How to...

carry out action research

What is action research?
Definition
Action research is a research strategy which combines research with action and participation in the field. As a
method, it goes back to the period immediately post the Second World War (see "The history of action
research", below) and has become increasingly popular oer the last few years, along with other !ualitatie
methods, as people come to see the alue in collecting rich data by disparate means. "t is a form of applied
research, and is particularly useful in deeloping theory about practice.
"Action research can be described as a family of research methodologies which pursue action (or change) and
research (or understanding) at the same time. "n most of its forms it does this by#
using a cyclic or spiral process which alternates between action and critical
reflection, and
in the later cycles, continuously refining methods, data and interpretation in the light
of the understanding deeloped in the earlier cycles.
"t is thus an emergent process which takes shape as understanding increases$ it is an iteratie process which
conerges towards a better understanding of what happens.
"n most of its forms it is also participatie (among other reasons, change is usually easier to achiee when
those affected by the change are inoled) and !ualitatie."
%rom &ick, '. (()))), "What is action research*". Aailable online at http#++www.scu.edu.au+schools+gcm+ar+whatisar.htm
The normal position of the researcher is detached, scientific, standing outside eents and diligently recording
them. A number of methods may be used , !uestionnaire, focus group, interiews, obseration, etc. , but it is
generally the researcher who controls data gathering for purposes that affect their research rather than the
participants- agenda. "n other words, the sub.ects are passie in research terms# they may either be unaware of
being "watched" or unconcerned about the data used from their interiew or surey.
"n action research, howeer, people are not .ust sub.ects but partners in the research process. The research
arises not out of a !uestion from an e/ternal indiidual, but as a shared process of reflection between the
researcher and the participants$ the latter help gather data in relation to their own !uestions$ research results
are fed back to them directly to improe the situation that was the sub.ect of the research.
The learning so ac!uired goes not only to answer a research !uestion, but also to sole an organi0ational
problem, or at least to take forward and deepen the organi0ation-s understanding of itself.
1oweer much confined to the organi0ation are the interests of the participants, the researcher will hae
broader concerns. 1e or she is seeking and creating knowledge which relates not .ust to the pro.ect itself, but
which can be applied to other pro.ects, in other conte/ts, and which can add to practice and theory itself. 2ood
action research, like any good research, seeks a broad influence.
The conte/t of action research is almost always the organi0ation# most action research studies are case
studies. They are ery often linked with a change agenda, ia the creation of deeper knowledge and
understanding about a particular social or organi0ational issue, in order to improe a particular situation.
'elow are two e/amples of research pro.ects that deliberately set out to change rather than .ust obsere#
1. "n "3perationali0ing the concept of alue , an action research4based model" 5aslund et al. (6778)
looked at the concept of alue within an organi0ation, principally at a global corporation which leads in
the packaging supply field. The data were collected in the organi0ation by means of document studies,
informal sureys, obserations and interiews. The ob.ect was to help people in the organi0ation look
at their ways of working and oercome any resistance to better ways of doing things.
2. "n "9erformance measurement action research" :oss et al. (677;) describe how the <entre for
%acilities :anagement worked with a proider of estates and facilities management to a ma.or =>
goernment department. "t used action research to create an improed performance measurement
system for the organi0ation.
"n "conentional" research, the researcher either takes a snapshot of what is going on in an organi0ation at a
particular time, or does a longitudinal study. "n action research the participant as well as the researcher reflects
on actions, while the researcher is e!ually concerned to see organi0ational change as to hae research
hypotheses substantiated.
"n "The impact of e4resources at 'ournemouth =niersity 677?+6778" 'eard et al. proide the following
definition of action research#
"Action research @ seeks to bring together action and reflection, theory and practice, in
participation with others, in pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to
people (Aeason, 9. and 'radbury, 1. (677(), Handbook of Action Research, Sage, Bondon,
p. ()."
"n "The !uality of an action research thesis in the social sciences" Cuber4Skerrit and %letcher (677;) !uote the
following definition of action research which was first gien at a ()D) symposium in 'risbane#
""f yours is a situation in which#
people reflect and improe (or deelop) their own work and their own situations$
by tightly interlinking their reflection and action$ and
also making their e/perience public not only to other participants but also to other
persons interested in and concerned about the work and the situation, i.e. their
public theories and practices of the work and the situation$
and if yours is a situation in which there is increasingly#
data gathering by participants themseles (or with the help of others) in relation to
their own !uestions$
participation (in problem posing and in answering !uestions) in decision making$
power sharing and the relatie suspension of hierarchical ways of working, in a
conscious moe towards social and industrial democracy$
collaboration among members of the group as a -critical community-$
self4reflection, self4ealuation and self4management by autonomous and responsible
persons and groups$
progressie (and public) learning by doing and making mistakes in a -self4reflectie
spiral- of planning, acting, obsering, reflectie planning, etc.$ and
reflection that supports the idea of the -(self4)reflectie practitioner-$
then yours is a situation in which action research is occurring."
The history of action research
The concept of action research goes back to the 2erman psychologist >urt Bewin ((D)74()?;). As a Eew and a
leftist, Bewin was forced in the ()F7s to flee 1itler-s 2ermany for the =SA, where he did much to deelop our
contemporary ideas of change. 1e was particularly (and understandably) concerned with social .ustice and
racial discrimination, seeing the latter as linked with problems of management and gatekeepers who
determined what was and wasn-t done. 1e belieed that efforts for change should be focused on the group,
which should challenge group norms and processes.
The concept of action research grew out of Bewin-s strong social conictions , research would be linked with
action to create a change process oer organi0ational issues directly e/perienced by practitioners. 2ood
research, Bewin claimed, should produce real change and not .ust end up in books (he was writing in an era
well before the dominance of the top =S .ournals with their "scientific" approach or the => Aesearch
Assessment G/ercise).
A particularly good account of Bewin-s contribution to action research theory is gien in Adams and :c5icholas
(677;).
"n order to produce this change, the researcher needed to witness eents at first hand as a partner in the
process, to become truly inoled in the system. 1is or her role is not only to document, but also to facilitate the
process of reflection and en!uiry.
A group of uniersity researchers worked in partnership with the local high schools to help the latter determine
what were the factors that led to pupils staying longer in school. They used a method of "appreciatie in!uiry",
which is looking for the best and building on it. The positie enironment thus created encourages and
stimulates learning (<alabrese, 6778).
Action research has also been taken up in Batin America, by 9aolo %riere and 3rlando %als 'orda, and is
currently a popular research methodology all oer the world with a burgeoning literature, especially oer the
last two decades.
Applications of action research
According to 2app and %isher (6778) action research presents#
"a ery effectie alternatie to social science research methods in that it is# practical,
participatie and collaboratie, emancipatory, interpretie and critical. The process of action
research is ery effectie in identifying creatie solutions".
As described aboe, and because of its participatory and organi0ational nature, action research is much
identified with change, whether as an actual change initiatie, obseration of change process or seeking to
manage change in an organi0ation. 9art of its strength here lies in its ability to take interaction with participants
further than with normal research, yielding deeper understanding of indiiduals and drawing down more
illuminating data. G!ually it helps participants themseles to gain deeper understanding by reflecting on their
e/perience.
Action research can also be strongly linked with action learning , learning from e/perience, particularly in an
organi0ational conte/t. As the researchers participate in the organi0ation, they create an impetus for learning
as members of the organi0ation reflect on their e/periences.
"n Scandinaia, the "dialogue conference" has been in use for F7 years, and inoles creating a public forum
for participation and dialogue organi0ed according to principles of respect and democracy. "&eelopmental
magic* Two takes on a dialogue conference" (9hilips and 1u00ard, 677;) e/plores the use of this techni!ue in
action research to facilitate change within health organi0ations, taking on themes of isions, challenges, ideas
and plans for future work.
Action research was used as a tool to try and understand the management of change in an organi0ation, the
organi0ation being a uniersity and the change being the wide scale adoption of electronic resources, as
described by 'eard et al. (677;).
Action research is common in research which looks at social issues, such as ethnicity, e!uality and the
enironment. Another application is in educational research, its popularity here being no doubt due to the
obious need to improe practice.
An G< funded pro.ect wanted to e/amine the !uestion, would new migrants be more likely to work for the 51S
if they had a better command of Gnglish and related material* This was researched through a number of focus
groups comprising health serice workers and non4working minority groups. :aterial was also created and
trialled with a number of groups of learners.
%inally, there is an obious attraction for action research for part4time management students looking for a way
of integrating their studies with their work, many of whom use their pro.ect as a way of soling a workplace
issue and carrying out some consultancy.
References
Adams, <.A and :c5icholas, 9. (677;) ":aking a difference. Sustainability reporting, accountability and
organisational change", Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Hol. 67 5o. F, pp. FD64?76.
'eard, E., &ale, 9. and 1utchins, E. (677;), "The impact of e4resources at 'ournemouth =niersity 677?+6778",
Performance Measurement and Metrics, Hol. D 5o. (, pp. ;4(;.
<alabrese, A.B. (6778), "'uilding social capital through the use of an appreciatie in!uiry theoretical
perspectie in a school and uniersity partnership", International Journal of Education Management, Hol. 67
5o. F, pp. (;F4(D6.
2app, A. and %isher, A. (6778), "Achieing e/cellence through innoatie approaches to student inolement
in course ealuation within the tertiary education sector", uality Assurance in Education, Hol. (? 5o. 6, pp.
(I84(88.
:oss, J.C., Alho, E. and Ale/ander, >. (677;), "9erformance measurement action research", Journal of
!acilities Management,
Hol. I 5o. ?, pp. 6)74F77.
5aslund, &., 3lsson, A. and >arlsson, S. (6778), "3perationali0ing the concept of alue , an action research4
based model", #he $earning %rgani&ation, Hol. (F 5o. F, pp. F774FF6.
9hilips, :.G. and 1u00ard, T. (677;), "&eelopmental magic* Two takes on a dialogue conference", Journal of
%rgani&ational 'hange Management, Hol. 67 5o. (, pp. D46I.
Cuber4Skerrit, 3. and %letcher, :. (677;), "The !uality of an action research thesis in the social sciences",
uality Assurance in Education, Hol. (I 5o. ?, pp. ?(F4?F8.
Research design and data collection
Bike any research approach, action research has its own deelopment cycle, its links with theory, what may
rather grandly be termed its epistemological stance (i.e. whether it aims to build on or build theory) and its
preferred data collection methods. This is all part of research design, and this section will look at how to design
an action research pro.ect in a thorough and effectie way.
Link with participants
As we saw in the preious section, what really distinguishes action research from other forms of research is
that the participants hae a much more direct role. This will influence the design from start to finish. %or
e/ample participants will#
need to be inoled in the planning process, in order to ensure that the research asks !uestions that
are releant to their concern,
possibly hae a hand in data gathering, and definitely an interest in the results,
look for practice related, as opposed to research, outcomes, and a change in their own practice.
Action research has been compared with consulting in that it is concerned with deelopment of practice$ the
difference is that it is cyclical rather than linear, the cyclical element being concerned with reflection, designed
not only to improe practice but also to generate theory. The time4scale is often longer, and the budget larger.
The theoretical connection
%or all that action research is concerned with improements to practice, the theoretical angle is also important
as all research seeks to build theory.
Action research is generally inductie rather than deductie , that is, the data collection builds rather than tests
theory. The researcher may start with a particular theoretical position, but should be open to what the research
yields, and to open reflection.
This openness, howeer, does not negate the importance of immersing oneself in the releant literature, both
content and methodology, in order to gie a conte/t to the problem.
The uni!ue nature of action research interentions, and their non repeatability, means that they are not good
for rigorous theory testing. 3n the other hand, they are good at testing theoretical frameworks, or theories as
related to other theories. 1ence their usefulness in organi0ation studies, where such frameworks apply.
The important thing is for the particular research to hae results which e/tend beyond the confines of the
particular pro.ect and hae a general application, whether as a test of theoretical frameworks as described
aboe, as theory which informs more robust practice, or a tool, model, or method which can be used in a range
of situations.
"n ":aking a difference. Sustainability reporting, accountability and organisational change" Adams and
:c5icholas (677;) conclude their study of sustainability reporting thus#
"3ur study has shown that, through action research, academics can assist organi0ations in
bringing about improements to their sustainability reporting processes, accountability and
sustainability performance. Action research might also contribute to academic literature and
theori0ing by improing our understanding of# what dries organi0ations to proide an
account of their sustainability performance$ what determines the leel of accountability
attained$ the comple/ nature of the interactions and relationships between organi0ations and
their stakeholders on sustainability issues$ and the manner in which sustainability reporting
processes impact on organi0ational change towards improed sustainability performance."
"n "Action research as culture change tool" :arcinkoniene and >ekKle describe a programme of change in
post4communist 'altic schools. They use the literature to describe the prealent culture, and conclude that it
would be possible to apply a similar action research interention in other post4communist states, where schools
are likely to hae a similar culture.
Action research takes the researcher and the organi0ation through a cyclical process of deepening
understanding, both of the organi0ational problem and the research !uestion, in which reflection happens not
.ust at the beginning and the end, but throughout the process. This reflection yields a greater sense of
empowerment for participants, who feel themseles more in charge of decision4making processes and more
able to see problems clearly.
The iteratie nature of the reflection process makes action research similar to grounded theory, which inoles
going back into the field after looking at data with a clearer understanding of the key issues, and deeloping
further understanding through more research.
"n "The !uality of an action research thesis in the social sciences" Cuber4Skerrit !uotes her own theoretical
framework of action research , the <AAS9 model. Action research is#
Critical (and self4critical) collaboratie en!uiry by
Reflectie practitioners being
Accountable and making the results of their en!uiry public,
Self4ealuating their practice and engaged in
articipatie problem4soling and continuing professional deelopment.
Collecting data ! "ultiple sources of e#idence
The great adantage of the case study (and most action research, as we hae seen, takes place in a case
study enironment) is that it can yield data from many different sources. :any action research studies use a
combination of artefacts, document studies, sureys, interiews, focus groups, discussions, participant
obseration, group work, performance measurement. "n addition, hard data may be aailable as in the following
e/ample.
$%a"ple
Adams and :c5icholas (677;) report on the data collection methods, which supplemented discussion,
obserations in meetings and interiews, with hard data such as operational statistics, financial accounts,
marketing reports, sustainability reports, as well as detailed study of the website, annual reports etc.
The most striking thing about action research, howeer, is that much of the data is supplied by the indiiduals
themseles as part of feedback on how the ob.ect of data collection helps them in their work and lies.
"n "9rioriti0ing tactical !uality improement# An action research study" 1ales et al. (6778) describe the testing of
a method for improing decision making at the shop4floor leel. The method was tried out on the shop4floor with
interiews being conducted with users and obseration of people using it.
Andersen et al. (6778) describe how the researchers were inoled in bringing about changes in a bank, and
deployed a number of methods to identify shortcomings and suggest improements, including#
interiews with all employees in the bank$
obseration of employees- interaction with customers in customer meetings and other situations$
interiews with customers, both those obsered in interactions with serice personnel and those who
had not been in contact with the bank in a while$
performance measurement of some key factors, e.g. customer flow in the bank office$
group work among the bank employees to analyse problem areas and deelop improements$ and
the use of tools like business process analysis, root cause analysis, and similar techni!ues to shed
light on problem areas.
'eard et al. (677;) used action research because it was participatory, encouraging researchers to seek iews
which they did through online !uestionnaires and subse!uent interiews with a number of participants, and
which they triangulated with data on online use.
2app and %isher (6778) describe how the traditional course ealuation !uestionnaires were supplemented by
focus groups as an additional way of finding out how to improe the course.
References
Adams, <.A and :c5icholas, 9. (677;) ":aking a difference. Sustainability reporting, accountability and
organisational change", Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, Hol. 67 5o. F, pp. FD64?76.
Andersen, '., 1enriksen, '. and Aarseth, W. (6778), "1olistic performance management# an integrated
framework", International Journal of Producti(ity and Performance Management, Hol. II 5o. (, pp. 8(4;D.
'eard, E., &ale, 9. and 1utchins, E. (677;), "The impact of e4resources at 'ournemouth =niersity 677?+6778",
Performance Measurement and Metrics, Hol. D 5o. (, pp. ;4(;.
2app, A. and %isher, A. (6778), "Achieing e/cellence through innoatie approaches to student inolement
in course ealuation within the tertiary education sector", uality Assurance in Education, Hol. (? 5o. 6, pp.
(I84(88.
1ales, &.5., Siha, S.:. and :c>new, E.". (6778), "9rioriti0ing tactical !uality improement# An action research
study", International Journal of %)erations and Production Management, Hol. 68 5o. D, pp. D884DD(.
:arcinkoniene, A. and >ekKle, T. (677;), "Action research as culture change tool", *altic Journal of
Management, Hol. 6 5o. (, pp. );4(7).
Cuber4Skerrit, 3. and %letcher, :. (677;), "The !uality of an action research thesis in the social sciences",
uality Assurance in Education, Hol. (I 5o. ?, pp. ?(F4?F8.
$%posing action research
The adantages of action research will hae become clear. "t allows the researcher to work on a problem, not
only yielding answers to the problem but also informing theory. "t empowers participants, enables change, and
creates opportunities for organi0ational learning. "t yields rich data from multiple sources. "t creates solid theory
about practice, and hence leads to improements.
&espite these benefits, action research is not without its limitations and critics. The latter point to the lack of
alidity and generali0ability, on the ground that the interention is a one off and not repeatable. 9erhaps more
seriously, howeer, is the fact that it is not perceied as mainstream, and will therefore not be welcomed by the
gatekeepers of the all important mainstream international .ournals.
The adantages of action research will hae become clear. "t allows the researcher to work on a problem, not
only yielding answers to the problem but also informing theory. "t empowers participants, enables change, and
creates opportunities for organi0ational learning. "t yields rich data from multiple sources. "t creates solid theory
about practice, and hence leads to improements.
&espite these benefits, action research is not without its limitations and critics. The latter point to the lack of
alidity and generali0ability, on the ground that the interention is a one off and not repeatable. 9erhaps more
seriously, howeer, is the fact that it is not perceied as mainstream, and will therefore not be welcomed by the
gate keepers of the all important mainstream international .ournals.
How to i"pro#e the #alidity of action research
Halidity can be ensured by applying rigour in the research methodology and design. "n particular#
=sing the releant literature, both method and content, to situate the problem, and then to reflect on
findings.
=sing measures and methods that are well respected in the literature.
=sing standard tools to increase reliability , for e/ample a written protocol for interiews.
Writing up the research in a well argued and well documented manner.
The case study approach, and focus on the particular (organi0ation, problem, etc.) encourages multiple
sources of data. This in itself increases alidity, as eidence is coming from a range of sources, and allows for
triangulation , checking of one source against another.
At the end of their article, "The impact of e4resources at 'ournemouth =niersity 677?+6778", 'eard et al.
comment#
"Action research has proed to be an appropriate methodology for this type of research, as it
allows !uantitatie and !ualitatie data to be used and learning to occur through action and
reflection. Triangulation enables the iews of a dierse community of academics and students
to be considered alongside data from management information systems".
Triangulation in action research, howeer, is not merely a matter of being able to check one set of results
against another$ it is also possible to check differences in data from obseration, personal accounts, etc. oer
the passage of time. 1oweer, the researcher here is looking for difference, not similarity, and for the
opportunity to reflect on the different perspecties the former reeals.
Halidity is also increased by haing seeral researchers on the pro.ect, which gies greater ob.ectiity. 1ales et
al. (6778) describe how they tested a method one of them had deeloped for improing tactical decision
making. They used multiple sources of eidence , including open4ended interiews with senior managers,
superisors and workers, and obseration , as a way of alidating data, and four researchers to increase
ob.ectiity. The first author deeloped the method, the second and fourth authors conducted the interiews,
which were analysed by the third, who also reiewed research logs. Three of the authors carried on participant
obseration.
Disse"ination
&issemination is obiously an e/cellent way of generali0ing research. According to Gden and 1u/ham (6776),
action research calls for book length, owing to the incremental nature of theory deelopment, the need to
proide background and the comple/ity of the data itself. &oherty and :anfredi (6778) beliee that despite the
growing popularity of action research, it is disdained by "mainstream" management .ournals which faour more
traditional methodologies.
%ailure to benefit from the top publication outlets (i.e. top American .ournals) hits both => and =S based
scholars. The former are in hock to the Aesearch Assessment G/ercise, which proides top ratings for
international (and mostly American) .ournals which promote a conentional, positiist, research ethos, and in
any case treats with suspicion any research that is not mainstream. The latter can only receie tenure if they
publish in the aforementioned top .ournals. %or a young scholar, doing action research can be .ust too much of
a risk.
That notwithstanding, much action research does get published in .ournals , for e/ample, a fullte/t search for
the phrase "action research" in Gmerald-s database yielded oer (,F77 entries (search as of Eanuary 677D).
Students using action research as a method for a doctoral thesis may also e/perience problems, taking longer
to complete, and haing difficulty finding a superisor who understands (Cuber4Skerrit and %letcher, 677;).
According to the latter, a good action research thesis should sole a real and comple/ problem, benefit from
top leel commitment in the organi0ation the student is researching in, and the reflection should be to find out
what is the gap in knowledge that will earn the doctorate.
There is !uite a bit of adice on writing an action research thesis, as will be e/plained in Section ? "Action
research resources".
Cuber4Skerrit and %letcher (677;) adise that a !uality action research thesis is one which#
soles a real, comple/ problem , it is necessary to get the cooperation of top leel management,
contributes to both practical and theoretical knowledge ,4 aboe all, identifying a gap.
This !uality is achieed by#
a carefully designed, e/plained and .ustified methodology,
an original contribution which proides releant support and alidation and which is well argued,
the use of releant literature, both methodological and content, aligned to the topic,
a clear, concise and accurate piece of writing, free from errors.
References
'eard, E., &ale, 9. and 1utchins, E. (677;), "The impact of e4resources at 'ournemouth =niersity 677?+6778",
Performance Measurement and Metrics, Hol. D 5o. (, pp. ;4(;.
Gden, <. and 1u/ham, <. (6776), "Action research" in 9artington, & (Gd.), Essential +kills for Management
Research, Sage 9ublications, Bondon.
&oherty, B. and :anfredi, S. (6778), -Action research to deelop work4life balance in a => uniersity-, ,omen
in Management Re(ie-, Hol. 6( 5o. F, pp. 6?(46I).
1ales, &.5., Siha, S.:. and :c>new, E.". (6778), "9rioriti0ing tactical !uality improement# An action research
study", International Journal of %)erations and Production Management, Hol. 68 5o. D, pp. D884DD(.
Cuber4Skerrit, 3. and %letcher, :. (677;), "The !uality of an action research thesis in the social sciences",
uality Assurance in Education, Hol. (I 5o. ?, pp. ?(F4?F8.
Action research resources
There are a number of web resources on action research. =ndoubtedly the best is that from Southern <ross
=niersity.
Southern Cross University Bob Dick
A substantial collection of action research resources presented by 'ob &ick of Southern <ross
=niersity. "t contains AAG3B, an online course in action research, many useful papers on topics such
as ealuation, using particular techni!ues and processes etc. There is also a section on writing an
action research thesis, as well as abstracts of completed AA theses.
Centre for Action Research in Professional Practice (University of Bath)
1as a lot of useful publications, including doctoral and masters- theses, as well as some useful papers
including an introductory chapter from the Handbook of Action Research.
Jack Whitehea!s "a#es at the University of Bath ActionResearch$net
This site rates low on usability and is a hotchpotch of assorted items, but it does proide links to theses
as well as a paper aimed at new action researchers# http#++www..eanmcniff.com+booklet(.html.
%he Collaborative Action Research &et'ork
A professional network of action researchers, based at :anchester :etropolitan =niersity, with
publications and a discussion list.
Action research at (ueen!s University
A series of links which relates to action research in an educational conte/t.