F.Spertino F.

Spertino
STRUCTURE AND
OPERATION
OFTHE SOLAR CELL OF THE SOLAR CELL
F. Spertino
V Cocina V. Cocina
F.Spertino
BACKGROUND ON SEMICONDUCTORS
The solar or photovoltaic (PV) cell is
the basic element of the PV systems,
because the direct conversion of
Si
because the direct conversion of
sunlight into electricity occurs inside.
The conversion efficiency is achieved
Si
Si Si
y
by exploiting the properties of
semiconductors. In Silicon (Si) the
crystal is tetravalent: each atom has
Si
Si Si
Si
crystal is tetravalent: each atom has
4 valence electrons, available for
chemical bonding with surrounding
Si
atoms.
F.Spertino
BACKGROUND ON SEMICONDUCTORS
To understand the conversion process, it is advisable to
remember some physical remarks: the energy band p y gy
structure of the atom and the generation of electron-
hole couples.
The energy band is the set of energy levels owned by
the electron. It is composed of:
- valence band, that is composed of electron set involved
in chemical bonding;
d ti b d th t i d f l t ith - conduction band, that is composed of electrons with an
energy level (higher than the previous) to permit their
movement in the crystal grid; movement in the crystal grid;
- band gap (energy gap), which represents the energy
jump required by the electron to move fromthe valence jump required by the electron to move fromthe valence
band to the conduction band.
F.Spertino F.Spertino
BACKGROUND ON SEMICONDUCTORS
Insulators
Conduction band
Conductors Semiconductors
Conduction band
E
E
c
Conduction band
E
c
E
v
Conduction band
E
c
E
g
Valence band
E
v
E
g
Valence band
v
Valence band
E
v
Energy gap(eV) of major semiconductors
Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) 1,12
Amorphous Silicon(a-Si) 1 75
Energy gap (eV) of major semiconductors
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) 1,75
Germanium (Ge) 0,67
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 1,42
Indium Phosphide (InP) 1,34
Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe) 1,05
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 1,45
Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) 2,4
F.Spertino
BACKGROUND ON SEMICONDUCTORS
In order to obtain the diode
operation (unidirectional switch) we
Si
hole
operation (unidirectional switch) we
have to realize the P-N junction in a
semiconductor, putting together two
B
Si Si
crystals: one is "doped" with
trivalent atoms (boron) and the
othe one is doped ith penta alent
Si
other one is doped with pentavalent
atoms (phosphorus).
The P type crystal has trivalent
Si
Si
electron
The P-type crystal has trivalent
atoms and holes in the lattice, while
the N-type crystal has free electrons P
Si Si
yp y
fromthe bond.
Holes and electrons move freely in
Si Si
Si
the lattice due to diffusion.
Si
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
At the interface, electrons of the N-type crystal spread to the
P-type crystal (vice versa for holes), forming a space charge
region ("+" on N-type and "-" on the P-type), in which there
are not charge mobile carriers are not charge mobile carriers.
When the electric field generated counter-balances the
diffusion motion the process stops diffusion motion, the process stops.
The radiation, with sufficient energy (E
ph
=hf =hc/ >E
g
),
creates electron/hole pairs. creates electron/hole pairs.
In the presence of the junction electric field, electrons are
attracted to the N area (positively charged) and holes to the (p y g )
P area (negatively charged).
This charge motion is the source of the photovoltaic current.
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
In a single-junction cell, the doped N layer is placed above
the P layer in a thickness ranging from200 to 300 m.
photons photons
Junction
field
1V/m
The radiation is able to reach the junction (depletion region)
because the N layer is very thin ( 1m).
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
In the solar spectrum, only
h t ith ffi i t photons with sufficient
energy are able to generate
electron-hole pairs electron hole pairs.
Photons (visible and above
all ultraviolet) have a all ultraviolet) have a
surplus of energy that is lost
in the creation of
electron/hole pairs: it
implies a limit in the
conversion efficiency conversion efficiency.
Limits conversion for Silicon
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
Additional disadvantages are:
not all incident photons penetrate into the
cell part of photons is reflected and part is cell, part of photons is reflected and part is
vanished by the frontal electrode;
some electron-hole pairs recombine
theirselves before they can be separated
b h l f ld d h by the electric field inside the junction;
the frontal electrode of the cell has an
amount of resistance.
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
N layer
There are also other types of junction...
Electric
N layer
i
n
s
i
c
Electric
field
E
P layer
i
n
t
r
field
P layer
E
g2
E
g P layer
P-N junction
E
g
P layer
P-I-N junction
E
g1
Hetero-junction Hetero junction
Note the different performance of the field in the junction Note the different performance of the field in the junction
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
Look at energy bands of a P-N junction with forward or
reverse bias reverse bias
I
for
II
rev
Note that the
direction of current
represents
-
+
F d bi
represents
the flow of positive
charges Forward bias
(+on the P layer)
+
-
charges
Reverse bias
(+on the N layer)
+
(+on the N layer)
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
The forward bias reduces the potential barrier and
THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
The forward bias reduces the potential barrier and
thus the diffusion current in the diode is growing
considerably
The reverse bias increases the potential barrier: a
small reverse saturation current runs
The junction acts as a rectifier. The junction acts as a rectifier.
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR CELL
The material of
widespread PV cells is
single- and multi- (or
l ) lli ili poly-) crystalline silicon.
Each cell is obtained by a
wafer of 250 350 m wafer of 250350 m
thickness and 10 20 cm
side. side.
On the frontal side (often
"textured") a layer of ) y
antireflective coating is
applied.
F.Spertino F.Spertino
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR CELL
Mono-crystalline cells are derived Mono crystalline cells are derived
from the sawing of a round cylinder
ingot (wafer). g ( )
Poly-crystalline cells are derived from
the fusion and solidification of Silicon
in a quartz crucible (square ingot).
On the back side (P-type) it is applied
l h f f a contact as large as the surface of
the cell.
On the frontal side (N type) the On the frontal side (N-type) the
contact is formed by thin Ag
deposition (finger and busbar). deposition (finger and busbar).