1

MODULE 3

Combinational & Sequential logic

Combinational Logic

Introduction
Logic circuit may be classified into two categories
1. Combinational logic circuits
2. Sequential logic circuits
A combinational logic circuit contains logic gates only but does not contain storage
elements. A sequential logic circuit contains storage elements in addition to logic gates.
When logic gates are connected together to give a specified output for certain specified
combination of input variables, with no storage involved, the resulting network is known as
combinational logic circuit. In combinational logic circuit the output level is at all times
dependent on the combination of input level. The block diagram is shown







The combinational logic circuit with memory elements(s) is called sequential logic circuit.
It consists of a combinational circuit to which memory elements are connected to form a feed
back path. The memory elements are devices, capable of storing binary information within
them. The block diagram is shown.












By block diagram, it can be said that the output(s) of sequential logic circuit is (are) dependent
not only on external input(s) but also on the present state of the memory element(s). The next
state of the memory element(s) is also dependent on external input and the present state.
Applications
Logic gates find wide applications in Calculators and computers, digital measuring
techniques, digital processing of communications, musical instruments, games and domestic
appliances etc, for decision making in automatic control of machines and various industrial
processes and for building more complex devices such as binary counters etc.




Combinational
logic circuit
(Logic gates only)
INPUT
VARIABLES
OUTPUT
VARIABLES
Combinational
Circuit
Memory
Elements
External
Inputs
Outputs from
Combinational
circuit
Outputs from
Memory
elements
2
DESIGN OF COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS

The design of combinational circuits starts from the verbal outline of the problem and ends
in a logic circuit diagram. The procedure involves the following steps:
1. State the given problem completely and exactly
2. Interpret the problem, and determine the available input variables and required output
variables.
3. Assign a letter symbol to each input and output variables.
4. Design the truth table, which defines the required relations between inputs and outputs.
5. Obtain the simplified Boolean expression for each output.
6. Draw the logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean expression.

ARITHMETIC CIRCUITS

One essential function of most computers and calculators is the performance of arithmetic
operations. The logic gates designed so far can be used to perform arithmetic operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division in electronic calculators and digital
instruments. Since these circuits are electronic, they are very fast. Typically an addition
operation takes less than 1 s. We will now study some of the basic arithmetic circuits.

HALF ADDER

A Logic circuit used for the addition of two one bit numbers is referred to as a half-adder.
From the verbal explanation of a half adder, we find that this circuit needs two binary inputs
and two binary outputs. The input variables designate the augend and addend bits; the output
variables produce the sum and carry. We assign the symbols A and B to the two inputs and S
(for sum) and C (for carry) to the outputs. The truth table for the half-adder is shown below.










Here the C output is 1 only when both inputs are 1. The S output represents the least
significant bit of the sum. The logic expression for the sum output can be obtained from the
truth table. It can be written as a SOP expression by summing up the input combinations for
which the sum is equal to 1.
In the truth table, the sum output is 1 for AB and AB. Therefore, the expression for the sum is
S = AB + AB = A B.
Similarly, the logic expression for carry output can be written as a SOP expression by summing
up the input combinations for which the carry is equal to 1. In the truth table, the carry is 1 for
AB. Therefore
C = AB
This expression for C cannot be simplified. The sum output corresponds to a logic Ex-OR
function while the carry output corresponds to an AND function. So the half-adder circuit can
be implemented using Ex-OR and AND gate as shown below.


Inputs Outputs
A B S C
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
3










Logic Circuit Logic Symbol

This circuit is called Half-Adder, because it cannot accept a CARRY-IN from previous
additions. This is the reason that half adder circuit can be used for binary addition of lower
most bits only. For higher order columns we use a 3-input adder called full-adder.

FULL ADDER

A combinational logic circuit for adding thee bits. As seen, a half-adder has only two inputs
and there is no provision to add carry coming from the lower bit order when multi bit addition
is performed. For this purpose we use a logic circuit that can add three bits, the third bit is the
carry from the lower column. This implies that we need a logic circuit with 3 inputs and 2
outputs. Such a circuit is called a full adder. The truth table for the full-adder is as shown
below.

Inputs Outputs
A B C
in
S C
out

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1

As shown there are 8 possible input combinations for the three inputs and for each case the
S and C
out
values are listed. From the truth table, the logic expression for S can be written by
summing up the input combinations for which the sum output is 1 as:
S = ABC
in
+ ABC
in
+ ABC
in
+ ABC
in

= A(BC
in
+ BC
in
) + A(BC
in
+ BC
in
)
= A(BC
in
)+ A(BC
in
)
Let BC
in
= X
Now, S = AX + AX = A X
Replacing X in the above expression we get
S = A B C
in

Similarly the logic expression for C
out
can be written as
C
out
= ABC
in
+ ABC
in
+ ABC
in
+ ABC
in

= BC
in
+ AC
in
+ AB (using the map shown)
A
B
S
C
Inputs
Outputs
HALF
ADDER
C
in
AB
C
C
AB AB AB AB
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
4
From the simplified expressions of S and C the full adder Circuit can be implemented using
two 2-input XOR gates, Three 2 input AND gates and one 3-input OR gate a shown below fig
(a). The logic symbol is also shown as fig (b).












Logic circuit diagram fig(a) Logic Symbol Fig(b) .

The logic symbol has two inputs A and B plus a third input C
in
called the Carry-in and two
outputs SUM and the Carry called Carry out, C
out
going to the next higher column.. A full adder
can be made by using two half adders and an OR gate as shown below
















Binary Adders
2-bit Parallel Adder










As we have seen a single full-adder is capable of adding two one-bit numbers and an input
CARRY. For addition of binary numbers with more than one bit, additional full adders will be
required. When two binary numbers are added, each column generates a sum and a Carry (1 or
0) to the next higher-order adder, Column as shown for a two bit adder. It is to be noted that
B
A C
in
BC
in
AC
in
AB
CARRY
SUM
A
B
C
in
CARRY, C
out
SUM, S
FULL
ADDER
FULL ADDER
CARRY, C
out
SUM, S
D C
in
D.C
in
A B=D
A.B
C
in
B
A
HA
HA
MSB
5
either a half-adder can be used for the LSB position or the CARRY input of a full-adder is
made zero because there is no CARRY into the LSB bit position. In the figure, the LSB of the
two numbers are represented by X
0
and Y
0
. The next higher order bits are represented by X
1

and Y
1
.
4-bit parallel adder






MSB



This circuit shows a 4-bit binary parallel adder circuit. The LSBs in each number being
added (operands) go into the right-most full-adder; the high order bits are applied to the
successively higher-order adders, with the MSBs in each number being applied to the left most
full adder. The CARRY output of each adder is connected to the CARRY input of the next
higher order adder. The full adder circuit used in each position has three inputs: an X bit, a Y bit
and a C
IN
bit and it produces two outputs: a SUM bit and CARRY OUT bit. For example the
left most full-adder has inputs X
0
, Y
0
, and C
0
and it produces output S
0
and C
1
. This
arrangement is repeated for as many positions as there are in the augend and addend. Although
this illustration is for 4-bit numbers, in modern computers the number usually ranges from 8 to
64 bits. The arrangement shown is called a parallel adder because all the bits of the augend and
addend are present and are fed into the adder circuit simultaneously. This means that the
additions in each position are taking place at the same time. This is different from how we add
on paper, taking each position one at a time with LSB. Parallel addition is therefore extremely
fast.
The Half Subtractor

A logic circuit that subtracts Y (subtrahend) from X(minuend), where X and Y are 1-bit
numbers, is known as a half-subtractor. It has two inputs X (minuend) and Y (subtrahend) and
two outputs D (difference) and B (borrow), as shown in the block diagram.






The operation of this logic circuit is based on the rules of binary subtraction given in the truth
table reproduced on the basis of the subtraction process.


Inputs Outputs
X Y D B
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
HS
X
Y
D
B
6
The difference output in the third column has the same logic pattern as when X is XORed
with Y (same as in the case of sum). Hence an Ex-Or gate can be used to give difference of two
bits. The borrow output in the 4
th
column can be obtained by using a NOT gate and AND gate,
as shown in the circuit diagram below.










The logical equations for the difference D and borrow B are given as
D = XY + XY = X Y.
B = XY
4 bit Adder Subtractor
The 4 bit parallel binary adder/subtractor circuit shown below performs the operations of
both addition and subtraction.




















It has two 4 bit inputs A
3
A
2
A
1
A
0
and B
3
B
2
B
1
B
0
. the Sel (ADD/SUB) control line
connected with the C
0
of the LSB of the full-adder, is used to perform the operations of
addition and subtraction. The Ex-OR gates are used as controlled inverters. When Sel=0 the
circuit is an adder and when Sel=1, the circuit becomes a subtractor. Each Ex-OR gate receives
input Sel and one of the inputs of B. When Sel=0, we have B 0=B. The full-adders receive
the value of B, the input carry = 0 and the circuit performs A plus B. When Sel=1, we have B
1 =B and C
0
= 1. The B inputs are all complemented and 1 is added through the input carry.
The circuit performs the operation A plus the 2s complement of B. (The exclusive OR with
output V is for detecting an overflow.)



7
MULTIPLEXERS
A multiplexer or data selector is a logic circuit that accepts several data inputs and
allows only one of them at time to get through the output. In other words, the multiplexer works
like the input selector of a home music system. Only one input is selected at a time, and the
selected input is transmitted to the single output. While on the music system, the selection of the
input is made manually, the multiplexer chooses its input based on a binary number, the address
input. The basic multiplexer, then, has several data-input lines and a single output line. It has also
data-select inputs or control signals that permit digital data on any of the inputs to be switched to
the output line. A general multiplexer (MUX) with n input ignals, m data select inputs or
control signals and one output signal is shown in the figure.














The multiplexer (MUX) acts like a digitally controlled multi position switch where the
digital code applied to the SELECT inputs determines which data inputs will be switched to the
output. The functional diagram of a 2 to 1 multiplexer is shown below:










Here the input signal I
0
will be obtained at the out put when the select signal is equal to 0 and
the signal I
1
appears at the output when the select signal is 1. So the MUX selects in this case
one out of the 2 input data sources and transmits the selected data to a single output channel.
This is called multiplexing. Now let us consider a multiplexer with 4 input signals, 2 control
signals and one output signal.










MUX
n

I
N
P
U
T

S
I
G
N
A
L
S
m CONTROL SIGNALS
1 OUTPUT
SIGNAL
8



















A multiplexer of this type is known as a four to one multiplexer because of its 4 inputs and 1
output. The circuit diagram of a 4-t0-1 multiplexer is shown. Here there are 4 input bits (D
0
to D
3
),
and two control signals (A and B). Now by controlling the level of control signals A and B, any
data bit can be transmitted to the output
Other 4-to-1 multiplexers






















Consider that the control inputs A and B are supplied with low level of control signals. Now
the inputs I
1
and I
2
of only AND gate A
1
is high. If data bit D
0
is low then output of AND gate
A
1
is low and if data bit D
0
is high then output of AND gate A
1
is high. So it can be said that
when AB=00, it makes only AND gate A
1
enabled and only data bit associated with this gate is
transferred to the output. All the other AND gates are disabled and data bits associated with
them cannot be transferred to the output. So outputs of all AND gates except A
1
remains low.
9
Output of OR gate, Z depend only on the output of AND gate A
1
(because only AND gate A
1
is
enabled) so ultimately value of output Z depends only on the value of D
0
.




















Now consider that AB=01. It makes AND Gate A
2
enabled and all other gates disabled. In
this condition data bit D is transferred to the output z. Truth table of a four-to-one multiplexer is
shown. If n is the number of control signals in a Multiplexer, the maximum number of input
Signals that can be controlled by it = 2
n
. 16-to-1 multiplexer with 4 control lines is available in
the form of IC.
8 to 1 Multiplexer
It has 8 inputs and one output. In the logic symbols there are three select inputs S
0
, S
1
and S
2

which selects one of the eight inputs. The truth table of 8:1 multiplexer is shown below.
















In this truth table, for each input combination, output is not specified as 1s and 0s.
Multiplex being a data switch does not generate a data of its own, but it simply passes external
input data from the selected input to the output. Figure below shows a logic diagram of 8 to
1 multiplexer.


Data Select
Inputs
Input
Selected
Input Output
A B D D Z
0 0 D
0
0
1
0
1
0 1 D
1
0
1
0
1
1 0 D
2
0
1
0
1
1 1 D
3
0
1
0
1
Select Lines Outputs
S
2
S
1
S
0
Z
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
D
0

D
1

D
2

D
3

D
4

D
5

D
6

D
7

10
DE
MUX
mCONTROL SIGNALS
nOUTPUT SIGNALS
1 INPUT
SIGNAL



























Applications of Multiplexers

Multiplexer circuits find numerous applications in digital systems. Some of the fields where
multiplexing find immense use are data selection, data routing, operation sequencing, parallel
to serial conversion, wave form generation and logic function generation.

DEMULTIPLEXERS

The word de-multiplex means one into many. A multiplexer takes several inputs and
transmits one of them to the output as stated before. A de-multiplexer performs the reverse
operation. That is it takes a single input and distributes it over several outputs.By applying control
signals, the input signal can be steered to one of the output lines. A de-multiplexer with on input
signal, m control signals and n output signals is shown below. The de-multiplexer is also called a
Distributer or a serial-to-parallel converter.









11
The functional diagram for a de-multiplexer (DEMUX) is shown below.









This shows a 1-to-2 de-multiplexer . This contains 1 input and 2 outputs and one
control line. The select input code determines to which output the DATA input will be transmitted.
It means, the de-multiplexer takes one input data source and selectively distributes it to 1 of n
output terminals just like a multi-position switch.
1 to 4 De-multiplexer
Let us consider a de-multiplexer with 1 input signal, 2 control signals and 4 output
signals to explain, how input signal is transmitted to any of the outputs by control signals. This
type of de-multiplexer is called one-to-four de-multiplexer because it has 1 input and 4 outputs.
Truth table for 1-to-4 de-multiplexer

Select lines Input Output lines
S
1
S
0
I
0
F
3
F
2
F
1
F
0

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

The circuit diagram for a 1-to-4 de-multiplexer is shown below.















12

Here the data bit is I
0
and the control signals are S
1
and S
0
. Now by controlling the
level of control signals S
1
and S
0
input data I
0
can be transmitted to any of the outputs. The
AND gates connected to F
0
, F
1
, F
2
and F
3
are made enabled and disabled by changing the level
of control signals.

1 to 8 De-multiplexer

The circuit diagram and truth table of a one to-eight de-multiplexer is shown below

Select Lines Output Lines
a
2
a
1
a
0
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
x
5
x
6
x
7

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
d






13

DECODERS

De-multiplexer with out any input. A decoder decodes the coded input signal into an
active output signal. A decoder is similar to a de-multiplexer, with one exception there is no data
input. Inputs for the decoder are the control signals. Most digital systems require the decoding of
data. Decoding is necessary in applications such as data de-multiplexing, digital display, digital-to-
analog converters and memory addressing. A decoder is logic circuit that converts an n-bit binary
input code (data) into 2
n
output lines, such that each output line will be activated for only one of the
possible combinations of inputs. In a decoder, the number of output is greater than the number of
inputs. It is important to note that if the number of inputs and outputs are equal in a digital system
then it can be called Converters.

2 to 4 Decoder

Figure shows the circuit diagram and truth table of a 2-to-4 line decoder which is the simplest
one.













The example decoder circuit would be an AND gate because the output of an AND
gate is "High" (1) only when all its inputs are "High." Such output is called as "active High
output". If instead of AND gate, the NAND gate is connected the output will be "Low" (0) only
when all its inputs are "High". Such output is called as "active low output".
3 to 8 Decoder

A 3-to-8 decoder has three inputs (A,B,C) and eight outputs (D
0
to D
7
). Based on the
three inputs, one of the 8 outputs is selected. The truth table for the 3-to-8 decoder is shown
below.
INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B C D
0
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
D
5
D
6
D
7

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

14
A B C
Enable
D
0
D
2
D
1
D
3
D
4
D
5
D
6
D
7
From the above truth table, it is clear that only one of the 8 outputs is selected based on the 3
select inputs. Also from the truth table, the logic expressions for the outputs can be written as
follows:
D
0
= ABC;D
1
= ABC;D
2
= ABC;D
3
= ABC;D
4
= ABC;D
5
= ABC; D
6
= ABC; D
7
=
ABC
Using the above expressions, the circuit of a 3-to-8 decoder can be implemented using three
NOT gates and eight 3-input AND gates as shown.

















The 3 inputs A, B, and C are decoded into eight outputs, each output representing one of the
minterms of the 3 input variables. The three inverters provide the complement of the inputs and
each one of the 8 AND gates generate one of the minterms. This decoder can be used for
decoding any 3-bit code to provide 8 outputs, corresponding to 8 different combinations of the
input code. This is also called a 1-to-8 decoder, since only one of eight output lines is HIGH for
a particular input combination. For example, when ABC=010, only the AND gate-2 has HIGH
at all its inputs, and there fore D
2
=HIGH. Similarly if ABC=110, only the AND gate-6 has all
its inputs in HIGH state, and thereby D
6
=HIGH. It is also called a binary-to-Octal decoder
since the inputs represent three bit binary numbers and the outputs represent the eight digits in
the octal number system.
Enable inputs
Some decoders have one or more enable inputs which are used to control the operation of
the decoder. With the enable line held Low, the decoder functions normally and the input code
A, B, and C will determine which output is HIGH. Hence, this decoder is enabled only if the
enable line is LOW.
The block diagram of a 3-to-8 decoder IC 7442 is as shown below










15
4-to-16 Decoder

A decoder with 4 input lines and 16 output lines is shown in the figure. This is called a 4
to-16 decoder. This is also called one-of-Sixteen decoder because only one of the 16 Lines is
HIGH at a time for the particular Value of input signals. Let us consider the case when
ABCD=0000, Then only AND gate with output Z
0
has all Inputs high and so only the output Z
0

is high. Consider another case when ABCD=0101, Then only AND gate with output Z
5
has all
Inputs high and so only the output Z
5
is high. Consider one more case when ABCD=1111 Then
only AND gate with output Z
15
has all Inputs high and so only the output Z
15
is high.






































From the above discussion and after considering all other cases of possible values of ABCD
(from 0000 to 1111) it is found that subscript of a high output gives the hexadecimal equivalent
of binary number ABCD. So the circuit is also called a binary-to hexadecimal decoder since
the inputs represent four bit binary number and the outputs represent the 16 digits in the
hexadecimal number system.
16
The truth table is shown below.
Decimal
digit
Binary Inputs Logic
Function
Outputs
D C B A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
01
0
1
0
1
DCBA
DCBA
DCBA
DC BA
DCBA
DC BA
DC BA
DC B A
DCBA
D CBA
D CB A
D CB A
D CBA
D CBA
D C BA
D C B A
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

The 4-to-16 decoder is also called a 1-of-16 decoder, since only one of 16 outputs is
selected based on a particular input combination. The circuit can also be used to give a BCD-to-
decimal decoder. In this case only AND gates Z
0
to Z
9
are used, which represent the decimal
numbers 0 to 9 and all other AND gates are removed from the circuit. Values of input signal
ABCD are changed from 0000 (BCD of decimal digit 0) to 1001 (BCD equivalent of decimal
digit 9). This circuit has 10 outputs and only one output is high at a time, so it is also called a 1-
of-10 decoder.
Applications of decoders
1. Decoders are used in counter systems
2. They are used in analog-to-digital converters.
3. Decoder outputs can be used to drive a display system.(IC 7446/7447 and IC 7448/7449 are
BCD-to- seven segment decoders)

ENCODERS

An Encoder is a digital circuit that performs the inverse operation of a decoder. Hence the
opposite of the decoding process is called encoding. An encoder converts an active input signal
into a coded output signal. The block diagram is shown below.




n Inputs






m Outputs
It has n input lines and m output lines. At a time only one of the input lines is active. Internal
logic within the encoder converts this active input to a coded binary output with m bits.


17
Decimal-to-BCD encoder
One of the most commonly used input device for a digital system is a set of ten switches,
one for each numeral. These switches generate 1 or 0 logic Levels in response to turning them
ON or OFF.





















When a particular number is to be fed to the digital circuit in BCD code, the switch
corresponding to that number is pressed. There is an IC available to perform this function
(74147). The truth table for this encoder is shown below.

INPUTS OUTPUTS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

When switch 0 is pressed, all OR gates are inactive and so output by b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
is 0000 which
is the BCD equivalent of digit 0. When switch 1 is pressed, the OR gate 1 is active and so
output by b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
is 0001 which is the BCD equivalent of digit 1. In the same way when
switch 7 is pressed OR gates 3, 2 and 1 are active, so output b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
is 0111 which is again the
BCD equivalent of digit 7.



18

Octal-to-binary encoder
Another example of an encoder is the octal-to-binary encoder whose truth table is shown below.














An octal-to-binary encoder accepts eight inputs and produces a 3 bit output code
corresponding to the activated input. The truth table shows that Y
0
(LSB of output code) must be
1 whenever the input D
1
OR D
3
OR D
5
OR D
7
is HIGH.
Thus Y0 = D
1
+ D
3
+ D
5
+ D
7

Similarly
Y
1
= D
2
+ D
3
+ D
6
+ D
7

Y
2
= D
4
+ D
5
+ D
6
+ D
7

Using the above expressions, the octal-to-binary encoder can be implemented using three 4-
input OR gates as shown below.


















The circuit is designed in such a way that, when D
0
is HIGH, the binary code 000 is
generated. When D1 is HIGH, the binary code 001 is generated, and so on. The design is made
simple by the fact that only eight out of the total of 2
8
possible input conditions are used.





INPUTS OUTPUTS
D
0
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
D
5
D
6
D
7
y
2
y
1
y
0

1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
19
Combinational
circuit
Memory
elements
Inputs
Outputs
SEQUENTIAL LOGIC

Sequential circuits

The digital circuits discussed so far have been combinational, where the outputs are entirely
dependent on the current inputs. Although every digital system is likely to have combinational
circuits, most systems encountered in practice also include storage elements, which require that
the system be described in terms of sequential logic. A block diagram of a sequential circuit is
shown below.










It consists of a combinational circuit to which storage elements are connected to form a
feed back path. The storage elements are devices capable of storing binary information. The
binary information stored in these elements at any given time defines the state of the sequential
circuit at that time. The sequential circuit receives binary information from external inputs.
These inputs, together with the present state of the storage elements, determine the binary value
of the outputs. They also determine the condition for changing the state in the storage elements.
From the block diagram we can see that the outputs in a sequential circuit are a function not
only of the inputs, but also of the present state of the storage elements. The next state of the
storage elements is also a function of external inputs and the present state. Thus, a sequential
circuit is specified by a time sequence of inputs, outputs, and internal states. Combinational
circuits are often faster than sequential circuits since the combinational circuits do not require
memory elements where as the sequential circuits need memory devices to perform their
operations in sequence. However, modern digital computers must have memories to function
properly. Thus, sequential circuits are of prime importance in modern digital devices.

Types of Sequential circuits

Sequential circuits are classified in two main categories depending on timing of their signals.
1. Synchronous or clocked sequential circuits
2. Asynchronous or un-clocked sequential circuits.
Synchronous or clocked sequential circuits
A sequential circuit whose behavior can be defined from the knowledge of its signals at
discrete instants of time is referred to as a synchronous sequential circuit. In such circuits, the
memory elements are affected only at discrete instants of time. The synchronization is obtained
by a timing device, called a system clock (or a master-clock generator) which generates a
periodic train of clock pulses. The outputs are affected only with the application of clock pulse.
Asynchronous or un-clocked sequential circuits.
A sequential circuit whose behavior depends upon the sequence in which the input
signals change is referred to as an asynchronous sequential circuit. The output is affected
whenever there is a change in the inputs. The commonly used memory elements in such circuits
are time delay devices. These circuits may be regarded as combinational circuits with feed
back. These circuits are faster than synchronous sequential circuits. However, in an
asynchronous circuit, events are allowed to occur without any synchronization. In such a case,
20
Input
Q
Q
Normal
output
Inverted
output
Q
Q
R
S
(Reset)
(set)
the system becomes unstable which results in difficulties. To have a sequential circuit, a storage
device is required to know what has happened in the past. The basic unit of storage is the flip
flop.

FLIP FLOPS
Also called as LATCH. The simplest kind of sequential circuit is a memory cell that has
only two states. It can be either a 0 or 1. Such two state sequential circuits are called flip-flops
because they flip from one state to another and then flop back. A flip-flop is also known as
bistable multivibrator, latch or toggle. The general block diagram representation of a flip-flop is
shown below.






It has one or more inputs and two outputs Q and Q . The two outputs are complementary to
each other; if Q=0 i.e. Reset, then Q =1; if Q=1 i.e. Set, then Q =0. When the flip-flop output
Q=0 or 1, it will remain in that stable state until one or more of the inputs are excited to effect a
change in the output. Since the flip flop output will remain set/reset until the trigger pulse is
given to change the state, it can be regarded as a memory device to store one binary digit.

Types of Flip-Flops

Flip-Flops are of different types depending on how their inputs and clock pulses cause
transition between two states. There are 4 basic types
1. S R (Set-Reset)/R-S flip flop
2. J-K flip-flop
3. D (delay)flip-flop
4. T (trigger or Toggle)flip-flop

R-S Flip-Flop

The S R flip flop has two inputs, namely SET (S) and RESET (R), and two outputs Q
and Q. The two outputs are complement to each other. The R-S flip-flop can be easily
implemented using NOR gates or NAND gates. The block diagram of an S-R flip-flop is as
shown below.





NOR based R S flip-flop









21
S (set)
R (reset)
Q
Q
The S-R flip-flop can be easily constructed using two NOR gates connected back to back as
shown in the figure above. The cross-coupled connections from the output of one gate to the
input of the other gate constitute a feed back path. For this reason, the circuits are classified as
asynchronous sequential circuits. The truth table for the NOR based S-R flip-flop is shown
below.











To analyze the circuit one must remember that the out put of a NOR gate is zero if any input is
1 and the output is 1 only when all the inputs are zero. From the truth table it is evident that four
possible input combinations exist for the S-R flip-flop. The outputs for these four possible input
combinations are described below.
Case 1
For S=0 and R=0, the flip-flop simply remains in its present state (Q).
Case 2
The second input condition is S=0 and R=1. The 1 at the RESET input forces the Output of
NOR gate 1 LOW (i.e. Q= 0). Now both the inputs of the NOR gate 2 are 0 and 0 and its output
Q= 1. Thus the input condition S=0 and R=1 will always RESET the flip-flop to 0. The flip-
flop will remain in the 0 state till the RESET input returns to 0.
Case 3
The third input condition is S=1 and R=0, which forces the Output of NOR gate 2 LOW
(i.e. Q= 0). Now both the inputs of the NOR gate 1 are 0 and 0 and the output of NOR gate 1 is
HIGH, i.e. Q=1. Thus the input condition S=1 and R=0 will always SET the flip-flop to 1.
Case 4
The last input condition is S=1 and R=1. This condition will produce 0 at the output of both
the NOR gates. Hence Q=0 and Q= 0. This condition violates the fact that the outputs Q and Q
are the complements of each other. In normal operation, this condition must be avoided by
making sure that 1s are applied to both inputs simultaneously.

NAND based R S flip-flop
NAND gates instead of NOR gates may also be used to form a R-S flip-flop. Circuit
diagram, symbol and truth table for such a flip-flop are shown below.












Inputs Outputs Action
S R Q Q
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
Q
0
1
?
Q
1
0
?
No change
Reset
Set
Forbidden
22








The operation of NAND S-R flip-flop can be analyzed in the same manner employed for
the NOR flip-flop. To under stand the operation of NAND based S-R flip-flop, one must
remember that a low at any input of a NAND gate will force its output high. The truth table for
the NAND based S-R flip-flop is different from that of a NOR based S-R flip-flop. This flip-
flop is called S-R flip-flop, i.e. here S=0 and R=1 will set the flip-flop.
Case 1
The first condition is S=0 and R= 0. When both inputs go to zero, both outputs go to 1, i.e.
Q=1 and Q=1. this condition is ambiguous and should not be used.
Case 2
The condition is S=0 and R= 1 always produces Q=1 regardless of the present state of the
flip-flop output. This condition sets the states of the flip-flop.
Case 3
The condition S=1 and R= 0 forces the lower NAND gate output to 1, i.e. Q=1. Now, both
the inputs of upper NAND gate are 1, and therefore the output of the upper NAND gate is LOW
i.e. Q=0., regardless of the prior state of the flip-flop. This condition resets (clear) the flip-flop
i.e. Q=0 and Q=1.
Case 4
The last condition S=1 and R= 01 does not affect the state of the flip-flop. It remains in its
prior state.
Comparing the NAND flip-flop and the NOR flip-flop, we see that they operate basically in
the same manner except for the following difference: The NOR flip-flop inputs are normally 0
and must be pulsed to 1 state (active HIGH) to change the state of the flip-flop outputs; the
NAND flip-flop inputs are normally 1 and must be pulsed to 0 (active LOW) to change the flip-
flop output state.

CLOCKED R-S flip-flop

The R-S flip-flop that we have seen is an asynchronous sequential logic circuit. In such a
circuit the output changes immediately with the change in its input signal. When two input
signals R and S are applied to a circuit, there is a time delay between these two signals, which
may lead to a wrong output result. In order to overcome this problem of unequal propagation
delay time of input signals, the circuit of R-S flip-flop is modified as shown below.











Inputs Outputs Action
S R Q Q
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
?
1
0
Q
?
0
1
Q
Forbidden
Set
Reset
No change
23
Inputs Next state of Q
C S R
0
1
1
1
1
X
0
0
1
1
X
0
1
0
1
No change
No change
Q=0; Reset state
Q=1; Set state
Intermediate

In this circuit, two AND gates and a clock pulse train input are also added to the R-S flip-
flop circuit. This circuit is so called as the clocked R-S flip-flop circuit. Clock supplies the low
and high levels of signal to AND gates C and D regularly. When clock signal is at low level,
AND gates C and D are disabled so at this time, input signals R and S cannot be transferred to
the NOR gates A and B, and therefore, NOR gates A and B, simply behave as a simple latch
circuit, holding the previous values of signal at output. The use of the clock train pulses
accordingly serves the important function of synchronizing the operations that takes place in
digital sequential circuits. They avoid problems posed due to unequal propagation delay time
associated with gates. When the clock signal is present (or at high level) AND gates C and D
are enabled, so at this time, input signals R and S are transferred to NOR gates and output Q is
changed accordingly. In summery, it can be said that there are three input signals R, S and
Clock signal (CLK) which influences the output of flip-flop. Now signal is applied to the input
R and S when clock (CLK) signal is low, so output does not change with the change in input.
When CLK signal becomes HIGH this input signal changes the output of the flip-flop according
to the truth table. So this way input signal is applied to the flip-flop at the same time and
problem of unequal propagation time of the input signal is eliminated. Clocked R-S flip-flop
circuit is a synchronous sequential logic circuit because output state of the circuit changes at
discrete clocked instant of time.

The D Flip-Flop

In a clocked R-S flip-flop two input signals are required to drive the flip-flop which is a
disadvantage with many digital circuits. In some events, both the input signals become high
which is again an undesirable condition. So these drawbacks of clocked R-S flip-flop are
overcome in D (delay) flip-flop. It is nothing but a clocked R-S flip-flop with an inverter in the
R input. The added inverter reduces the number of inputs from two to one. Some times, this
type of flip-flop is called a gated D-latch. The logic diagram, circuit diagram and symbol for D-
flip-flop are shown below.









Fig (a) symbol




24
D
CLK
S
R
CLK
Q
Q
Q
Q
A
1
A
2

D flip-flop using NAND circuit diagram













The operation can be explained using the truth table.




1. When the CLK input is low, the D input has no effect, since the set and reset inputs of the
NAND flip-flop are kept HIGH.
2. When the CLK goes high, the Q output will take on the value of the D input. If CLK=1 and
D=1 the output Q=1, i.e. it follows D input. Similarly, for CLK=1 and D=0 the flip-flop
output will be 0.
If D changes while the CLK is HIGH, Q will follow and change quickly. So D flip-flop
transfers the data bit D to Q as it is, and Q remains in the same state until the next pulse of clock
arrives. Since the transfer of data from the input to the output is delayed, the flip-flop is named
delay (D) flip-flop. The D flip-flop is either used as a delay device or as a latch to store 1 bit
of binary information.

The J K Flip-Flop (Edge-Triggered)

The J-K flip-flop is very versatile and is perhaps the most widely used type of flip-flop. The
J and K designations for the inputs have no known significance except that they are adjacent
letters in the alphabet. The functioning of J-K flop-flop is identical to that of the R-S flip-flop in
RESET, SET, and no change conditions of operation. The difference is that the J-K flip-flop has
no invalid state as does the R-S flip-flop. Therefore, the J-K flip-flop is a very versatile device
that finds wide application in digital devices such as counters, registers, arithmetic logic units,
and other digital systems. In J-K flip-flop clocked R-S flip-flop along with two AND gates are
used.










CLK Input D Output Q
1
1
0
0
1
x
0
1
No change
25
In this circuit J and K are used as input terminals and replace input terminals S and R of the
S-R flip-flop respectively. Input terminal S is supplied by AND gate A
1
to which input signals
are J and flip-flop output Q. Input terminal R is supplied by gate A
2
to which K and Q are the
input signals. The purpose of additional gates A
1
and A
2
is to provide a convenient means by
which the signals that are made to appear at S and R terminals are dependent not only on the
input signals but also on the state of the flip-flop as well. Output state of the flip-flop remains
the same when clock signal is low. But when the clock pulse arrives, input signals J and K
change the output of the flip-flop. Let us consider all four combinations of input signals.










Case 1: When clock signal is high and both input signals J and K are low then both AND
gates A
1
and A
2
are disabled and there is no change in the output state of the flip-flop.
Case 2: When input J is held at logic 0 and input K is held at logic 1. In this case AND gate
A
1
is disabled and condition of AND gate A
2
depends on the output state Q
n
of the
flip-flop. If Q
n
is low then and gate A
2
is also disabled and output state of flip-flop
Q
n+1
remains the same as before. If Q
n
is high then and gate A
2
is enabled and high
logic signal goes to R terminal which changes the output state Q
n+1
of flip-flop from
high to low. So low signal at J and high signal at K input terminals reset the flip-flop
irrespective of output state of flip-flop before the arrival of clock pulse.
Case 3: When input J is held at logic 1 and input K is held at logic 0. In this case AND gate
A
2
is disabled and condition of AND gate A
1
depends on the output state Q
n
of the
flip-flop. If Q
n
is high (or Q is low) then and gate A
1
is also disabled and output state
of flip-flop Q
n+1
remains the same as before. If Q
n
is low (or Q is high) then and gate
A
1
is enabled and high logic signal goes to S terminal which changes the output state
Q
n+1
of flip-flop from low to high. So high signal at J and low signal at K input
terminals set the flip-flop irrespective of the output state of flip-flop before arrival of
clock pulse.
Case 4: When both input signals J and K are held at logic 1. In this case condition of both
AND gates depends on the output state of the flip-flop before arrival of clock pulse.
Suppose Q
n
is high then it makes and gate A
2
enabled, which sends high level signal
to the input terminal R at the arrival of the clock pulse and flop-flop gets reset. Now
Suppose Q
n
is low then it makes and gate A
1
enabled, which sends high level signal to
the input terminal S at the arrival of the clock pulse and flop-flop gets set. Hence it can
be said that in this case the output state of the flip-flop toggles when fresh clock pulse
arrives each time.









CLK Inputs Output
Q
n+1

Action
J K
X
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
Q
n

0
1
Q
n

No change
Reset
Set
Toggle
26
Q
Q
Master Slave
Master Slave J K Flip-Flop

This is also known as Pulse Triggered. The term pulse-triggered means that the data are
entered into the flip-flop on the leading edge of the clock pulse. A master-slave J-K flip-flop
can be constructed using two J-K flip-flops as shown below.













The first flip-flop, called the master, is driven by the positive edge of the clock pulse; the
second flip-flop called the slave, is driven by the negative edge of the clock pulse. Therefore,
when the clock input has a positive edge, the master acts according to its J-K inputs, but the
slave does not respond since it requires a negative edge at the clock input. When the clock
input has a negative edge, the slave flip-flop copies the master outputs. But the master does not
respond to the feedback from Q and Q, since it requires a positive edge at its clock input. A
master-slave J-K flip-flop constructed using NAND gates is shown in the figure












It consists of two flip-flops connected in series. The first set of 4 NAND gates form the
master flip-flop and the second set from the slave flip-flop. When the clock is positive, a
change in J and IK inputs cause a change of state in the master flip-flop. During this period, the
slave retains its previous state and serves as a buffer between the master and the output. When
the clock goes negative, the master flip-flop does not respond, i.e. it maintains its previous state,
while the slave flip-flop is enabled and changes its state to that of the master flip-flop. The new
state of the slave then becomes the state of the entire master-slave flip-flop. The operation of
master-slave J-K flip-flop for different J-K input combinations can be explained as follows:
If J=1 and K=0, the master flip-flop sets on the positive clock edge. The HIGH Q output of
the master drives the input J of the slave. So, when the negative clock edge hits, the slave also
sets. The slave flip-flop copies the action of the master flip-flop.
If J=0 and K=1, the master flip-flop resets on the leading edge of the clock pulse. The
HIGH Q output of the master drives the input K of the slave. Then, the slave flip-flop resets at
the arrival of the trailing edge of the CLK pulse. Once again, the slave flip-flop copies the
action of the master flip-flop.
27
If J=K=1, the master flip-flop toggles on the positive clock edge and the slave toggles on
the negative edge. The condition J=k=0 input does not produce any change. Master-slave flip
flops operate from a complete clock pulse, and the outputs change on the negative mission.

T Flip-Flop

This flip-flop is basically a J-K flip-flop. This is also called Trigger or Toggle flip-flop.
This has only a single data input(T), a clock input and two outputs Q and Q. The T-type flip-
flop is obtained from a J-K flip-flop by connecting its J and K inputs together. The designation
T comes from the ability of the flip-flop to toggle or complement its state. The block
diagram of a T-flip-flop and its circuit implementation using J-K flip-flop are shown below.











The J and K inputs are wired together. The truth table is also shown. When the T input is in
the 0 state (i.e. J=K=0) prior to a clock pulse the Q output will not change with clocking. When
the T input is at a 1 (i.e. J=K=1) level prior to clocking, the output will be in the Q state after
clocking. In other words, if the T input is a logical 1 and the device is clocked, the output will
change state regardless of what output was prior to clocking. This is called toggling hence the
name T flip-flop. The truth table shows that when T=0, then Q
n+1
=Q
n
,i.e. the next state is the
same as the present state and no change occurs. When T=1, then Q
n+1
=Q
n
,i.e. the state of the
flip-flop is complemented.

Application of T- flip-flop
T-flip flop is most often seen in counters and sequential counting networks because of its
inherent divide-by-2 capability. When a clock pulse is applied the output changes state once in
every input cycle, thus repeating one cycle for every two input cycles. This is the action
required in many cases for binary counters.

REGISTERS

Sequential circuit and an important building block used in digital systems like multipliers,
dividers, memories, microprocessors etc. A register is a group of flip-flops. Each flip-flop is
capable of storing 1 bit of information. An n-bit register consists of a group of n-flip-flops
capable of storing n-bits of binary information. In addition to the flip-flops a register may have
combinational gates that perform certain data processing tasks. A register consists of a group of
flip-flops and gates that effect their transition. The flip-flops hold the binary information and
the gates determine how the information is transferred into the register. Various types of
registers are available commercially. The simplest register is one that consists of only flip-flops
without any gates. Figure below shows such a register constructed with four D-type flip-flops.
The common clock input triggers all flip-flops on the positive edge of each pulse and the binary
data available at the 4 inputs are transferred into the 4-bit register. The four outputs can be
sampled at any time to obtain the binary information stored in the register.

28
The clear output goes to the R(reset) input of all four flip-flops. When this Input goes to zero,
all flip-flops are reset asynchronously. The clear input is useful for clearing the register to all
0s prior to its clocked operation. The R inputs must be maintained at logic 1 during normal
clocked operation.


































SHIFT REGISTERS

A register that is used to store binary information is known as a memory register. A register
capable of shifting binary information either to the right or to the left is called a shift register.
The shift register permits the stored data to move from a particular location to some other
location within the register. In a shift register the flip-flops are connected in such a way that the
bits of a binary number are entered into the shift register, shifted from one position to another
and finally shifted out. There are two methods of shifting viz., (1) serial shifting and (2) parallel
shifting. The serial shifting method shifts one bit at a time for each clock pulse in a serial
fashion, beginning with either MSB or LSB.
For example, a 4-bir register requires four clock pulses to shift a bit from the input to the
output. In parallel shifting operations all the data (input and output) get shifted simultaneously
during a single clock pulse. Hence parallel shifting method is much faster than the serial
shifting method. These two methods can be used to shift into a register and out of the register.
29
n-bit
Serial
Data
input
Serial
Data
output
n-bit
Serial
Data
input
Parallel Data outputs
MSB LSB
n-bit
Parallel Data inputs
Serial
Data
output
MSB LSB
n-bit
Parallel Data outputs
MSB LSB
MSB LSB
Parallel Data inputs
Shift registers are classified into the following four types based on how binary information
is entered or shifted out:
1. Serial-in Serial-out (SISO)
2. Serial-in Parallel-out (SIPO)
3. Parallel-in Serial-out (PISO)
4. parallel-in Parallel-out (PIPO)
The block diagrams for the 4 basic register types are shown below. Registers can be
designed using discrete flip-flops (S-R, J-K, and D type). An n-bit shift register consists of n
flip-flops and the required gates to control the shift operation. Registers are also available as
MSI devices.



























Shift registers are used in digital systems for temporary storage of information, data
manipulation and transferring. In addition, they are used in counting circuits, such as simple
counters, variable modulo counters, Up/Down counters and increment counters.

SERIAL IN SERIAL OUT shift register

This type of shift register accepts data serially, i.e. one bit at a time on a single input line. It
produces the stored information on its single output also in serial form. Data may be shifted left
(from Low to high order bits) using shift-left register or shifted right (from high to low order
bits) using shift-right register.


Shift-left register:


30

















A shift-left register can be built using J-K flip-flops or D-flip-flops as shown in the figure
(a) and (b). A J-K flip-flop based shift register requires connection of both J and K inputs.
Input data are connected to the J and K inputs of the right most (lowest order) flip-flop. To
input a 1, one should apply a 1 at J input, i.e. J=1 and K=0; to input a 0, a 0 at J input i.e. J=0
and k=1, should be applied. When the clock pulse is applied, the data will be shifted bit by bit
to the left. In the shift register using D flip-flops delay (D) input of the right most flip-flops is
used as a serial input line. To input a 1, one should apply a 1 at D input and to input data 0, a 0
at the D input should be applied. As shown the clock pulse is applied to all the flip-flops
simultaneously. When the shift or clock pulse occurs, each flip-flop is set or reset according to
the data at the respective flip-flop input. Thus the input data bit at the serial input line is entered
into stage A by the first shift pulse. At the same time, the data of stage A is shifted into stage B
and so on for the following stages. For each shift pulse, data stored in the register stage shifts to
the left by one stage. New data is entered into the stage A, where as the data present in stage D
are shifted out (to the left) for use by some other shift register or other building block of digital
system.

Shift right register:


















31
SERIAL IN PARALLEL OUT S.R.

It consists of one serial input, and out puts are taken from all the flip-flops in parallel. A bit
serial in parallel out shift register is shown below.












In this register data is shifted in serially but shifted out in parallel. In order to shift the data
out in parallel, it is necessary to have all the data available at the outputs at the same time. Once
the data is stored, each bit appears on its respective output line and all the bits are available
simultaneously, rather than on a bit-by-bit basis as with the serial output.

Parallel in Serial Out S.R.

For a register with parallel data inputs, the bits are entered simultaneously into their respective
flip-flops, rather than a bit-by-bit Basis on one line. A four bit PISO register is illustrated in
the figure.













Let D
1
, D
2
, D3 and D
4
be the 4 parallel data-input lines and SHIFT/LOAD is a control input
that allows the 4 bits of data inputs to enter into the register in parallel or shift the data in serial.
When SHIFT/LOAD is low, the data at the parallel inputs are applied to the D inputs of the
respective flip-flop. When a clock pulse is applied the flip-flops with D=1 will be SET and the
flip-flops with D=0 will be RESET, thereby storing all 4 bits simultaneously. When
SHIFT/LOAD is HIGH the data bits shift right from one stage to the next.

Parallel In Parallel Out S.R.

In this type of register, data inputs can be shifted either in or out of the register in parallel. A 4-
bit parallel-in-parallel-out shift register is shown below.


32



















COUNTERS

A counter by function is a sequential circuit consisting of a set of flip-flops connected in a
suitable manner to count the sequence of the input pulses presented to it in digital form.
Counters can be broadly classified under 3 heads as follows:
1. Asynchronous and Synchronous counters.
2. Single and multimode counters
3. Modulus Counters.
An asynchronous or ripple counter can be constructed using minimum hardware. Here each
flip-flop is triggered by the output from the previous flip-flop which limits its speed of
operation. This is also called a serial counter.
In synchronous counters, the speed limitation of ripple counters is overcome by applying
clock pulses simultaneously to all the flip-flops. Hence these are also called parallel counters.
Single mode counters operate in a single mode i.e. it counts either in the UP mode or in the
DOWN mode, where as multimode counters operate in both UP and DOWN mode.

BINARY RIPPLE COUNTER

A binary ripple counter consists of a series connection of complementing flip-flops, with the
output of each flip-flop connected to the C input of the next higher-order flip-flop. The flip-flop
holding the least significant bit receives the incoming count pulses. A complementing flip-flop
can be obtained from a J-K flip-flop with the J and K inputs tied together or from a T flip-
flop. A third possibility is to use a D flip-flop with the complement output connected to the D
input. In this way the D input is always the complement of the present state and the next clock
pulse will cause the flip-flop to complement. The logic diagram of two 4 bit binary ripple
counters is shown below. Fig. (a) Shows counter constructed with complementing flip-flops of
the T type and fig (b) shows the same with the D flip-flops.





33





























Ripple counter with T flip-flop
Ripple counter with D flip-flop
The output of each flip-flop is connected to the C input of the next flip-flop in sequence.
The flip-flop holding the least significant bit receives the incoming count pulses. The T inputs
of all the flip-flops are connected to a permanent logic-1. This makes each flip-flop
complement if the signal in its C input goes through a negative transition. The bubble in front of
the dynamic indictor symbol next to C indicates that the flip-flops respond to the Negative
edge transition of the input. The negative transition occurs when the output of the previous
flip-flop to which C is connected goes from 1 to 0. To understand the operation of the 4-bit
binary ripple counter, refer to the first nine binary numbers listed in the following table.













Binary Count Sequence
A
3
A
2
A
1
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
Count
34
The count starts with binary 0 and increments by one with each count pulse input. After the
count of 15, the Counter goes back to 0 to repeat the count. The least Significant bit A
0
is
complemented with each count pulse input. Every time that A
0
goes from 1 to 0, it
Complements A
1.
Every time that A
1
goes from 1 to 0, it Complements A
2
. Every time that A
2

goes from 1 to 0, it Complements A
3
and so on for any other higher order bits of a ripple
counter.
For example, consider the transition from count 0011 to 0100. A
0
is complemented with the
count pulse. Since A
0
goes from 1 to 0, it triggers A
1
and complements it. As a result A
1
goes
from 1 to 0, which in turn complements A
2
, changing it from 0 to 1. A
2
does not trigger A
3

because A
2
produces a positive transition and the flip-flop responds only to negative transitions.
Thus the count from 0011 to 0100 is achieved by changing the bits one at a time, so the count
goes from 0011 to 0010, then to 0000, and finally to 0100.
The flip-flops change one at a time in succession and the signal propagates through the
counter in ripple fashion from one stage to the next. A binary counter with reverse count is
called a binary count-down counter. In a downward counter, the binary count is decremented by
1 with every input count pulse. The diagram of a binary count-down counter looks the same as
before, provided all the flip-flops trigger on the positive edge of the clock. (the bubble in the C
inputs must be absent.)

BCD Ripple Counter

A decimal counter follows a sequence of 10 states and returns to 0 after the count of 9. Such a
counter must have at least 4 flip-flops to represent each decimal digit, since a decimal digit is
represented by a binary code with at least four bits. If BCD is used, the sequence of states is as
shown in the state diagram below.












This is similar to a binary counter, except that the state after 1001 is 0000. The logic diagram of
a BCD ripple counter using JK flip-flops is shown below.
The four outputs are designated by the letter symbol Q with a numeric subscript equal to the
binary weight of the corresponding bit in the BCD code. Note that the output of Q
1
is applied to
the C inputs of both Q
2
and Q
8
and the output of Q
2
is applied to the C input of Q
4
.
The J and K inputs are connected either to a permanent 1 signal or to outputs of other flip-
flops. A ripple counter is an asynchronous sequential circuit. Signals that affect the flip-flop
transition depend on the way they change from 1 to 0. The operation of the counter can be
explained by a list of conditions for flip-flop transitions. These conditions are derived from the
logic diagram and from knowledge of how a JK flip-flop operates. When the C input goes from
1 to 0, the flip-flop is set if J=1, is cleared if K=1, is complemented if J=K=1, and is left
unchanged if J=K=0. To verify that these conditions result in the sequence required by a BCD
ripple counter, it is necessary to verify that the flip-flop transitions indeed follow a sequence of
states as specified by state diagram.

35
































Q
1
changes state after each clock pulse. Q
2
complements every time Q
1
goes from 1 to 0 as
long as Q
8
=0. When Q
8
becomes 1, Q
2
remains at 0. Q
4
complements every time Q
2
goes from
1 to 0. Q
8
remains at 0 as long as Q
2
or Q
4
is 0. When both Q
2
ands Q
4
become 1, Q
8

complements when Q
1
goes from 1 to 0. Q
8
is cleared on the next transition of Q
1
. the BCD
counter shown above is a decade counter, since it counts from 0 to 9. To count in decimal from
0 to 99 we need a two-decade counter. To count in decimal from 0 to 999 we need a three-
decade counter.
Multiple decade counters can be constructed by connecting BCD counters in cascade one
for each decade. A three-decade counter is shown below


36
SYNCHRONOUS COUNTERS

Synchronous counters are different from ripple counters in that clock pulses are applied
to the inputs of all flip-flops. A common clock triggers all flip-flops simultaneously rather than
one at a time in succession as in a ripple counter. The decision whether a flip-flop is to be
complemented or not is determined from the values of the data inputs such as T of J and K at
the time of the clock edge. If T=0 or J=K=0, the flip-flop does not change state. If T=1 or
J=K=1, the flip-flop complements. The circuit diagram of a 3-bit synchronous binary counter is
shown:













In this counter two AND gates are also used with three T flip-flops. All the flip-lops are
triggered by the same clock signal. T input terminal of flip-flop A is supplied with high level
signal, so flip-flop A toggles just at the end of every pulse. T input of flip-flop B is supplied
with AND gate A
1
. AND gate A
1
turns ON only when output of flip-flop A is high and only
during his duration flip-flop toggles. Flip-flop C is supplied with the AND gate A
2
, AND gate
A
2
turns on only when outputs of flip-flop B and AND gate A
1
are high and only during this
duration flip-flop C toggles.
Initially all the flip-flops are reset to 0 so out puts Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
= 000. But just at the end of the
first clock pulse, flip-flop A toggles and output Q
A
changes from logic 0 t0 1, which also turns
on AND gate A
1
. This does not make any change in the output states of flip-flops B and C
because T input terminals of flip-flops B and C were at logic 0 before the arrival of the first
clock pulse. So out put Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
becomes 001, just at the end of the first clock pulse.
Input terminals T of the flip-flop A and B are at logic 1 before the arrival of the 2
nd
clock
pulse so they toggle just at the end of 2
nd
clock pulse. This changes output of flip-flop A to
logic 0 and output of flip-flop B to logic 1. So AND gate A
1
turns off and gate A
2
remains off.
So at the end of second clock pulse output Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
becomes 010.
Just at the end of third clock pulse only flip-flop A toggles and its output changes to logic 1.
It turns AND gate A
1
ON. It also turns AND gate A
2
ON because now both inputs of AND gate
A
2
are HIGH. Thus just at the end of 3
rd
clock pulse output Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
= 011.
Just at the end of the 4
th
clock pulse, T inputs of all flip-flops are high so all flip-flops toggle
and output Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
changes from 011 to 100. It also turns off both AND gates A
1
and A
2
.
Just at the end of the 5
th
clock pulse only flip-flop A toggles and output Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
becomes
101. This process continues with every new clock pulse as shown in the table below.
Just at the end of the 7
th
pulse, output of each flip-flop is at logic 1, and just at the end of the
8
th
pulse, all flip-flops reset and output Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
become 000. This cycle repeats itself again.





37
Q
C
Q
B
Q
A
Clock
Count Pulse
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
4
5
6
7
0 0 0 8(recycles)

Important point to be noticed in this case is that just at the end of the 8
th
clock pulse, all the
flip-flops reset at the same time and so setting time of counter is equal to propagation delay
time of each flip-flop. It shows that synchronous counter can be operated with higher frequency
clock signal. Some slight difference in propagation delay time of individual flip-flops and delay
caused by AND gates used in the circuit may cause a deviation from synchronism but it is too
small to neglect.

Decade 4-bit Synchronous Counter

A 4-bit decade synchronous counter can also be built using synchronous binary counters to
produce a count sequence from 0 to 9. A standard binary counter can be converted to a decade
(decimal 10) counter with the aid of some additional logic to implement the desired state
sequence. After reaching the count of "1001", the counter recycles back to "0000". We now
have a decade or Modulo-10 counter.
The circuit is shown below. The circuit is constructed with J K Flip-flops.























38
The additional AND gates detect when the sequence reaches "1001", (Binary 10) and causes
flip-flop FFD to toggle on the next clock pulse. Flip-flop FFA toggles on every clock pulse.
Thus, the count starts over at "0000" producing a synchronous decade counter. We could quite
easily re-arrange the additional AND gates to produce other counters such as a Mod-12 Up
counter which counts 12 states from"0000" to "1011" (0 to 11) and then repeats making them
suitable for clocks.
Synchronous Counters use edge-triggered flip-flops that change states on either the "positive-
edge" (rising edge) or the "negative-edge" (falling edge) of the clock pulse on the control input
resulting in one single count when the clock input changes state. Generally, synchronous
counters count on the rising-edge which is the low to high transition of the clock signal and
asynchronous ripple counters count on the falling-edge which is the high to low transition of the
clock signal.









It may seem unusual that ripple counters use the falling-edge of the clock cycle to change
state, but this makes it easier to link counters together because the most significant bit (MSB) of
one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This works because the next bit must change
state when the previous bit changes from high to low - the point at which a carry must occur to
the next bit. Synchronous counters usually have a carry-out and a carry-in pin for linking
counters together without introducing any propagation delays.

Digital to analog converter

A DAC converts an abstract finite-precision number (usually a fixed-point binary number)
into a physical quantity (e.g., a voltage or a pressure). In particular, DACs are often used to
convert finite-precision time series data to a continually varying physical signal. As per
the NyquistShannon sampling theorem, a DAC can reconstruct the original signal from the
sampled data provided that its bandwidth meets certain requirements (e.g., a base band signal
with bandwidth less than the Nyquist frequency). Digital sampling introduces quantization
error that manifests as low-level noise added to the reconstructed signal. In other words a D/A
converter convert digital or binary data into its equivalent analog value. The block diagram of
an 8-bit DAC is shown below.













39
Applications

Audio
Most modern audio signals are stored in digital form (for example MP3s and CDs) and in
order to be heard through speakers they must be converted into an analog signal. DACs are
therefore found in CD players, digital music players, and PC sound cards. Specialist standalone
DACs can also be found in high-end hi-fi systems. These normally take the digital output of a
compatible CD player or dedicated transport (which is basically a CD player with no internal
DAC) and convert the signal into an analog line-level output that can then be fed into
an amplifier to drive speakers. Similar digital-to-analog converters can be found in digital
speakers such as USB speakers, and in sound cards.
VOIP (Voice over IP) Phone, Data transmission over the Internet is done digitally so in order
for voice to be transmitted it must be converted to digital using an Analog-to-Digital
Converter and be converted into analog again using a DAC so the voice it can be heard on the
other end.
Video
Video signals from a digital source, such as a computer, must be converted to analog form if
they are to be displayed on an analog monitor. As of 2007, analog inputs are more commonly
used than digital, but this may change as flat panel displays with DVI and
/or HDMI connections become more widespread. A video DAC is, however, incorporated in
any digital video player with analog outputs. The DAC is usually integrated with
some memory (RAM), which contains conversion tables for gamma correction, contrast and
brightness, to make a device called a RAMDAC. A device that is distantly related to the DAC is
the digitally controlled potentiometer, used to control an analog signal digitally.
Mechanical
An unusual application of digital-to-analog conversion was the whiffletree electromechanical
digital-to-analog converter linkage in the IBM Selectric typewriter.

R-2R resistor ladder network (digital to analog conversion, or DAC)

A basic R-2R resistor ladder network is shown in the Figure.










Bit a
n-1
MSB (most significant bit) to Bit a
0
LSB (least significant bit) are driven from
digital logic gates. Ideally, the bits are switched between 0 volts (logic 0) and V
ref
(logic 1). The
R-2R network causes the digital bits to be weighted in their contribution to the output voltage
V
out
. In this circuit 5 bits are shown (bits 4-0), giving (2
5
) or 32 possible analog voltage levels at
the output.
Depending on which bits are set to 1 and which to 0, the output voltage (out) will be a
corresponding stepped value between 0 volts and V
ref
minus the value of the minimum step
(Bit0). The actual value of V
ref
(and 0 volts) will depend on the type of technology used to
generate the digital signals.
For a digital value VAL, of a R-2R DAC of N bits of 0-V/V
ref
, the output voltage V
out
is:
40
V
out
= V
ref
VAL / 2
N

In the example shown, N = 5 and hence 2
N
= 32. With V
ref
= 3.3 V (typical CMOS
logic 1 voltage), V
out
will vary between 00000, VAL = 0 and 11111, VAL = 31.
Minimum (single step) VAL = 1, we have
V
out
= 3.3 1 / 32 = 0.1 volts
Maximum output (11111 VAL = 31, we have
V
out
= 3.3 31 / 2
5
= 3.2 volts
The R-2R ladder is inexpensive and relatively easy to manufacture since only two resistor
values are required (or 1, if R is made by placing a pair of 2R in parallel, or if 2R is made by
placing a pair of R in series). It is fast and has fixed output impedance R. The R-2R ladder
operates as a string of current dividers whose output accuracy is solely dependent on how well
each resistor is matched to the others. Small inaccuracies in the higher significant bit resistors
can entirely overwhelm the contribution of the less significant bits. This may result in non-
monotonic behavior at major crossings, such as from 01111 to 10000. Depending on the type of
logic gates used and design of the logic circuits, there may be transitional voltage spikes at such
major crossings even with perfect resistor values. These can be filtered, with capacitance at the
output node for instance (the consequent reduction in bandwidth may be significant in some
applications). Finally, the 2R resistance is in series with the digital output impedance. High
output impedance gates (e.g., LVDS) may be unsuitable in some cases. For all of the above
reasons (and doubtless others), this type of DAC tends to be restricted to a relatively small
number of bits, although integrated circuits may push the number of bits to 14 or even more, the
home constructor will typically limit themselves to 8 or fewer.
Accuracy of R-2R resistor ladders
Resistors used with the more significant bits must be proportionally more accurate than
those used with the lower significant bits; for example, in the R-2R network shown above,
inaccuracies in the Bit4 MSB resistors must be insignificant compared to R/32 (i.e., much better
than 3%). Within integrated circuits, high accuracy R-2R networks may be printed directly onto
a single substrate using thin-film technology, ensuring the resistors share
similar electrical characteristics. Even so, they must often be laser trimmed to achieve the
required precision. Such on-chip resistor ladders for digital-to-analog converters achieving 14
bits accuracy have been demonstrated.

Analog to digital converter

An analog-to-digital converter (abbreviated ADC, A/D or A to D) is a device that
converts a continuous quantity to a discrete time digital representation. An ADC may also
provide an isolated measurement. The reverse operation is performed by a digital-to-analog
converter (DAC). Typically, an ADC is an electronic device that converts an input
analog voltage or current to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or
current. However, some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary
encoders, can also be considered ADCs. The digital output may use different coding schemes.
Typically the digital output will be a two's complement binary number that is proportional to
the input, but there are other possibilities. An encoder, for example, might output a Gray code.

Applications

Music recording
ADCs are integral to current music reproduction technology. Since much music production
is done on computers, when an analog recording is used, an ADC is needed to create
the PCM data stream that goes onto a compact disc or digital music file. The current crop of AD
converters utilized in music can sample at rates up to 192 kilohertz. High bandwidth headroom
allows the use of cheaper or faster anti-aliasing filters of less severe filtering slopes. The
41
proponents of over sampling assert that such shallower anti-aliasing filters produce less
deleterious effects on sound quality, exactly because of their gentler slopes. Others prefer
entirely filter less AD conversion, arguing that aliasing is less detrimental to sound perception
than pre-conversion brick wall filtering. Considerable literature exists on these matters, but
commercial considerations often play a significant role. Most high-profile recording studios
record in 24-bit/192-176.4 kHz PCM or in DSD formats, and then down sample or decimate the
signal for Red-Book CD production (44.1 kHz) or to 48 kHz for commonly used for radio/TV
broadcast applications.
Digital Signal Processing
A/D converters are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal has to be processed,
stored, or transported in digital form. Fast video ADCs are used, for example, in TV tuner
cards. Slow on-chip 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs are common in microcontrollers. Very fast ADCs
are needed in digital oscilloscopes, and are crucial for new applications like software defined
radio.

Counter Type A/D Converter

The counter type A/D converter is constructed using only one comparator with a variable
reference voltage. The variable reference voltage can be obtained by a sequence counter and a
D/A converter. The block diagram for an n-bit counter type A/D converter is shown below.

















The operation of the counter type A/D converter is as follows. Since the n-bit counter is
initially set to 0, the DAC output, variable reference voltage is 0V. If the amplitude of the
analog input voltage (V
A
) is greater than 0 V, the comparator output is in LOW state and the
RESET (R ) input of S-R flip-flop is 0.
When Start pulse is applied to the SET (S) input of S-R flip-flop, the flip-flop is SET (i.e.
Q=1) and the CLK is allowed through the AND gate to the n-bit counter. This results in
progress in the counter value and hence the variable reference voltage. This will continue until
the variable reference voltage is equal to or greater than the analog input voltage.
Then, the comparator output becomes HIGH and the S-R flip-flop is RESET (i.e. Q=0).
Therefore the CLK is inhibited and the counter stops its progress. Now, the conversion is
complete and the number stored in the n-bit counter is the equivalent n-bit digital data for the
given analog input voltage.



42
In this A/D converter, the counter advances one count for every CLK, and therefore, the
CLK decides the conversion rate. For example, if a 100 kHz CLK is used in an 8 bit A/D
converter, the counter advances for every 10 s and it will take 2.56 ms (i.e. 2
8
x 10 s = 2.56
ms) to reach the full scale digital output. Normally, the time required to reach one half of the
full scale voltage is called Average conversion time. Hence, the average conversion time of the
above A/D converter is 1.28 ms.

Advantages

1. Counter type ADC is very simple and needs less hardware compared to the simultaneous
type A/D converter. .
2. It is a better method for digitizing with high resolution.

Disadvantages

In counter type ADC, the conversion time is very long, variable, and proportional to the
amplitude of the analog input voltage. Since the counter always counts from 0 through a
normal sequence, a maximum of 2
n
counts are required to convert the maximum analog input
voltage. Hence, for an n-bit ADC, the average conversion time is 2
n
/2 = 2
n-1
times the clock
period, which is very long