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Principles of Life Span Motor Development

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1. Human Development
Human Development is a gradual process in which people change
from birth through adulthood.
2. Physical Development
Physical development is the changes in size, body composition,
chemical make-up and height that occur as humans develop from
birth to adulthood.
3. Fine-motor Skills
Fine-motor skills involve small muscle movements such as cutting
with scissors and writing with a pen or pencil.
4. Gross-motor Skills
Gross-motor skills involve large muscle movements such as crawling,
walking and jumping.
5. Motor Development
Motor Development refers to the continuous, age-related process
change in movement, as well as the interacting constraints (or factors)
in the individual, environment, and task that drive these changes.
6. Motor Learning
Motor Learning refers to the relatively permanent gains in motor skill
capability associated with practice or experience.
7. Moto Control
Motor Control is the study of the neural, physical, and behavioral
aspects of movement
8. Physical Growth
Physical Growth is an increase in size or body mass resulting from an
increase in complete, already formed body parts.
9. Maturation
Physiological Maturation is a qualitative advance in biological makeup
and may refer to cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical
composition rather than to size alone.
10. Aging
Aging is the process occurring with the passage of time, which leads to
adaptability or full function and eventually to death.
11. Balance
Balance is defined as the ability of an object or person to maintain
equilibrium.
12. Hyperplasia
Hyperplasia is an increase in the absolute number of cells.
13. Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy is an increase in the relative size of an individual cell.
14. Locomotion
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Locomotor skills are movements that transport an individual through
space from one place to another.
15. Creeping and Crawling
In creeping, only the infants hands and knees ouch the surface.
In Crawling, all four limbs are in contact with the supporting surface
along with chest and stomach.
16. Ballistic Skills
Ballistic skills are those in which a person applies force to an object in
order to project it like throwing, kicking and striking etc.,
17. Manipulative Skills
These are the skills developed while using an implement and it
requires controlling the body and object. These may include: receiving;
e.g., catching, collecting: retaining; e.g., dribbling, carrying, bouncing,
trapping: sending; e.g., throwing, kicking, striking.
18. Perception
Perception is a multistage process that takes place in the brain and
includes selecting, processing, organizing and integrating information
received from the senses.
19. Genome and Gene
The term genome refers to the set of chromosomes and their DNA
bases. Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes.
20. Posture
Posture is defined as the correct alignment of body parts.
21. Physical activity
Physical activity can be defined as any bodily movement produced by
skeletal muscles and resulting in energy expenditure.


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EXPLAIN THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF MOTOR ACTIVITIES
Motor skills activities or tasks that require voluntary head, body, and/or
limb movement to achieve a goal.
Classifications of motor skills
1. Size of primary musculature required
a. Gross motor skill
A motor skill that requires the use of large musculature to achieve the
goal of the skill
b. Fine motor skill
A motor skill that requires control of small muscles to achieve the goal of
the skill; typically involves eye-hand coordination and requires a high
degree of precision of hand and finger movement.
2. Specificity of where actions begin or end
a. Discrete motor skill
A motor skill with clearly defined movement beginning and end points,
usually require a simple movement
e.g. flipping a light switch
b. Continuous motor skill
A motor skill with arbitrary beginning and end points; usually involve
repetitive movements
e.g. steering a car
c. Serial motor skill
A motor skill involving a series of discrete skills
e.g. shifting gears in a stick shift automobile
3. Stability of the environmental context
The supporting surface, objects, and/or other people involved in the
environment in which a skill is performed.
a. Closed motor skill
A motor skill performed in a stationary environment where the performer
determines when to begin the action.
e.g. picking up a cup while seated at a table
b. Open motor skill
A motor skill that involves supporting surface, object, and/or other
people in motion; environment features determines when to begin the
action
e.g. catching a thrown ball
4. Fundamental and Specialized Motor Skills
Fundamental motor patterns are elementary forms of movement, which
are often described basic motor skills.
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a. Locomotor Skills
Locomotor skills are those in which the body is moved through space,
such as in walking, running, jumping, galloping, hopping and skipping.
b. Non-locomotor Skills
Non-locomotor skills are those in which specific parts of the body are
moved, as in pushing pulling, bending, curling and twisting.
c. Manipulative Skills
Locomotor skills are those in which the objects are moved as in throwing,
catching, striking, kicking, dribbling and related activities involving the
projection and reception of objects.

EXPLAIN THE PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
A. Conception
1. Every 28 days an ovum is released from a woman's ovary and remains
viable for approximately 24 hours.
2. Once released into the vaginal canal, sperm remain viable for up to 6
days.
3. Conception takes place in the fallopian tube where sperm and ovum
unite to form the zygote.
4. Most conceptions result from intercourse on the day of or 2 days
preceding ovulation.
B. The Period of the Zygote
1. The period of the zygote lasts about 2 weeks, from fertilization until the
cell mass drifts out of the fallopian tubes and attaches itself to the uterine
wall.
2. By the fourth day, 60 to 70 cells exist that form a hollow, fluid-filled
ball called a blastocyst.
3. The embryonic disk (the cells on the inside) will become the new
organism; the outer ring will provide protective covering.
4. Implantation
a. Implantation occurs sometime between the seventh and ninth day
when the blastocyst burrows deep into the lining of the uterus.
b. The amnion is a membrane that encloses the developing organism
in amniotic fluid. The fluid functions as a cushion and temperature
regulator.
c. The yolk sac produces blood cells until the liver, spleen, and bone
marrow mature enough to take over this function.
d. As many as 30 percent of zygotes do not make it through this
phase.
5. The Placenta and Umbilical Cord
a. The chorion, a protective membrane, develops around the amnion
by the end of the second week.
b. The placenta is a special organ that permits food and oxygen to
reach the zygote and waste products to be carried away.
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c. The umbilical cord connects the placenta to the developing
organism.
C. The Period of the Embryo
1. The period of the embryo lasts from implantation through the eighth
week of pregnancy.
2. The most rapid prenatal changes take place during these six weeks as
the groundwork for all body structures and internal organs is begun.
3. Last Half of the First Month
a. During the third week, the embryonic disk folds over to form three
cell layers:
1 ) Ectoderm-becomes the nervous system and skin
2) Mesoderm-from which will develop muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, and other internal organs
3) Endoderm-becomes the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and
glands
b. The nervous system develops fastest in the beginning. The neural
tube is a primitive spinal cord that forms when the ectoderm folds
over.
4. The Second Month
a. Rapid development of body parts and systems continues. The
embryo's posture becomes more upright.
b. The embryo can move, and it responds to touch, especially in the
mouth area and on the soles of the feet.
D. The Period of the Fetus
1. The period of the fetus is the "growth and finishing" phase that lasts
until the end of pregnancy.
2. The Third Month
a. The organs, muscles, and nervous system organize and connect.
b. By the twelfth week, the external genitals are well-formed, and the
sex of the fetus can be determined using ultrasound.
c. Trimesters are the three equal time periods in the prenatal period,
each of which lasts three months.
3. The Second Trimester
a. By the middle of the second trimester (which lasts from 13 to 24
weeks), the fetus has grown large enough that the mother can feel its
movements.
b. Vernix is a white cheese like substance that covers the fetus and
protects its skin from becoming chapped in the amniotic fluid.
c. Lanugo is a white downy hair that also covers the fetus and helps
the vernix stick to the skin.
d. At the end of the second trimester, all the brain's neurons have
been produced. The fetus can now be both stimulated and irritated by
sounds and light.
4. The Third Trimester
a. The age of viability, between 22 and 26 weeks, is the age at which
the fetus can first survive if born early.
b. The brain continues to make great strides during the last three
months. The cerebral cortex enlarges and the fetus spends more time
awake. The fetus is also more responsive to external stimulation.
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c. The fetus moves less often, because of reduced space and greater
ability to inhibit behavior.
d. A layer of fat develops under the skin to assist with temperature
regulation.
e. In the last weeks, most fetuses move into an upside-down position.

STAGES OF GROWTH
The stages or phases of growth have been classified in different manners by
different researchers.
Prenatal Period
The prenatal period comprises, on the average, about 10 lunar months
(there are 28 days in a lunar month), 9 calendar months, or 40 weeks. A
fertilized egg of a multicellular animal is transformed into an embryo by cell
division, growth and differentiation. This growth into the embryo is called
prenatal growth. In the prenatal period (before birth) the embryo is formed
with rudiments of all organs and systems.
Prenatal growth has three distinct stages: the fertilized ovum (egg), or zygote
(first 2 weeks); the embryo (from 2 to 8 weeks) and the foetus (from 2 to 10
lunar months). The human ovum at conception is about 0.1 mm in
diameter. During the first part of this period (ovum), it is like a
homogeneous mass. During the embryonic stage, though the rate of growth
is slow, yet during this time the differentiation process in the mass to form
various regions which later on give rise to different parts, like head, arm, leg
and others starts. By the eighth week the embryo becomes child-like in
appearance. During foetus stage the rate of growth in length as well as
weight is considerably high.
Postnatal Period
Postnatal growth is commonly divided into the following age periods.
Infancy
Infancy comprises the first year of life. This is a period of rapid growth in
most bodily systems and dimensions and rapid development of the
neuromuscular system. After birth, the growth is oriented towards
functional state of life. Growth is mainly by addition of more cells or
increase in the protoplasm. It can be said that anabolic processes exceed
catabolic processes and there is increase in size, shape and weight. This
characterizes the infant stage. Immediately after birth the rate of growth
increases. In case weight the peak velocity is reached at two months after
birth. The cells become larger in size. The cervical and lumber curvatures of
the spinal column appear as the baby begins to straighten the head and
tries to sit up and to stand. During infancy growth is very rapid. More than
50 percent of birth length and 200 percent of birth weight take place during
the first year of life.

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Childhood
Childhood ordinarily spans from the end of infancy (the first birthday) to the
start of adolescence. The infant attains childhood before reaching
adolescence. It is often divided into early childhood and middle childhood.
The early childhood is the period of eruption of milk teeth. The middle
childhood (7 to 10 years) is the period of eruption of permanent teeth,
though not all erupt. The late childhood starts from the prepubertal period
and continues up to the time of puberty. Childhood is period of relatively
steady progress in growth and maturation and rapid progress in
neuromuscular or motor development.
Adolescence
After childhood comes adolescence period. The adolescence period extends
from the time of puberty up to around 20 years. In this period of life, the
hormonal influences play a leading role in order to attain sexual maturity.
During this period there is a marked acceleration of growth which is known
as adolescence growth spurt. The adolescence spurt is a constant
phenomenon and occurs in all children, though it varies in intensity and
duration from one child to another. In boys it takes place, on the average
from age 12 to 15. In girls the spurt begins about two years earlier than in
boys. Differentiation in primary and secondary sexual characteristics marks
the adolescence period. There are changes in the reproductive organs, in
body size and shape, in the relative proportions of muscle, fat and bone and
in a variety of physiological functions. At adolescence sex differences in
physical increase greatly, due chiefly to the differential action of hormones,
gonadal and other. Men become considerably larger, acquire broader
shoulders, a deeper larynx; women enlarge their pelvic diameter and deposit
fat in various strategic places, including the breast.

MATURATION AND AGEING
In the adolescent period of life, the hormonal influences play a leading
role in order to attain sexual maturity. The endocrine glands under the
direction of pituitary hormones prepare the body for adulthood. An
important sign of maturity is reproductive maturity. During adolescence
reproductive maturity begins but not completed. The active reproductive
period extends upto 40 or 45 years of age in the human beings. The
cessation of growth of height is also regarded as a sign of maturity.
There have been found biological criteria for maturity. There are three
such criteria. 1. Skeletal Maturity, 2. Dental Maturity, 3. The shape age.
1. The Skeletal Maturity :
Bones show gradual development in its histologic structure. There
appears first a main ossification center and gradually, with time, there
appear many subsidiary centers that fuse with the main ossification centre.
Such centres are easily diagnosed in X-rays because ossification centres,
because of its high calcium content, make it opaque. The bone-age is
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calculated by the number of ossification centres as well as stage of its
development. The X-rays of hand bones is matched with the atlas specifying
the changes with increasing age and found out to which of the sample in the
atlas the radiograph matches. In recent times, there can be found
developmental age of each bone. Hence each bone is matched separately and
given a score. The total scores thus gained is matched with the range of
score of the standard group.
2. Dental Maturity :
It is calculated on the basis of stages of calcification as seen in the jaw
X-rays in just the same way the skeletal maturity assessment through
radiograph.
3. Shape Age :
Shape age is difficult to derive and is a research problem. Mere
calculating height or weight or 1Q do not give any indication of age. In shape
age, a combination of body measurements are taken into account, all of
which change with ages but independent of final size and shape. It should
not concern us here because, as already stated, it is a research problem.
Individuals are characterized by several maturational characteristic.

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
The integrated nature of growth and maturation is largely maintained
by a constant interaction of genes, hormones, nutrients and other factors.
These factors also influence physical performance. Some are hereditary in
origin. Others, such as season, dietary restriction, severe psychological
stress, originate in the environment and simply affect the rate of growth at
the time they are acting. Others again, such as socio-economic class, reflect
a complicated mixture of hereditary and environmental influences and
probably act throughout the whole period of growth.
Genetic Control
The height, weight or body-build of a child or an adult always
represents the resultant of both the genetical and environmental forces,
together with their interaction. It is a long way from the possession of
certain genes to the acquisition of a height of 2m. gene depends for its
expression firstly on the internal environment created by all the other genes,
and secondly on the external environment.
The control of body size is certainly a complicated affair involving
many genes, yet a disturbance in a single gene or group of genes may
produce a widespread and drastic effect, as in the condition of
achondroplasia, which is inherited as a simple dominant. On the other
hand, the effects may be quite restricted and specific. The genetic control of
dental maturation and eruption appears to be separate from that of skeletal
maturation, and there is even evidence that the genes controlling the growth
of different segments of the limbs are independent of each other.
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It is now believed that dental development and the sequence of
ossification are primarily genetically controlled; the timing of ossification is
partly influenced by genetic factors and partly by environmental ones.
Maturation as a whole is even more affected by environment, but genetic
influences are still detectable.
It seems that the genetic materials operate throughout entire period of
growth. Heredity influenced the rate of growth of early maturers or late
maturers. Parent offspring correlation in regard to height from birth to
maturity for each are and sex has been reported. Chromosomal
abnormalities suggest genetical control on growth. Genetic factors probably
play the leading part in the difference between male and female patterns of
growth.
Environmental
There is a well-marked seasonal effect on velocity of growth visible in
most human growth data. Growth in height is on average fastest in spring
and growth in weight fastest in autumn. This is true at all ages, including
adolescence. The mechanism of the seasonal effect is not known; probably
variations in hormone secretion are involved.
Climate seems to have a very minor effect on overall rate of growth in
man. It has been suggested that each major race of mankind varies in
stature according to the climates in which they live.
Seasonal variation in growth has also been observed in many studies.
Longitudinal studies have shown that only about 30% of the children have
cycles of increase and decrease in growth velocity which are strictly
seasonal. The remaining children show accelerations and decelerations of
growth which can not be clearly related with seasons.
Endocrine Regulation
Endocrine glands are commonly referred to as ductless glands, or
glands of internal secretion. They secrete chemical substances, hormones
directly into the bloodstream. Human growth is affected by biochemical
products such as hormones. Hormones are regarded as growth promoting
substance. Probably all the endocrine glands influence growth. Most of the
hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands and play a significant role in
regulating the pattern of growth and development as per instructions of the
genes.
The most important hormone controlling growth from birth up to
adolescence is growth hormone or somatotrophin. This is infact a
polypeptide secreted by the pituitary. It helps growth of bones and thereby
increases the height of persons. Growth hormone controls the rate at which
growth takes place upto the time of steroid - induced adolescent spurt.
Its administration causes the amino acids to be incorporated into
tissues to form new protein. It also causes an over all growth rate of most of
tissues including brain. Thyroid hormone plays a vital role throughout the
whole of growth. The activity of the thyroid, judged by the basal metabolic
rate, decreases gradually from birth to adolescence. In hypothyroidism
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growth is delayed, skeletal maturity, dental maturity and growth of the brain
are all affected.
During adolescence a new phase of growth occurs under the control of
steroid hormones secreted by the adrenals and gonads. The gonads of both
sexes secrete estrogens in small quantities from the time of birth onwards.
At puberty the estrogen level rise, sharply in girls and to a much more
limited extent in boys; the sex differences is possibly due to an inhibitory
hormone secreted by the seminiferous tubules of the testicle. Testosterone,
produced by the testicle, is important in stimulating growth and it is
responsible for the greater growth of muscle. Gonadotrophins are
responsible for the growth of the ovaries and testis, and later on the
secretion of the amounts of estrogens and testosterone responsible for the
growth and development of secondary sex characters.
Nutritional
Growth is closely related with nutrition. A sufficiency of food is
essential for normal growth. An adequate supply of calories is naturally
essential for the normal growth of humans and the need varies with the
phase of development.
Nine different amino acids have been claimed to be essential for
growth and absence of any one will result in disordered or stunted growth.
Other factors are also essential for growth. For example, zinc plays a part in
protein synthesis and is a constituent of certain enzymes; a deficiency of
zinc causes stunting, interference with sexual development and falling out of
hair.
Iodine is needed for the manufacture of the thyroid hormones. Bone
will not grow properly without an adequate supply of calcium, phosphorus
and other inorganic constituents such as magnesium and manganese. Iron
is required for the production of haemoglobin.
Vitamins play an important part in growth. Vitamin A is thought to be
control the activities of osteoblasts. In vitamin C deficiency the intercellular
substance of bone is inadequately formed. Vitamin D deficiency is the cause
of rickets.
Malnutrition during childhood delays growth, and malnutrition in the
years proceeding adolescence delays the appearance of the adolescent spurt.
Growth studies have demonstrated that malnutrition may cause serious
impairment of growth. The term malnutrition generally refers to the effects
of an inadequate intake of calories or other major dietary components such
as proteins. Malnutrition may also result from diseases which decrease the
appetite or interfere with digestion and assimilation. A majority of
malnourished children fail to achieve their full genetic potential of body
growth (both linear and ponderal) and are thus stunted or wasted or both.
Cultural
The physical growth of human beings is definitely affected by cultural
factors. Culture differs from ethnic group to ethnic group. The body growth
differences correlate with varied cultural groups. The physical growth of the
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body follows some adaptations in different geographical areas of distribution
of the groups.
Socioeconomic
Socioeconomic influence on human growth is also a well known factor.
Children from different socioeconomic levels differ in average body size at all
ages that have been investigated. The upper groups being always more
advanced along the course to maturity. The cause of this socio - economic
differential are probably multiple. Nutrition is almost certainly one, and with
it all the habits of regular meals, sleep, exercise and general organization
that distinguish, from the point of view, a good home from a bad one.
Growth differences are more closely related to the home conditions
than to the strictly economic status of the families and home conditions
reflect the intelligence and personality of the parents.
Size of family exerts an indirect influence on the rate of growth. In a
large family with limited income the children do not get proper nutrition. As
a result the growth is affected. The number of children in the family exerts
an effect on the childrens rate of growth. Children in large families have
been shown to be usually smaller and lighter than children in small families.
Possibly this is because in large families children tend to get less individual
care and attention.

PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN

Period of Life Age range
Prenatal Period : Conception to birth
Infancy : First 2 years of life
Preschool period : 2 to 5 or 6 years (some prefer to describe as toddlers
children who have begun to walk and age 1 to 3)
Middle childhood ; 6 to about 12 9or until the onset of puberty)
Adolescence : Approximately 12 to 20 (or when the individual
becomes relatively independent of parents and begins
to assume adult roles)
Early Adulthood : 20 to 40 years
Middle Adulthood : 40 to 60 years
Late Adulthood : 60 years and older


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THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Maturational Perspective
Led by Arnold Gesell. States that the biological and evolutionary history of
humans determined their orderly and invariable sequence of development. It
is controlled by internal (genetic) factors. Furthermore, environmental factors
would affect motor development only temporarily since hereditary factors
were ultimately in control of development; deals primarily with children.
Stopped being used in the 1950s. Focuses on the CNS
Normative Descriptive Period
Focuses on the products (scores and outcomes) of development rather than on
the developmental process that led to these quantitative scores.
Biomechanical Descriptive Period:
More descriptive and states that fundamental skills are linked to age
(nopattern). An example is biomechanical descriptions of the movement
patterns children used in performing fundamental skills such as jumping.
Information Processing Perspective
Associated with the 1960s-1980s. Described as the brain acting like a
computer taking information, processing it, and outputting movement. The
computer like process occurs as a result of some external or environmental
input. In this process they study young adults and compare to children and
older adults; CNS is main system. It identifies procedure of controlled
movement with age.
Ecological Perspective:
Appeared during the 1980s and stresses the interrelationships between the
individual, the environment, and the task. This perspective is used by the
author of our textbook.
Dynamical Systems Approach:
Branch of the Ecological Perspective. States that the structural organization of
your body encourages--constrains--you to walk; in other words, your body's
structure removes some of the movement choices your CNS might have to
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make. This approach is" softly assembled" not hard wired; this means that
things are taught to you in small to large steps and that your body acts
together as a functional unit to enable you to walk when you need to. Focuses
on many systems and acknowledges that different systems might act as rate
controllers for different skills.
NEWELL'S MODEL MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Emphasized the "interactive role" of a person's structure and function,
the task itself, and environmental constraints on human motor
development.
Individual constraints are important to a full understanding of Motor
Development and how they interact with environmental and task constraints
and the movement is product of whole system.
Movements arise from the interactions of the organism, the
environment in which the movement occurs, and the task to be undertaken.
If any of these three factors change, the resultant movement changes. It
reflects the dynamic, constantly changing interactions in motor
development.


Individual
Constraints
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A constraint is characteristic of the individual, environment, or task that
encourages some movements while discouraging others.
Individual Constraints are a person's or organism's unique physical and
mental characteristics.
Structural Constraints are individual constraints related to the
body's structure.
Functional Constraints are individual constraints related to
behavioral function.
Environmental Constraints are constraints related to the world around us.
Task Constraints include the goals of a particular movement or activity,
the rule structure surrounding that movement or activity, and the choices of
equipment.

PRINCIPLES OF MOTION AND STABILITY
Principles of motion and stability act on all movements and movers.
As movers become more proficient at skills, they often use these principles
to their advantage. Certain physical laws of motion bound or limit your
movements. An example is gravity which constrains interaction and an
objects movement. Also, the parabolic principle that is When a person
projects herself or an object at an angle (as opposed to straight up and
down), then the force of gravity will ensure this flight path.
Children may execute the most efficient movement pattern for
themselves, given their body size, strength, posture, and experience, but this
pattern can change if any one of the constraints changes. Observations of
developmental change in basic skill performance benefit from application of
the principles of motion and stability. To improve movement performance,
individuals must find the optimal relationship between force and distance in
a given movement. Two important phases in this process are preparation
(preparatory movement) and the application of force through a full range of
motion.
Newton's 1st Law of Motion
One must apply force to a stationary object to move it, and to a
moving object to change its movement.
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion
The acceleration of a person or object is proportional to the force
applied to it and inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton's Third Law of Motion
The law of action-reaction sates that for every force you exert on an
object, the object exerts an equal force back on you, in the opposite
direction.

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Oppositional arm and leg movement
When the lower body twists one way and the upper body twist st he
opposite way. One leg swings forward and the arm on that side of the body
swings backward in reaction; thus the leg on one side of the body and the
arm on the opposite side swing forward and back in unison.
Rotational Movement
When individuals move when their limbs rotate around one or several
joints.
Inertia
Refers to an objects resistance to motion, and its related to the mass
of the object.
Open Kinetic Chain
Refers to the correctly timed sequence of movements an individual
uses to successfully perform a skill
Balance
Relates to the ability of an object or person to maintain equilibrium.
Once footed support base.
Center of Gravity
The concentration point of the earth's gravitational pull on an
individual.
Stability
Relates to resisting movement. Two footed support base.
Five step process for systematically observing and analyzing skill
performance
1) Observe the complete skill
2) Analyze each phase and its key elements
3) Use your knowledge of mechanics in your analysis
4) Select errors to be corrected
5) Decide on appropriate methods for the correction of errors

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MOTOR MILESTONE

Birth to 1 month
Holds hand in a fist; turns head from side to side when placed in a
prone position; attempts to follow objects that are out of direct line of vision.
1 to 4 months
Holds head up when held upright; lifts up on arms when lying on
stomach; grasps with entire hand; raises head and upper body on arms
when in a prone position; reaches for and grasps objects; sits when
supported; begins to roll from side to side by turning head to one side and
allowing trunk to follow
5 to 8 months
Rolls over; sits up; begins to crawl; holds bottle; transfers objects from
one hand to the other; uses finger and thumb to pick up objects; sits alone
without support
9 to 12 months
Stands alone; climbs, removes lids from containers; begins to prefer
on hand over the other
12 to 18 months
Stands alone and is able to sit in a chair; carries small objects while
walking; waves bye-bye and claps hands; walks without help
18 to 24 months
Walks well; rolls a large ball; picks up toys without falling over
2 years
Turns pages while reading; walks backwards; likes to push, pull, fill,
and dump; builds block towers; holds pencil or crayon; throws large balls;
climbs upstairs; walks down stairs (both feet on each step)
3 years
Stands on one foot for up to 5 seconds; uses riding toys; throws balls
overhand; kicks large balls; feeds self with spoon; uses scissors; holds
writing instrument in hand between thumb and fingers; draws vertical,
horizontal, and circular lines
4 years
Walks a straight line; hops on one foot; pedals and steers a tricycle
skillfully; jumps over objects five to six inches in height; uses fork and
spoon; threads beads on a string; makes indentifiable objects out of clay
5 years
Learns to skip; throw balls overhead; cuts on line with scissors;
establishes hand dominance; goes up stairs with alternating feet; walks
backwards; manipulates most buttons and zippers without assistance
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6 years
Enjoys physical activity-running, jumping, climbing, and throwing;
moves constantly; has increased dexterity and eye-hand coordination;
makes movements that are more deliberate and precise; ties own shoes
7 years
Maintains control over gross an fine motor skills; balances on either
foot; uses alternating feet when running up and down stairs; throws and
catches small objects (balls)
8 years
Exhibits improvements in agility, balance, speed, and strength; enjoys
vigorous activities; seeks out opportunities to participate in team/group
sports
9 and 10 years
Throws ball with accuracy; performs fine motor skills with improved
coordination; likes to run, climb, ride bicycles; uses hands for different
projects--arts and crafts, cooking, and/or building or taking apart objects
11 and 12 years
Exhibits increased strength in completing gross motor activies;
continues to improve fine motor skills; displays coordinated and smooth
movements; however, may be clumsy during growth spurts.
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