing
lIe
Iinav
82. BenovaI oJ CIiIdven
|FoIisI)
Jvon lIe Sl.
JosepI's
KindevIein,
14 OcloIev
1946,
FiIe
16,
S-0437-
0013,
Uniled Nalions
AvcIive,
Nev
YovI:
see aIso W. C.
Hussoon,
WIo Is
TIis
CIiId,
SanpIe
oJ
an Inlevviev vilI an
Unacconpanied
CIiId,
FiIe
11,
S-0437-
0013,
Uniled Nalions AvcIive.
83.
BaIIingev,
Bovdevs oJ lIe
Nalion,
713-41.
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Inagined
Nonconnunilies 119
opposile
oJ
poIilicaI engagenenl,
a veJIeclion oJ
popuIav ignovance,
ov a
pvenodevn
veIic,
vas
oJlen
a
vesponse
lo nodevn
nass
poIilics.
As Iislo
vians,
ve cannol Ie indiJJevenl lo lIe nalion-slale and ils
inpacl
on
nod
evn
Iislov.
Bul ve can
allenpl
lo
capluve
lIose nonenls vIen ils
gvip
on
IolI lIe individuaI and
sociel
vas Iess lIan aIsoIule. In lIe
pvocess,
pevIaps
ve can
JinaII
vescue lIe cilizens oJ
HaIsIuvg
cenlvaI
Euvope
Jvon lIe
pvison
oJ nalions
once
and Jov aII.
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