George Kent, Aquaculture and Food Security, in PACON, eds.
, Proceedings of the PACON
Conference on Sustainable Aquaculture 95, 11-14 June 1995, onolulu, a!ai"i, #SA$ Honolulu: Paciic Congress on !arine Science and "ec#nology, $%%&. AQUACULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY George Kent 'ni(ersity o Ha)aii A*ril $+, $%%& ABSTRACT Food security can ,e deined as secure access to enoug# ood at all ti-es. Aquaculture can aect #u-an ood security ,y increasing inco-e and t#us enlarging t#e ca*acity to *urc#ase ood on t#e -ar.et. /n t#is study, #o)e(er, t#e *ri-ary concern is )it# t#e aquaculture *roduct as ood, not as a co--odity o econo-ic (alue to its *roducers and sellers. "#e -a0or i-*act o aquaculture1s *roduct on ood security is its contri,ution to o(erall ood su**lies or t#e general *o*ulation. Anot#er i-*act t#at -ust ,e distinguis#ed is aquaculture1s inluence on t#e ood security o t#e *oor, t#ose -ost (ulnera,le to -alnutrition. Aquaculture -a.es a large, *ositi(e contri,ution to t#e )orld1s ood su**ly. 2it# res*ect to is# ood su**lies or t#e *oor in *articular, #o)e(er, aquaculture1s net eect is not so clear. "raditional e3tensi(e or-s o aquaculture generally -a.e a *ositi(e contri,ution. Ho)e(er, -ost -odern intensi(e or-s o aquaculture are directed to)ard u*scale -ar.ets, and do not *ro(ide increased ood su**lies or t#e *oor. !odern, intensi(e aquaculture o*erations so-eti-es e(en -a.e t#e *oor )orse o. Aquaculturists do not #a(e any greater o,ligation to eed t#e *oor t#an anyone else. Ho)e(er, t#ere is a s*ecial o,ligation i t#e o*eration #as signiicant negati(e nutritional 4or en(iron-ental, econo-ic, or ot#er5 i-*acts, *er#a*s ,y dis*lacing -ore traditional o*erations. "#ere is also a s*ecial o,ligation i *u,lic unding )as o,tained on t#e ,asis o a clai- or i-*lication t#at t#e *ro0ect )ould i-*ro(e t#e ood security o t#e *oor. / aquaculture1s *roducts are to ,e used to strengt#en t#e ood security o t#e *oor, se(eral guidelines s#ould ,e considered: $. Funding or aquaculture or t#e *oor s#ould ,e increased. 6. Aquaculture *ro0ects s#ould do no #ar- to t#e ood su**lies o t#e *oor. 7. 83isting aquaculture acti(ities or t#e *oor s#ould ,e strengt#ened. 9. "#e ocus s#ould ,e on lo) cost *roducts a(ored ,y t#e *oor. 5. Production s#ould ,e or local consu-ers. :. Co--unity *roduction s#ould ,e encouraged. +. Food security i-*acts s#ould ,e -onitored. AQUACULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY George Kent 'ni(ersity o Ha)aii A*ril $+, $%%& Oten aquaculture is underta.en as a straig#tor)ard co--ercial enter*rise, co-*ara,le to any ot#er. At ti-es, #o)e(er, aquaculturists argue t#at t#eir enter*rises )ill -a.e signiicant contri,utions to #u-an ood su**lies, *articularly or t#e *oor. Oten clai-s are -ade or *u,lic su**ort on t#ese grounds. /t is useul, t#en, to e3a-ine aquaculture1s contri,ution to #u-an ood security. - Food security can ,e deined as secure access to enoug# ood at all ti-es. $ "#us, ood security is concerned )it# questions relating to t#e ood su**ly. Ho)e(er, t#ere is -ore to nutrition t#an ood su**ly. Nutrition status de*ends not only on suita,le ood ,ut also on good ,asic #ealt# ser(ices and, *articularly or c#ildren, adequate care. 6 At one ti-e it )as ,elie(ed t#at -ost -alnutrition )as associated )it# inadequate *rotein su**lies, ,ut since t#e $%:;s it #as ,een recogni<ed t#at -alnutrition usually is associated )it# inadequate energy 4calorie5 su**lies. 2#ere energy inta.es are adequate, usually *rotein inta.es also are adequate. 2#ere ood su**lies are inadequate, usually t#e ,est re-edy is to i-*ro(e t#e su**ly o lo)=cost co-*le3 car,o#ydrates, *reera,ly t#e corn or rice or ot#er traditional ood sta*le in t#e region. 2e s#ould not ,e under t#e illusion t#at it is i-*ortant to get is# to t#e *oor ,ecause t#ey suer ro- serious *rotein deiciencies. 2#ile increasing is# su**lies or t#e *oor )ill not ,e t#e *ri-ary re-edy or -alnutrition, ne(ert#eless it can i-*ro(e t#e ood security o t#e *oor ,y en#ancing t#e o(erall a,undance, quality, and (ariety o t#eir ood su**lies. !alnutrition generally results not ro- a lac. o ood in t#e co--unity ,ut ro- t#e s.e)ed distri,ution o t#e ood t#at is a(aila,le. "#at s.e) results ,ecause so-e *eo*le are too *oor or too *o)erless to -a.e an adequate clai- on t#e ood t#at is a(aila,le. Aquaculture can aect #u-an ood security in se(eral )ays. One -a0or i-*act results ro- generating inco-e or t#e o)ners and e-*loyees o aquaculture enter*rises. /ncreasing inco-e increases ood security ,y enlarging t#e ca*acity to *urc#ase ood on t#e -ar.et. Here, #o)e(er, t#e *ri-ary concern #ere is )it# t#e aquaculture *roduct as ood, not as a co--odity o econo-ic (alue to its *roducers and sellers. "#e -a0or i-*act o aquaculture1s ood *roduct on ood security is its contri,ution to o(erall ood su**lies or t#e general *o*ulation. Anot#er i-*act t#at -ust ,e distinguis#ed is aquaculture1s inluence on t#e ood security o t#e *oor, t#ose -ost (ulnera,le to -alnutrition. 7 CON">/?'"/ON "O O@8>AAA FOOB S'PPA/8S Aquaculture1s contri,ution to )orld ood su**lies #as ,een increasing ra*idly in recent decades. "#is #as ,een es*ecially i-*ortant in (ie) o t#e )ea.ening o -arine is#eries. 6 Aquaculture is #el*ing to co-*ensate or losses due to t#e deterioration o con(entional ca*ture is#eries. /n $%C%=%$, a(erage annual aquaculture *roduction )as o(er $& -illion -etric tons, -ore t#an $: *ercent o total glo,al is# *roduction. /n recent years, aquaculture #as -ade its -ost s*ectacular contri,ution in C#ina. C#ina1s is# *roduction #as ,een increasing steadily, to a,out a si3t# o total )orld is# *roduction in $%%7. /n t#at year, aquaculture accounted or a,out nine -illion tons, a,out &6 *ercent o C#ina1s total is# *roduction. Only a s-all s#are o t#at total #as ,een e3*orted. "#e e3*ort o *ra)ns #as ,een urt#er li-ited ,y t#e out,rea. o diseases in t#e culturing o*erations, es*ecially in D#e0ian *ro(ince. "#us, aquaculture is -a.ing an enor-ous *ositi(e contri,ution to C#ina1s ood su**ly. A**arently t#e ra*id gro)t# o aquaculture is ,ot# a cause and a consequence o C#ina1s ra*id econo-ic gro)t#. 9 "#e -a0or i-*act o aquaculture on )orld ood su**lies is con(eyed in t#e aggregate tonnage igures. Ho)e(er, in so-e cases assessing only t#e out*ut o aquaculture *ro0ects can ,e -isleading. So-e intensi(e aquaculture o*erations use large a-ounts o lo)=cost *rotein sources, including is#, as eed to *roduce #ig# (alue *roducts. "#ese o*erations are net consu-ers o *rotein. "#ey -ay -a.e good econo-ic sense to t#eir o)ners, ,ut in nutritional ter-s t#ey are #ig#ly ineicient. "#ese o*erations actually reduce o(erall ood su**lies. /!PAC"S ON "H8 POO> Aquaculture clearly -a.es a large, *ositi(e contri,ution to t#e )orld1s ood su**ly. 2it# res*ect to is# ood su**lies or t#e *oor in *articular, #o)e(er, aquaculture1s net eect is not so clear. "raditional e3tensi(e or-s o aquaculture generally -a.e a *ositi(e contri,ution. Historically, aquaculture #as ,een a -a0or source o ani-al *rotein or t#e *oor in -any *arts o t#e )orld, es*ecially Asia. Ho)e(er, -ost -odern intensi(e or-s o aquaculture are directed to)ard u*scale -ar.ets, and do not *ro(ide increased ood su**lies or t#e *oor. !odern, intensi(e aquaculture o*erations so-eti-es e(en -a.e t#e *oor )orse ot1. /n so-e cases ingerlings )#ic# *re(iously #ad ,een consu-ed ,y t#e *oor are attened in aquaculture o*erations )#ic# cater to u*scale -ar.ets. Coastal s#ri-* -ariculture #as dis*laced -any traditional coastal is#eries, and #as da-aged or destroyed -angro(e ecosyste-s )#ic# #ad ser(ed as ,reeding grounds or local is#eries ser(ing local -ar.ets. 83*ort=oriented aquaculture o*erations oten di(ert resources a)ay ro- *roduction or local consu-*tion. /n general, any land, )ater, la,or, or ca*ital t#at is de(oted to aquaculture or u*scale -ar.ets #as an associated o**ortunity cost in t#at t#ose resources -ig#t #a(e ,een used to #el* eed t#e local *oor. So-e analysts argue t#at t#e long ter- is#eries (alue o -angro(e #a,itat is greater t#an its (alue or any ot#er use, including coastal -ariculture. & !ore i-*ortant t#an t#e question o #o) -uc# ,eneit is *roduced is t#e question o )#o gets t#e ,eneit. As Conner ?ailey o,ser(es, one co--on result o coastal -ariculture de(elo*-ent is t#at a co-*le3 ecosyste- su**orting -ulti*le uses ,y a (ariety o users is ,eing transor-ed into a greatly 7 si-*liied syste- t#at ,eco-es t#e *ri(ate *ro*erty o an indi(idual entre*reneur. : "#e i-*act on t#e distri,ution o ood is direct: Fis#er-en and t#eir custo-ers also are aected as coastal ecosyste-s are disru*ted to ,uild s#ri-* *onds, resulting in declining catc#es o is# and s#ri-*. ?ecause *ond= gro)n s#ri-* are directed to)ards e3*ort -ar.ets, -ariculture *roduction does not ser(e to re*lace t#is decline in locally a(aila,le ood. + /t is a -atter o *articular concern t#at t#is oten results ro- *ro0ects t#at are *u,licly unded. As S-it# and PestaEo=S-it# #a(e *ointed out, Aarge=scale aquaculture enter*rises requently dis*lace s-all=scale is#er-en and aquaculturists t#roug# su,sidi<ed inancing and institutional arrange-ents t#at a(or t#e large=scale or cor*orate in(estor. C /n /ndia, t#e go(ern-ent o Orissa state started to lease out land to a large cor*oration to de(elo* large scale industrial *ra)n ,reeding in C#ili.a Aa.e. So-e $&;; traditional is#ers in t#ree (illages )ere dis*ossessed. 'nder *ressure ro- a (igorous Sa(e t#e C#ili.a !o(e-ent, )it# *artici*ation ,y F/AN 4an international nongo(ern-ental organi<ation )or.ing or t#e #u-an rig#t to eed onesel15 t#e Orissa Hig# Court inally closed do)n t#e *ro0ect. % Si-ilar e(ents #a(e ta.en *lace in Honduras. "#e 2orld ?an., t#e 'nited States Agency or /nternational Be(elo*-ent, and t#e 8uro*ean Co--unity unded (igorous e3*ort=oriented s#ri-* -ariculture, es*ecially around t#e Gul o Fonseca. Production ,oo-ed t#roug# t#e $%C;s, generating #ig# inco-es and -any 0o,s. Ho)e(er, t#ere )ere -any negati(e econo-ic and social consequences as )ell, leading inally to intense conlicts a-ong t#e dierent interest grou*s. !any local *eo*le, es*ecially artisanal is#ers, ,eca-e )orse o as a result o t#e s#ri-* -ariculture eorts. One analyst concludes t#at in Honduras t#e *ro-otion o s#ri-* is accelerating social dierentiation, di-inis#ing access to co--on=*ro*erty resources, e3*elling s-all *roducers ro- t#eir land, and leading to greater *o(erty and social conlict. $; Fears ago a )ell=.no)n aquaculturist told -e t#at #is )or. on t#e aquaculture o #ig#= *riced *roducts )as contri,uting to t#e alle(iation o -alnutrition in t#e )orld. He e3*lained t#at )#en t#ese *roducts ,eca-e c#ea* enoug#, e(eryone )ould ,e a,le to eat t#e-. "#e )orld doesn1t )or. t#at )ay. >educing t#e cost o lu3ury *roducts usually -eans t#at -ore *eo*le in t#e ric#er #al o t#e )or. )ill get to eat t#e-. As *rices co-e do)n, t#ose consu-ers -ay get a ,etter ,argain or, *er#a*s -ore li.ely, t#e *roducers )ill en0oy #ig#er *roit rates. "#e *roducts usually don1t tric.le do)n to t#ose )#o are needy. !ost co--ercial o*erations ai- to ser(e t#ose )#o #a(e t#e -ost s*ending *o)er, not t#ose )#o are -ost needy. Food syste-s are designed to -a3i-i<e *roita,ility, not nutrition status. /t is nai(e to assu-e t#at si-*ly *utting -ore ood out into t#e )orld )ill alle(iate -alnutrition. !alnutrition is not caused ,y inadequacy in t#e su**ly o ood )orld)ide, ,ut ,y t#e inadequate *urc#asing *o)er o t#e *oor. /t s#ould not ,e assu-ed t#at increasing aquaculture1s *roduction (olu-e )ould necessarily #el* to *ro(ide ood or t#e *oor. 'nless it is s*ecially targeted, increasing (olu-e is li.ely to i-*ro(e ood security or t#e ric# and t#e -iddle class, ,ut not or t#e *oor. Funding agencies and t#e aquaculture researc# institutes t#ey su**ort s#ould ,e sensiti(e to suc# considerations. / suc# an institute says its -a0or -ission is to strengt#en aquaculture 9 )it# t#e ulti-ate goal o contri,uting to t#e alle(iation o )orld #unger, its agenda s#ould go ,eyond ,reeding tec#nologies and aquaculture eeds. /t s#ould not ,e di(erted into de(elo*ing *roducts or u*scale -ar.ets. !oreo(er, t#e -ission o #el*ing to alle(iate #unger )ill not ,e acco-*lis#ed i it is treated entirely as a tec#nological question. "#e social as*ects o aquaculture need to ,e studied as )ell. Aquaculturists do not #a(e any greater o,ligation to eed t#e *oor t#an anyone else. "#ere is no in#erent need to 0ustiy co--ercial aquaculture o,ligations ser(ing u*scale -ar.ets. Ho)e(er, t#ere is a s*ecial o,ligation i t#e o*eration #as signiicant negati(e nutritional 4or en(iron-ental, econo-ic, or ot#er5 i-*acts, *er#a*s ,y dis*lacing -ore traditional o*erations. "#ere is also a s*ecial o,ligation i *u,lic unding )as o,tained on t#e ,asis o a clai- or i-*lication t#at t#e *ro0ect )ould i-*ro(e t#e ood security o t#e *oor. P'?A/C F'NB/NG !any aquaculture enter*rises are oriented to)ard t#e u**er and -iddle inco-e classes. "#at is to ,e e3*ected, since -ost entre*reneurs are -oti(ated ,y t#e inco-e=*roducing *otential o aquaculture enter*rises. /t a**ears t#at t#e sa-e *attern o ser(ing -iddle and u**er class -ar.ets is true o aquaculture *ro0ects t#at recei(e unding ro- national go(ern-ents and international agencies suc# as t#e 2orld ?an. and t#e regional de(elo*-ent ,an.s. Per#a*s so-e aquaculture *ro0ects s#ould ,e *u,licly su**orted ,ecause t#ey #el* to alle(iate t#e *o(erty o t#ose )#o go into t#e ,usiness, or ,ecause t#ey increase oreign e3c#ange earnings. !y interest #ere, #o)e(er, is in t#e clai- or t#e i-*licit assu-*tion t#at aquaculture *ro0ects s#ould ,e *u,licly unded ,ecause t#ey i-*ro(e t#e ood security o t#e *oor. 2#ile close attention #as ,een gi(en to t#e econo-ic (ia,ility o aquaculture enter*rises, and -ore recently to t#eir en(iron-ental i-*acts, *ractically no attention #as ,een gi(en to t#eir i-*acts on #u-an ood security. Fet it is *recisely t#at i-*act t#at is oten used as t#e ,asis or arguing t#at aquaculture s#ould ,e su**orted ,y *u,lic unds. 'nortunately, -any studies and *ro0ects as. or unding on t#e grounds t#at t#eir eorts )ill i-*ro(e t#e ood security o t#e *oor, ,ut once t#ey get t#e unds t#ey s#o) no urt#er interest in t#e idea. !oreo(er, t#e unding agencies do not #old t#e- accounta,le or t#ese clai-s. Aquaculture -a.es a su,stantial *ositi(e contri,ution to ood security in general, ,ut t#at is dierent ro- contri,uting to t#e ood security o t#e *oor in *articular. ?ot# t#e *roit and t#e *rotein can ,y*ass t#e *oor. "#e cases o /ndia and Honduras de-onstrate t#at suc# *ro0ects can actually #urt t#e-. AG'AC'A"'>8 FO> "H8 POO> / aquaculture1s *roducts are to ,e used to strengt#en t#e ood security o t#e *oor, it is not enoug# to *ro-ote t#e de(elo*-ent o lo)=cost *roducts. Consider, or e3a-*le, t#e )ay in )#ic# catis# #as -ade t#e lea* ro- *oor ol.s1 ood to #aute cuisine. $$ /n t#e a,sence o s*ecial -easures, econo-ic, social, and *olitical orces )ill cons*ire to assure t#at t#e ,eneits & gra(itate to)ard t#ose )#o are already )ell o. / aquaculture is to ser(e t#e *oor, se(eral guidelines s#ould ,e considered: $. %ncrease funding for aquaculture for the &oor$ A larger s#are o t#e unding a(aila,le to su**ort aquaculture acti(ities 4or is#eries acti(ities, or de(elo*-ent acti(ities5 s#ould ,e s*eciically ear-ar.ed to acti(ities designed to -eet t#e needs o t#e *oor. "#is -eans -ore su**ort s#ould ,e gi(en to e3tensi(e, traditional, inland, and s-all= scale aquaculture o*erations. 6. 'o no har($ 8(en i t#ey are not designed s*eciically to ser(e t#e *oor, aquaculture *ro0ects s#ould do no #ar- to t#e ood su**ly, inco-e, or en(iron-ent o t#e *oor. "#is includes *rotecting aquaculture acti(ities t#at already ser(e t#e *oor eecti(ely. "o assure t#at #ar- to t#e *oor is -ini-i<ed and ,eneits are -a3i-i<ed, t#e local *oor s#ould ,e gi(en greater (oice in t#e design and selection o aquaculture *ro0ects. 7. Strengthen e)isting aquaculture for the &oor$ >at#er t#an designing entirely ne) *ro0ects, t#ere -ay ,e greater ,eneit ro- su**orting )#at already )or.s. Consider strengt#ening t#e *ro*erty rig#ts o t#e *oor in e3isting o*erations, )#et#er coastal or inland, or i-*ro(ing t#e -ar.eting inrastructure in *oor areas, or i-*ro(ing e3tension ser(ices. 9. Produce lo! cost &roducts fa*ored b+ the &oor$ Ao) cost is a necessary, t#oug# not a suicient condition, to assure t#at t#e *roduct )ill ,e consu-ed ,y t#e *oor. 5$ Produce for local consu(ers$ Products destined or e3*ort, or e(en or distant cities, are not li.ely to ,e consu-ed ,y t#e *oor. Focus on *roducts li.ely to ,e consu-ed ,y t#e local *oor. ,$ -ncourage co((unit+ &roduction$ 2#ile -uc# o co--ercial aquaculture is ,ased on *ri(ately=o)ned o*erations, co--unity=,ased *roduction in local *onds and la.es can ,e eecti(e in reac#ing t#e *oor. Pro-oting *roduction in o*en=access )ater)ays can ,e useul as )ell. Sc#ool is# *onds can #a(e #ig# educational as )ell as nutritional (alue. +. .onitor food securit+ and related i(&acts$ /t s#ould not ,e assu-ed t#at 0ust ,ecause an aquaculture *ro0ect is in a *oor area and *roduces lo) cost *roducts t#e *oor )ill in act ,e t#e ones )#o get to consu-e t#e *roduct. "est t#e assu-*tion )it# ield researc#. /n general, assess aquaculture *ro0ects not only in ter-s o t#eir econo-ic and en(iron-ental i-*acts ,ut also in ter-s o t#eir nutritional i-*acts. Aquaculture researc#ers gi(e a great deal o attention to t#e nutrition o aquatic ani-als, ,ut *ractically none to #u-an nutrition. "#e ra-e)or. o analysis s#ould ,e e3*anded so t#at t#e ecological )e, under study goes ,eyond t#e *ond and includes t#e #u-an consu-ers and t#e society in )#ic# t#ey are e-,edded. : !easures li.e t#ese are i-*ortant in relation to all aquaculture, ,ut t#ey are *articularly i-*ortant in relation to *u,licly unded o*erations. Pu,lic agencies at t#e national and international le(els s#ould ,e -ore attenti(e to t#e )ell=,eing o t#e *oor in )#ose na-e t#ey 0ustiy so -uc# o t#eir acti(ity. + NOTES $ Si-on !a3)ell and "i-ot#y >. Fran.en,erger, ousehold /ood Securit+0 Conce&ts, %ndicators, .easure(ents, A 1echnical 2e*ie! 4Ne) For.: 'nited Nation1s C#ildren1s Fund and /nternational Fund or Agricultural Be(elo*-ent, $%%65. 6 'nited Nations C#ildren1s Fund, /ood, ealth and Care 4Ne) For.: 'N/C8F, $%%75. 7 / e3a-ine t#e role o is#eries generally 4not 0ust aquaculture5 in George Kent, /ish, /ood, and unger0 1he Potential of /isheries for Alle*iating .alnutrition 4?oulder, Colorado: 2est(ie) Press, $%C+5. 9 Aeit# Buncan, C#ina: 2#ere t#e 2orld is Headed, Sa(udra, No. $; H $$ 4Bece-,er $%%95, **. := $;. & P. >. ?ur,ridge, as descri,ed in Conner ?ailey, "#e Social Consequences o "ro*ical S#ri-* !ariculture Be(elo*-ent, Ocean 3 Shoreline .anage(ent, @ol. $$4$%CC5, **. 7$=99. : ?ailey "#e Social Consequences. . . , *. 7:. + ?ailey, "#e Social Consequences. . . , *. 7%. C /. S-it# and >. PestaEo=S-it#, Social Feasi,ility o Coastal Aquaculture, %C4A2. Ne!sletter, @ol. C 519657, *. +, cited in ?ailey, "#e Social Consequences ..., *. 7:. %
Orissa, /ndia: Pra)n Production "#reatens Fis#er-en1s >ig#ts, /%AN %nternational Ne!sletter, No. &: 4A*rilI!ay $%%75, *. 7J Orissa Hig# Court Sto*s "ata1s S#ri-* Pro0ect in Aa.e C#ili.a, /ndia, ungr+ for 8hat is 2ight 5/%AN .aga9ine7, No. 6 4A*ril $%%95, *. %. F/AN stands or Foodlrst /nternational Action Net)or.. $; Susan C. Stonic#, Producing Food or 83*ort: 8n(iron-ental Guality and Social Kustice /-*lications o S#ri-* !ariculture in Honduras, in ?ar,ara >ose Ko#nston, ed., 8ho Pa+s the Price: 1he Sociocultural Conte)t of -n*iron(ental Crisis 42as#ington, B.C.: /sland Press, $%%95, **. $$;=$6;. $$
?er.eley >ice, A Ao)ly Fis# Goes '*scale, Ne! ;or< 1i(es .aga9ine, Bece-,er 9, $%CC, **. &%=:C. + C