The Distribution of Authority in

the Performance of North Indian

Vocal Music
John Napier
This paper examines subtle interactions between vocalist and melodic accompanist in
North Indian classical music. Data are based on transcription and analysis sound
recordings, observations of performances and interviews with both singers and
accompanists. Descriptions of the melodic accompanists role usually emphasise
following the vocalist and replicating their lines. This paper shows that though the
singer holds musical primacy in the construction and direction of the performance, the
accompanist presents an individuated voice, and performance becomes a site of subtle
contestation, without its viability being compromised. Accompanists take temporary
control over the performance during passages when they play alone, and may also present
subtle but consistent variations of the vocal lines in their replication. Though no single
paradigm of authority may be shown to dominate, the manner in which authority is
being negotiated within, and may be apprehended from, performance, is clarified. The
paper validates the individual authority over the music system demonstrated by
accompanists even within their subordinate role. Finally, the paper draws attention to
two possible ways of hearing performances: one focusing on the soloist as central, the
other on the ensemble.
Keywords: North India; Authority; Improvisation; Sarangi
I would like to open this paper with a conceit, an anecdote. More than 20 years ago,
I was the principal cellist of my conservatorium orchestra. A visiting conductor,
preparing a performance of Elgars Enigma Variations , wished to impose his authority
on my performance of the brief solo at the opening of the 12th variation. Stating that
John Napier is Senior Lecturer and currently program co-ordinator of Music at the University of New South
Wales, Australia. He has been studying and performing North Indian music since 1990. He is currently
completing a study of Jogi musicians in Eastern Rajasthan. He also publishes research into music in diaspora
communities, and popular music aesthetics. Correspondence to: John J. Napier, School of English, Media and
Performing Arts, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia. Email: j.napier@unsw.edu.au
ISSN 1741-1912 (print)/ISSN 1741-1920 (online)/07/020271-31
# 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17411910701554062
Ethnomusicology Forum
Vol. 16, No. 2, November 2007, pp. 271301
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I was to play it his way, he would lean over me in rehearsal, glaring over the top of
his spectacles, such that I was hardly able to play at all, leave alone my way. Finally, in
the performance, with the arrogance of a 20-year-old who believes he is going
somewhere, I closed my eyes and played the way I wanted. This brief contestation of
authority was over in seconds, and almost certainly passed completely unnoticed.
Neither of us said anything to the other afterwards and, in the gossipy world we
inhabited, had either said anything at all, the other certainly would have heard.
Not surprisingly, literature on competition in music focuses on far more obvious
and formalized competition between performers, both within and without perfor-
mance. For example, song duels are recounted in several of the early classic texts
which may make up part of an ethnomusicologists undergraduate training.
1
Turning
to the literature on music of the European classical tradition, one finds a dearth of
discussion of the sort of subtle, intra-performance rivalry outlined in the opening
story. Studies may focus on formal competition between performers in separate
performances, or between composers, rather than between performers within
performances.
2
This is almost inevitable, since performance is relatively rigidly
determined by the score, and musical authority, subordinated to this, is further
organized according to clear hierarchic expectations. Orchestral cellists, whether 20 or
60 years of age, are expected to follow conductors. Nevertheless, as my anecdote
reminds us, in European classical music, as well as in North Indian classical music,
there may be competition between performers, within a single performance, that is
unplanned and informal. It is frequently covert, barely audible, invisible and
unacknowledged, a subtle jostling for authority cast within a framework of smiling
amicability. In examining such competition, the problematic ethnographic distinc-
tions between what people say should happen, what they say does happen and what
can be observed to happen may be great, but they are not insurmountable. Much can
be gained by juxtaposing the expectations of performers and of audiences with their
own observations of what takes place, and these in turn with what can be observed
both in onstage behaviour and in music sound. This can best proceed through careful
examination of recorded examples, since out and out duels are not much in
evidence.
3
At stake, I believe, may be the idea of authority over a particular
performance, over the work or raga being performed, or even over the music system
as a whole. In this paper I wish to investigate this with reference to accompaniment in
North Indian vocal music. Here the primacy of the singer is unable to prevent the
emergence of the accompanist as an individuated voice, an ostensibly clear hierarchy
is partially challenged and subverted without descent into anarchy and performance
becomes a site of subtle contestation, without its viability being compromised.
Though no single paradigm of authority may be shown to dominate, we can clarify
the manner in which authority is being negotiated within, and may be apprehended
from, performance
In the following pages, melodic accompaniment will be defined and interpretations
of this practice, particularly those involving notions of competition, will be
summarized. Through analysis, question of authority over various aspects of
272 J. Napier
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performance will be addressed, as will the establishment of accompanists as partially
independent voices in their utilization of solo space and in their treatment of unusual
events, such as mistakes or intentional deviations from expected practice on the part
of singers. To what extent are accompanists able to control a performance?
Alternatively, do they demonstrate assent to the soloist and subordination? Are there
strategies by which accompanists can establish some relative authority and
autonomy?
Melodic Accompaniment Defined
In performances of North Indian or Hindustani classical vocal music, in addition
to the vocal soloist, the rhythmic accompaniment and what is frequently referred
to as a drone, a fourth element is usually heard: an instrumental melodic
accompaniment, known as sangat .
4
The instruments most frequently used for this
purpose are the sarang , a bowed, fretless lute, and the harmonium, an Indian
modification of the European free-reed, keyboard aerophone.
5
Sangat has been
understood and represented in various ways. Descriptions of and prescriptions for
this practice may focus on music-sound, emphasizing notions of exactitude and
simultaneity of imitation: the singer just sings on . . . seemingly oblivious of his
accompanist . . . just a split of a second after him, within a hair breaths interval of
time, the instrument is made to produce the same identical notes, in the same speed,
and with the same embellishments (Sahukar n.d., 64). Similarly, accounts may
emphasize generative or textural aspects: to complement the vocal line of the soloist,
by playing in heterophony a split second behind as the soloist improvises, by
repeating earlier phrases during longer breaks, should the soloist so desire (Wade
1984, 33).
6
Neuman similarly emphasizes the generative, calling the accompaniment hetero-
phonic.
[The accompaniment] fills out spaces and hollows in the total musical
performance, manifesting itself primarily as an echo effect - repeating as faithfully
as possible the vocalists sound. (Neuman 1980, 137)
The skill of sarangi accompaniment depends on the degree to which the sarangiya
can anticipate and immediately duplicate what the vocalist does/ (Neuman 1980,
122)
7
Generative descriptions may imply that such heterophony is born as a kind of
incomplete or imperfect unison, and that the nature and success of the
accompanists endeavour could be gauged simply by thoughtful examination of
recordings and/or notations. Descriptions of music sound and generative interpreta-
tions imply that there must be a thorough acceptance of the soloists authority,
exhibited in diligent copying of their phrases. In this paper, these interpretations will
be downplayed in favour of those that emphasize performance as a site, drawing on a
slightly antagonistic understanding of the dialectic between performers. Musical
Ethnomusicology Forum 273
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authority may be contested, both in abstract as general authority and expertise within
the musical system and as manifested in control of particular moments in
performance. Neumans sociological work on traditional specialization and hierarchy
examines an ongoing, often covert musical rivalry between soloist and accompanist.
This rivalry is only partially restrained both by the musical convention encapsulated
within his definition, that of the hegemony of the soloist, and the social hierarchy
which long supported such hegemony: the traditional recruitment of specialist
soloists and accompanists is from distinct, hierarchically ranked groups. It is
Neumans (1977) argument that this rivalry is exacerbated, the hierarchy threatened
or even subverted by specialist accompanists of traditional background. These
accompanists may regard their musical knowledge as greater, their voices more
authoritative, than those of the singers whom they accompany, especially when such
singers do not come from a background of traditional specialization.
8
Bor writes of a lost but loved practice, characterized by vocalists who used to
recognize the accompanist as an artist of equal merit, and welcomed a lively and
spontaneous interplay between voice and instrument (19867, 112).
9
Kippen
discusses things less friendly: his account of politics within musical performance
deals with informal competition between soloists and rhythmic accompanists,
often consisting of surreptitious tricks on the part of one musician, the aims of
which are either to produce a direct effect on a musicians mood so that he plays
poorly, or to actually force him into making mistakes and so appear inadequate
(1988, 59).
My study of sangat has centred on several fundamental questions. What does the
soloist expect of the accompanist? What does the accompanist expect to do or want
to do? And what happens in practice? From these simple bases, examination and
assessment may be undertaken of the interpretations that Neuman and Bor have
presented. Two continua should be kept in mind. At one extreme, sangat may be
empirically understood as, or prescribed to be, acquiescence to whatever the singer
wishes and presents on the part of the accompanist. At the other, it may involve
much overt competition, possibly even deliberate deception, between the two
parties. The second continuum, one which does not necessarily correspond to the
first, is that between solo- and ensemble-centred interpretations of music. I will
examine how the syntagmatics (the overall structure of the performance) and the
teleology (movement towards particular goals) are controlled by the soloist, but at
the same time subtly, though not necessarily intentionally or insubordinately,
subverted by the accompanist. For though, as Bor implies, acquiescence is the norm
and the authority of singers has become reinforced by their position as
accompanists patrons (see Napier 2001, 2006b), soloists still make cautionary
remarks about their accompanists, along lines such as he must help and not
hinder, he must follow and not go ahead, he must not play anything that I have
not already sung. Similarly, soloists control the assigning of solo space to
accompanists. Though they have less practical control over what the accompanist
does in such a space, the obvious sanctions of interruption or of onstage reprimand
274 J. Napier
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are available. Particular circumstances may enable the accompanist, subtly or
otherwise, to demonstrate a different understanding of the same raga: for
example, in the case of mistakes or unusual notes and phrases on the part of
the singer, ragas that permit a greater than usual degree of flexibility in practice
and unorthodox approaches to common ragas. Other decisions by the singer,
particularly the constitution of the ensemble, may serve to attenuate the individual
contribution of the melodic accompanist: the use of double accompaniments,
supporting singers, svarman
.
dals and self-accompaniment are departures from the
straightforward model of voice, accompanying instrument, tabla and tambura.
Unintentionally or otherwise, these serve to attenuate the individual contribution of
the melodic accompanist.
Competition
Contestation of authority may be manifest in some form of competition, which may
be either formal and overt or informal, usually covert. There are numerous genres of
formalized competition. These include the sawal-jawab (question-answer) between
soloist and either rhythmic or melodic accompanist, and a more sophisticated type of
competition between percussionists called the farma ish, or request, whereby an
audience member might request of a tabl ya a task requiring great knowledge and
technical skill (Kippen 1988, 101).
10
In his collection of largely oral histories of sarang yas of the last century and a half,
Bor (19867) recounts many instances of competition, formal or otherwise. These
frequently involve vocalists acknowledging the musical superiority of the sarang ya.
Haider Bakhsh accompanies the brothers Haddu and Hassu Khan of Gwalior, whom
no sarang player had the courage to play with, and wins their praise (19867, 122).
Gopal Mishra used to put singers and tabla players in their place. That was
wonderful (Ram Narayan, in Bor 19867, 138). It should be remembered that these
are the accounts of sarang yas, and therefore fewer acknowledgements of musical
superiority of the vocalist on the part of sarang yas may be expected. Even stories
which purport to praise the singer may involve indirect praise of the sarang ya. Since
he [Alladiya Khan, sarang ya] understood the weaker sides of sarang players, he
trained Idanbai [to sing] in such a way that no artist was able to defeat her. Most of
them were, in fact, afraid to play with her (19867, 125). The exact details of how
musicians are defeated, put in their place and adjudged to be so are not specified.
The tone of the anecdotes suggests that competition, though not formalized as in the
farmaish, was both overt and recognized.
Some sarang yas still recount such stories. Sabri Khan, at our first meeting, told
how he committed a substantial breach of etiquette when accompanying a very senior
artist during his (Sabri Khans) youth. He played both higher in pitch and faster in
speed than the soloist. Since the performance was live-to-air radio, the soloist could
say nothing. Sabri Khan was rebuked afterwards, but only half-heartedly, since he (the
soloist) had really liked what I had done (Interview, 1996). The late Hafizullah Khan
Ethnomusicology Forum 275
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related that in his first accompanying performance, he was told by the soloist,
Ghulam Mustafa, to tune his sarang . Hafizullah Khan replied, tune your tambura
first, then well worry about my sarang . The two subsequently became close friends,
since he had been right about the tuning of the tambura. These stories, recounted
with a certain pride, show accompanists engaging in deliberate transgressions of
musical etiquette while in public view. In each case, their knowledge was
demonstrated, their musical credentials established. Neither story involves the
defeat of the singer, however, since in both cases the normal hierarchy was retained.
In each case, the incident related occurred in the players youth. Most such stories are
located within the past, suggesting that even 40 years ago, sarang yas may have been
more likely to overtly challenge a soloist than they would appear to be today. Since
the circumstances of traditional sarang ya communities are often adverse, such
stories may form an ongoing source of musical legitimization, a way of asserting
musical equality or even superiority. The implication is that much competition was
extreme: Bors eulogizing account of vocalists who recognized the worth of
accompanists may, like those of the sarang yas, serve to legitimize the past
achievements of accompanists.
On the part of soloists, the ability to outshine outwit an accompanist is
sometimes used as a measure of achievement: As for his [Bade Ghulam Ali Khans]
technical ability, we need only note that even the best saarangiyaas find it difficult to
accompany him (Saxena 1956). Perhaps standing aloof from all this are those soloists
who ignore, or claim to ignore, any disturbing playing from the accompanist
altogether. L. K. Pandit maintains that soloists worry far too much about their
accompanists, and should simply allow them to get on with their job (Interview, July
1996). The antics of the accompanist should not disturb them.
To the audience, particularly those who may be unaware of any specific tensions
onstage, overt but informal competition is rare today. The image presented is
generally one of amicability, even in instances of formalized competition such as
sawal-jawab. The quotes from musicians, as well as Kippens accounts, suggest that,
in spite of the availability of sanction, singers still perceive a potential or actual degree
of challenge, and that competition may be more subtly linked to musical authority
than to exhibitions of speed and virtuosity. Accompanists may try to upstage soloists
in terms of knowledge or, more seriously, to take control over the direction and
pacing of the performance.
11
Syntagmatics and Teleology
Apart from the choice of the paradigmatic elements of performance, the raga, the tal
and the accompanying media, the soloist defines and ideally controls the syntag-
matics of performance. Syntagmatic decisions may involve the most basic of formal
elements, the internal structure and placing of pre-composed material and the
occurrence, duration and the manner of ending of sections of solo performance given
to melodic accompanists.
12
An accompanist might (attempt to) assert control of the
276 J. Napier
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syntagmatic domain by forcing the soloist into sawal-jawab, by not resuming the
following role when the soloist re-enters or by playing soloistically and independently
of the singer. A more subtle appropriation, one of paradigmatic control, would be the
use of particular phrases, even special phrases, characteristic of a single raga, that the
soloist had not already used.
More critical to control of the performance is control of teleology: the paced
development of a particular performance syntagmatically towards particular goals,
and thus towards the creation of a specific, temporal structure.
13
The teleology of
North Indian classical music follows three basic trajectories: from low to high, from
slow to fast and from rhythmically free or attenuated to defined and articulated.
14
The teleology of the first is most clear and crucial: the goal of upaj (development) is
to attain and sustain the upper tonic. However, though there is no absolute
maximum speed that must be reached and no optimum level of rhythmic strength,
the trajectories are generally sufficiently unidirectional in praxis for the notion of
teleology to be used. An accompanist who, as Sabri Khan recounts, played higher
pitches than the soloist had previously reached, who played more elaborately or
pushed the speed or who even played in a more highly articulated fashion would be
considered to be asserting control of the teleology of the performance.
Solo Space: Syntagm and Risk
Of the two main types of playing, replication and filling the spaces while the soloist
rests, the latter provides greater opportunity for taking control, at least temporarily,
of the performance. Nevertheless, the singer alone can effectively determine the
occurrence of solos, by stopping singing. With a few rare exceptions, they curtail their
length by recommencing. It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine the
distribution of solo space as a feature of individual singing styles: a few generalities
must suffice. Solos that last a full avart , or time-cycle, allow an accompanist to
develop a substantial idea. Such solos will cadence on the sam, the first beat of the
avart , either directly or through a mukhd
.
a, a short pre-composed phrase. Of course
accompanists do not necessarily know whether they will play for the whole avart or
be interrupted.
15
By restricting the amount of solo space singers effectively lessen the
likelihood of the accompanist taking control of teleology, though not necessarily
intentionally. The soloist retains the right to interrupt, though the decision to sing or
not may arise as an immediate response to what the accompanist does. Within slow
tempo, or vilambit , sections, interruptions are far more common than solos that lead
to the sam. Soloists are more likely to interrupt an accompanist than allow a phrase
to be continued to an obvious rest point.
16
Within the vilambit khayal , such shorter
solos occur most frequently in the early part of the avart . This is an obvious place for
the singer to rest, and solos later in the avart may contradict or undermine the
singers development of that particular paragraph. Solos of a full avart or more are
frequent in the fast drut khayal , where the time occupied by an avart is only a
fraction of that in vilambit .
17
Some singers are highly systematic in their use of solo
Ethnomusicology Forum 277
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space. For example, examining performances by the singer Shruti Sadolikar, I found
that several solo spaces of a complete avart occurred in all performances except one.
18
In addition, the placement of these exhibited a consistent pattern. The most striking
space occurs immediately prior to her reaching and sustaining the upper tonic for the
first time. This both delays the climax and acts as a clear signal, in case one was
needed, that this climax is about to take place. Furthermore, it introduces a contrast
of timbre at this intense moment. It is also very risky, for the temptation for the
accompanist to forget themselves and resolve the tension by moving to sa may be too
great.
Both this tension, and a more general engagement of the accompanist with the
soloists deployment of solo space may be observed in two consecutive avarts from
Sadolikar and Kuntes Miyan-ki-todi performance. In avart 24 (see Figure 1)
Sadolikar lightly touches the upper tonic for the first time. Kunte initially repeats
the first phrase of the avart , sustaining ni . After replicating Sadolikars next phrase, in
which she touches the upper tonic, he repeats it a second time. Instead of touching sa
lightly and cleanly as the singer does, he slides slowly from ni , touching sa for an
instant longer than the singer, before sliding back down (x). The tension perceived is
great: in the following phrase, Sadolikar reworks the idea, but with greater emphasis
on ni , so as to further delay movement to sa.
Sadolikar reaches the upper tonic in avart 26. The solo that occupies most of the
preceding avart begins with a repetition of the vocal figure from 25:2 (see Figure 2).
This idea (x), is extended slightly downwards, then repeated, though the movement
from the lower pitch, (y), into the original motif is seamless. The descent at the end of
Figure 1 Anant Kuntes solo prior to upper tonic.
19
Rag Miyan-ki-todi , vilambit t ntal .
278 J. Napier
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the repetition of (x) is longer, such that the ascent, (y), becomes more obvious than
the original motif. The two-beat ascending idea is counterbalanced by a two-beat
descent, (z). A faster ascent, (y), is again counterbalanced by a faster descent, (z),
which moves effortlessly into the mukhd
.
a. In this manner a single melodic idea is
transformed into a structurally coherent solo paragraph, with motifs of increasing
length and elaboration which maintain the focus on ni , ahead of the singers final
movement to sa. The solo in avart 25 fills an expected space, and Kuntes playing in
no way creates an impression that he is merely filling time, waiting to be interrupted.
An interesting feature of Kuntes accompaniment of Sadolikar, particularly in the
early sections of the performance is that he frequently completes his phrase, or
sustains its final note after the singer has recommenced (see Figure 3). The overlaps
are not substantial, but they are fairly consistently used, and that Kunte is not merely
reacting slowly to the return of the voice may be gauged by the fact that they are
obviously crafted.
The clear patterning of solo space established by some soloists enables a similar
consistency in solo structure in sangat . In 20 performances by Bhimsen Joshi that
I have examined, such patterns may be observed in the early solos, especially in those
performances that utilize the harmonium sangat of Purshottam Walwalkar. For the
first few avarts of the vilambit t ntal performance of Ramkali, the short spaces that
follow are not filled, or are filled with single notes, perhaps doubled at the octave.
20
By about the tenth avart (see Figure 4), a clear pattern can be perceived, one which
implies a degree of cooperation between soloist and accompanist, or at least
Figure 2 Anant Kuntes crafted solo. Rag Miyan-ki-todi , vilambit t ntal .
Ethnomusicology Forum 279
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sensitivity to the accompanists contribution on the part of the soloist. The mukhd
.
a
of this composition reaches the sam on a note other than sa (x). Joshi finishes his
phrase on ri : the harmonium provides an extension of the mukhd
.
a that cadences on
sa.
21
In the example in Figure 4, a second phrase (y) is played. Alternatively, Joshi
may re-enter. Walwalkar is seldom interrupted: most frequently he finishes a phrase
on a rest point, such as sa (z), pausing on that note until the soloist re-enters.
The same degree of sensitivity to the accompanist is shown by Joshi in the case of
intermediate solos: those that, in any avart , commence after at least one complete
phrase has been sung. Though this format is not always adhered to, the frequency
with which it occurs in this and other performances by Joshi suggest it is a stylistic
feature of his choosing. I suggest that, though this is a matter of sensitivity on the
soloists part, it is also a matter of brevity on the part of the accompanist.
22
Both
Joshis and Sadolikars ensembles show a high level of co-operation and trust between
Figure 3 Endings of sarang solos in Sadolikar Kunte. Rag Miyan-ki-todi , vilambit t ntal .
280 J. Napier
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soloist and accompanist. As Sadolikar said when asked about the risk of allowing the
accompanist to play a solo avart immediately prior to the climactic moment, My
accompanists dont let me down at these times (Interview, February 1997).
If a clear and relatively consistent pattern of spaces is left by a singer, it would seem
far easier for an accompanist to fill those spaces in a complete fashion. Most
commonly, however, singers do not afford their accompanist such completeness: the
moment the singer decides to recommence, the accompanist is expected to return to
the task of following, regardless of where they might be in terms of phrase
development. At times, the accompanist may subvert or to a certain extent ignore the
singers re-entry or any other signal to end their solo. Melodic solos may frequently
take on a restless quality as the player avoids cadencing, pausing or leaving any
space. In part this is due to the prerequisite of continuity: there is for the most part
no second accompanist to fill in spaces when the accompanist rests. Intentionally or
otherwise, the continuity of the accompanists line may make it more difficult for the
singer to interrupt.
Dhrupad performances, and some khayals , feature a section known as nom-tom, in
which there is a strong pulse, but no obvious metre. Since there is no time-cycle, the
accompanist may have a much greater role in determining the duration of a solo, and
the manner in which it ends, than in metred performances. Though the soloist may
interrupt, or may signal the accompanist to finish, an accompanists solo may end
with a mohr
.
a, a cadential phrase, after a length of time that the accompanist chooses.
In Kichlu-Goho, the solo length seems in the hands of the accompanist as often as
Figure 4 Typical Joshi-Walwalkar approach to solo space. Rag Ramkali , vilambit t ntal .
Figure 5 Concise harmonium solo in Kichlu-Goho. Rag Bhairavi , nom-tom.
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not, since he is frequently allowed to complete a section with mohr
.
a. Goho performs
short solos: between 6 and 25 seconds duration only. The single phrase at the
beginning of section 18 is a model of modest concision (see Figure 5): a repeat of a
phrase from the previous vocal section, to which is appended the last four notes of
the mohr
.
a.
Solo Typology
In the previous section, I examined the manner in which a soloist may control both
the pacing of their performance and the scope of their accompanists contribution
through the careful assigning of solo space. I have also discussed some specific
responses, which might be characterized as co-operative, but which also suggest that
accompanists may be able to establish an individual musical presence or even
authority. I will now look at accompanists solo practice in detail.
I have observed four types of solo practice among accompanists: continuing,
repetitive, contrastive and assimilative. Continuing solos extend the melodic line of
the singer to an obvious rest point (see Figure 4). In repetitive solos, the last phrase or
sub-phrase sung is replicated in the normal fashion, then repeated in the solo space
(see Figures 1 and 2). Contrastive solos present phrases not previously sung, or
particular melodic movements used less emphatically by the singer. Assimilative solos
feature motifs sung previously, but here the repetition is not immediate, and includes
several motifs sung some time earlier. Though singers determine the frequency and
duration of spaces, and may immediately boycott an accompanists explorations by
interruption, it may be seen that the last two types of solo practice involve a relatively
higher degree of independence, as they are characterized in full or in part by the use
of phrases or orderings of phrases not previously used. Many soloists insist that such
phrases should not be played. This is a subtle problem, and suggests a perception of
individualism, or even an attempt at a quiet appropriation of authority by the
accompanist. Some accompanists claim that they may often make musical sugges-
tions as to what the soloist might do next. Soloists may resent such an intrusion.
Complaints are made that the accompanist has either pre-empted the soloists lead or,
worse, taken the development of the raga in an undesired direction.
23
How often one sees a sarang or harmonium player over-reaching himself and
having the first dig at a doted rare note or figure which the main singer has yet kept
carefully concealed in his bag. (Wadhera 1988)
24
This particular musical role of the sarang ya . . . is somewhat tenuous and often
causes the most friction in performers. (Black 1987, 162)
The sarang ya Hafizullah Khan, among others, said that making suggestions
particularly occurs with inexperienced artists, but claimed that even experienced
vocalists sometimes followed his lead. Other accompanists say they are inevitably
reluctant to offer ideas to a more senior artist. This is not only a matter of submission
282 J. Napier
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to seniority. The knowledge of a senior artist simply excludes the possibility of
suggesting anything new (Sudhir Nayak, interview, February 1998). What Nayak is
suggesting here is the impossibility of suggesting to an experienced singer ideas that
they, the singer, have not used or thought of previously in any performance. What
can be found, however, are instances where a phrase is articulated for the first time by
the accompanist, and then taken up by the soloist: here one can say that the
accompanist has in fact led, intentionally or otherwise (see Black 1987, 166). Such
suggestions may only be made during sections when the accompanist plays alone.
There is one instance where it would be impossible for accompanists to avoid phrases
that the soloist has not yet sung: when the soloist allows the accompanist to open the
performance, as in Fateh Ali Khans recording of Gunkal (see Figure 6). This solo
contains many of the gestures characteristic of the raga, though of course the
sarang ya, Nazir Ali Khan, does not attempt anything as bold as a movement to the
upper tonic.
25
By comparing the notation in Figure 7 with that in Figure 6, it may
be seen that Fateh Ali immediately sings phrases that are quite distinct from those
played by Nazir Ali.
In general it is unlikely that a highly trained accompanist would readily restrict
themselves to reproducing phrases already articulated by the soloist or aim to
produce bland phrases of little consequence. It would be expected that, should the
accompanist suggest a direction that the soloist did not wish to take, the soloist could
deliberately counter this. From recordings alone it cannot be easily discovered if this
has been the case or if the singer has simply ignored the previous phrases. Without
suggesting that the singers plaint might not at times be justified, it may also at times
be just an example of a rhetorical weapon against accompanists on the part of
vocalists.
26
Normally, singers mention taking control of the performance as a less subtle matter
of pitch and speed. Almost all soloists expressed concern about the possibility of
Figure 6 A

lap in Gunkal , played by sarang ya Nazir Ali Khan (rhythmic values are
relative and approximate).
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accompanists reaching the upper tonic ahead of them, since this goal is a major
climactic moment. There is a much circulated anecdote that Hafizullah Khans father,
the singer Abdul Wahid Khan, is supposed to have turned onstage and snapped,
When I am approaching my home, how dare you slam the door on me? That this
anecdote is still current, nearly 60 years after the singers death, suggests that such
occurrences are not only noteworthy, but rare.
27
There is further dispute concerning how the accompanist should play in spaces.
Some singers expect that accompanists will perform within their own, the
accompanists, style, whereas others expect that the accompanist should remain
Figure 7 Opening vocal phrases in Gunkal , sung by Fateh Ali Khan (rhythmic values are
relative and approximate).
284 J. Napier
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within the stylistic parameters set by the vocalist, even if the style is somewhat
unusual. Though it is unlikely that the style of an accompanists solo will impact on
the overall style of a performance, and, after all, the accompanist can be silenced, the
performances that I have examined certainly do demonstrate stylistic distinctiveness,
both between soloist and accompanist, and between accompanists.
Specific Solo Practice: Six Accompanists
Assimilative solos characterize the early part of the performance by Rajurkar-Thatte
(see Figure 8). An elaborated descent (A) is followed by an ascent to the upper tonic
(B), which is decorated by a movement to and from ma (C), then decorated
further (D). Each of these sub-phrases contains further standard motifs, which are
marked e to i on the notation. In later solos of Thatte, the absence of phrases that
finish on notes other than sa, the lack of spaces and the obviousness of those rest
points that do occur suggest two things. The accompanist may be endeavouring to
complete phrases before being interrupted, achieving that restless quality referred to
earlier. Alternatively, the continuity demanded of the accompanist may be under-
stood not only as one of melodic line, but of a comparable level of complexity and
detail.
Two extensive solos by Anant Kunte have already been discussed. In the earlier
sections, contrastive solos predominate, though the contrast is often subtle. In the
early, short solos (as short as three notes), Kunte generally emphasizes the movement
ni-sa more strongly than the soloist. Several of these solos (see Figure 9) also feature
phrases neither previously nor subsequently heard in the vocal line. The cadential
descent from re to sa, suddenly interrupted by an upward movement from dha at A,
and the strong ga at B, are examples of subtly distinct phrases. Solos in avarts 15, 16
and 18 open with more or less direct ascents to ma (F) or dha (A), a gesture not used
by the singer, who usually thoroughly ornaments from above the notes of such
Figure 8 Arvind Thatte, avart 22 solo. Rag Kedar, vilambit ektal .
Ethnomusicology Forum 285
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ascending lines. In addition, Kunte frequently concentrates on the lower octave, even
while the singer is working in a slightly higher register.
It may be seen from these and the earlier examples that Kunte displays a certain
quality and degree of individuality in his solo playing that is not readily observed in
Thattes performance. This is due in part to his using contrastive approaches from
early in the performance, but I also think it stems from his ability to interact
creatively and confidently with Sadolikars style.
Dhruvo Ghosh plays assimilative solos in which he often draws on motifs from
earlier vocal phrases and even previous avarts. Since the most striking motifs are
often used (for reasons of memorability perhaps), the solos become dense and event
laden. The solo in avart 13 draws on two motifs, x and y, from the previous avart
(see Figure 10).
The solo in avarts 557 of the drut is very vigorous, in the manner of vocal
passages at avarts 3943 and 512 (see Figure 11). The patterns played are more
regularized than in the vocal phrases, a regularization that is taken a step further in
avarts 7880. Here an initial seven-note group is reduced to a group of four,
sequenced, then further reduced to three notes and finally two. These solos reflect
Figure 9 Early solos in Sadolikar-Kunte. Rag Miyan-ki-todi , vilambit t ntal .
286 J. Napier
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palta, the regularized note passages that may be applied, with minor variation, to any
raga, and which make up a basic training repertoire for sarang yas .
Sabri Khans three continuing solos at 2A, 3A and 4A may be compared, since the
contrast between these demonstrates the speed with which Sabri Khan establishes the
relative autonomy demonstrated in later passages (see Figure 12). In the first of these
solos, Sabri Khan repeats the last vocal gesture, pa to ga three times. The solo at 3
commences in the same manner, but rather than simply repeating this gesture, or
returning to the lower register explored by Pandit in the preceding avart , Sabri Khan
performs an independent elaboration of ga. In the solo at 4, he shows for the first
time his tendency to play to the very limit of what the voice was sung. He leaps
straight back from the pa-ga gesture to the upper tonic, then continues in his own
trajectory until seamlessly returning to accompanying.
Such seamless movement from role of soloist to role of accompanist is freque-
ntly demonstrated, most notably at the end of the contrastive solo in a vart 8 (see
Figure 10 Dhruvo Ghosh solo construction. Rag Puriya, tilwada tal .
Figure 11 Dhruvo Ghoshs drut solos. Rag Puriya, drut t ntal .
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Figure 13). Here the solo (8B) is artfully completed at the same time as Sabri Khan
listens and assimilates the vocal phrase (8C) in order to replicate it successfully. This
is a good example of a major skill of accompanists: the ability to assimilate one phrase
while performing another. The drop in Sabri Khans volume at the point marked by
asuggests that he is listening intently for this reason.
The drut section of the Pandit-Sabri performance includes a large number of full
avart solos (16 out of a total of 104 avarts). These are usually well-crafted, using
either melodic or rhythmic material from the previous vocal avart . They are generally
restricted to one avart in length, and finish with a version of the mukhd
.
a. Sabri Khan
goes a step further in avarts 44 and 45, repeating the singers previous phrase twice 9
see Figure 14).
The practice of basing the accompanists solo on the material of a previous vocal
avart , regarded by some as the correct procedure, may be noted in the first half of the
only two avart solo (avarts 71 and 72). The opening seems to be based on the
rhythmic idea and initial contour of vocal avart 69 (see Figure 15). He then moves on
to a faster, more virtuosic delivery in the following avart . He makes no attempt to
Figure 12 Early solos by Sabri Khan. Rag Bhupali , vilambit ektal .
Figure 13 Sabri Khan, solo to accompaniment. Rag Bhupali , vilambit ektal .
288 J. Napier
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play the mukhd
.
a at the end of avart 71: rather than being given a two-avart solo he
has taken a two-avart solo.
Many of the ragas used in the performance of t
.
humr , and even the style of t
.
humr
itself, allow the use of notes other than those of the original pitch-set with both
greater frequency and more freedom.
28
Such performances offer the potential for
documenting particular moments of discrepancy in the use of unexpected notes. A
more subtle examination uncovers consistently different approaches to such notes by
accompanists. These are of course most readily observed during solo sections. The
solo occupying avart 6 shows several of these (see Figure 16).
Generally Mishra is more liberal with his use of shuddh ga. The phrase dha-pa-
komal dha, played in his second solo (avart 9) does not make its appearance in the
voice until the seventeenth avart , and even then the komal dha is touched only
lightly. Fragments of phrases not previously sung are also found in the sarang solos.
Short spaces are also filled by more elaborate, and more inflected, versions of the
previous vocal phrase.
Though the restricted note movements of the early sections of a nom-tom offer less
scope for anything new, Jyoti Goho at times creates an impression of wider pitch
range than the soloist through the use of the harmonium couplers, which may be
pressure sensitive and introduce octave doubling. A particularly well-crafted solo,
repeating and assimilating previous vocal phrases, is shown in Figure 17. The end-
figure of the mohr
.
a (a) is repeated and expanded (a, a, b, b). A short nom-
tom phrase follows (c), then a sequential pair of statements of the end-figure (a seq,
a). After a second short nom-tom (d), the conventional mohr
.
a is played. This solo is
far more motivic than anything in the voice. It demonstrates consistency, a typical
Figure 14 Sabri Khan repeating singers previous phrase. Rag Bhupali , drut t ntal .
Ethnomusicology Forum 289
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arch shape, the relaxation of tempo characteristic of the accompanists style and a
conventional closure, all within a period of 20 seconds. As with the solos of Kunte,
when the solo space is clearly understood by the accompanist, or when it is
determined by the accompanist, the results are remarkably coherent.
The discussion above has highlighted the manner in which an accompanist may
utilize solo space afforded them and, in so doing, play in a manner that may be
characterized as subtly distinct, both from other accompanists and from the
soloist themselves. Consequently the expectation that the accompanist should do
nothing new or only do what I have already done is shown to not be reflected
in practice.
It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine replication while the singer is
singing.
29
Nevertheless, this shows further divergences between singer and accom-
panist in timing, articulation, ornamental detail, simplification and elaboration. The
notion of as accurately as possible, if relevant, may be one that is practised with a
wide degree of subjectivity on the part of accompanists. Many of the distinctive
differences between voice and sangat seem contingent on the limitations of the
instrument. For others, it may simply be that the accompanist liked it, or even just
did it, that way. As a way of indicating some of these distinctions, and the difficulty in
Figure 15 Two-avart solo. Rag Bhupali, drut t nta l .
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determining why a particular accompanist played in a certain fashion, I will examine
a few instances of obviously varied replication and dissent.
A common wisdom is that sarang yas will repeat a soloists mistakes. This claim
may be interpreted as complimentary of the sarang yas skill, (following so accurately
that even a note or phrase that is in violation of the raga is played) or derogatory (so
ignorant of the raga that they reproduce the obvious flaw in the soloists
performance). The accompanist, if aware of the mistake, must immediately decide
how to deal with it. From an audience perspective, and not having prior knowledge of
the persons involved, it is impossible to tell whether such corrections are made with
the best of intentions or in order to expose the shortcomings of the soloist. I will draw
attention to several examples of often slight but conscious departures from
documented orthodoxy. There are insufficient examples for me to draw conclusions
as to how accompanists might generally respond, but different approaches to such
events may be shown.
Figure 16 Ramesh Mishra, solo. Rag Pilu, vilambit tilwadatal .
Figure 17 Goho, well-crafted solo. Rag Bhairavi , nom-tom.
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There are three instances of unusual pitching of the voice in Krishnarao Shankar
Pandits performance (see Figure 18). These evoke different responses from Sabri
Khan. The highly unorthodox pitch ma (F) is sounded twice in phrase 2F: this is
replicated as the far more traditional pitch pa (G). The rather low-pitched vocal note
at 10:6 is replicated with a more conventionally pitched version. Conversely, in
phrase 12F, the singers ga (E*marked *) is pitched extremely low. Sabri Khan leaves
nothing to doubt, playing a clear and elongated komal ga (marked **). Though this
would appear to be a clear case of the sarang ya replicating a mistake, it would be
absurd to consider this to be the result of ignorance of such a commonplace raga.
From conversations with both Sabri Khan and Pandits son L. K. Pandit (Interviews,
JuneJuly 1996), I believe that it was most likely a bit of fun.
These notes might be generally subsumed under a category of unexpected events.
The t
.
humr performance by Girija Devi and Ramesh Mishra was examined from the
perspective of such unexpected notes. Distinctions in the use of outside notes have
already been shown in Mishras solo sections. Occasional semi-tonal clashes occur,
but they seem unproblematic. The presence of clashes and of strategies for avoiding
them suggests that such clashes are acceptable, but are best avoided or their effects
minimized.
30
A further interesting situation arises when singer and accompanist vary in their
overall execution of the raga. Two telling cases are produced by Kumar Gandharva
and his accompanist Govindrao Patwardhan. In their Bh mpalas recording,
Gandharava sings the unorthodox shuddh ga, t vra ma and shuddh ni numerous
times: in spite of his familiarity with Gandharvas output, Patwardhan does not
replicate any of these. In the last section of an extensive performance of Malkauns ,
Figure 18 Unusual pitches in K. S. Pandits Bhupali . Vilambit ektal .
292 J. Napier
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Gandharva gradually introduces the note pa: as far as may be heard, Patwardhan
never repeats it.
31
A more dramatic type of dissent, one less conservative, occurs when an accompanist
plays in a more exhibitionistic, soloistic fashion than the soloist. In this example, the
singer, K. S. Pandit interrupts Sabri Khan by entering on the 13th beat with a
descending run leading into the compressed version of mukhd
.
a (see Figure 19).
In the avart in Figure 20 the roles are reversed, with Sabri Khan interrupting the
soloist with an almost identical phrase. Elsewhere Sabri Khan plays soloistically and
independently, while the singer sings. For example, in drut avart 20, Sabri Khan plays
phrases which may be regarded as repetitions of the vocal phrase in avart 19, and
certainly bear less resemblance to the vocal phrase in 20 itself (see Figure 21).
A similar approach is taken in Dhruvo Ghoshs accompaniment of Pandits son,
L.K. Pandit. The stylistic similarity between the two drut performances suggests a
conscious, articulated preference on the part of the vocalists, not necessarily of two
accompanists who (coincidentally) both play over the soloist.
32
The Soloists Treatment of the Accompanist
Competition may often be more noticeable than co-operation, and soloists may from
time to time be seen to reprimand their accompanists onstage. This may be subtly
done. I previously mentioned a performance in which the supporting singer crossed
the upper tonic before the soloist. The soloist said nothing at this point. Later, she
reprimanded the student for a fault which the student was incapable of recognizing,
leaving her visibly perplexed. The same soloist told me that she rarely needs or
bothers to discipline her accompanists. Since she controls the duration of the
performance, she says that she will just continue to sing for as long as it takes for her
to re-establish her own authority and vision (Shruti Sadolikar, interview, February
1997). Disciplining may be verbal, as noted above in the case of Abdul Wahid Khan,
Figure 19 K. S. Pandit-Sabri Khan, interruptions. Rag Bhupali , drut t ntal .
Figure 20 K. S. Pandit-Sabri Khan, interruptions. Rag Bhupali , drut t ntal .
Ethnomusicology Forum 293
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or otherwise obvious, but not necessarily comprehensible, to the audience, as
demonstrated by this critics comment: One however failed to understand Padmas
frequent gestures to Mehmood Dholpuri whenever she disapproved of his
accompaniment. Dholpuri is a most sought after accompanist and he handles the
harmonium with understanding (Pratap 1994).
Another singer told me that many artists will discipline the accompanist by
smiling very sweetly and quietly saying such lines as yes, you can do that in the drut,
or by sustaining a note and indicating to the accompanist that they should attempt
the very difficult task of following it (Shanti Sharma, interview, December 1998).
33
A
perhaps less pleasant way of disciplining, even musically subordinating or belittling,
the accompanist on stage has been noted by violinist N. Rajam, who often performed
as part of a double accompaniment to her teacher.
He would tease the sarang player singing tough and complicated taan patterns . . .
ask the sarang player to reproduce it. There have been occasions when the sarang
accompanist would find it very challenging and trying to his fingers. Immediately
Guruji would turn around and make me reproduce the same and because of his
blessings and grace I would reproduce it in solo. Both Guruji and the audience
would derive fun out of this game. On one or two occasions the sarang
accompanists had even taken it amiss and understandably so. (Rajam 1997, 53)
This of course is not so much a matter of controlling a wayward accompanist, but a
blatant way of forcing competition in order to demonstrate musical authority and
superiority. There are several practices which should briefly be noted: the use of more
than one accompanist, the presence of supporting singers, the use of a svarman
.
dal
and the use of amplification in such a manner as to render the melodic accompanist
inaudible. Though the rationale for such practices is not necessarily to impose the
soloists authority, in effect they serve to attenuate the role of the melodic
accompanist. Such decisions regarding ensemble composition precede performance,
so only a few points should be noted.
Figure 21 Independent playing by sarang ya. Rag Bhupali , drut t ntal .
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The presence of the second accompanist may partially exempt sarang yas from the
traditional role of replication. In solo spaces, there may be some dispute as to which
accompanist will predominate, but in almost all cases it is the sarang ya. The
harmonium player may follow the sarang ya, though from time to time a sort of
double soloing is heard.
The relationship between two accompanists is less clearly paralleled in the
relationship between a supporting singer and the accompanist.
34
Some accompanists
may feel that they should not need merely to follow the supporting singer.
Interruptions of the supporting singer by the accompanist, and even by soloistic
playing by the tabl ya, are common. On the other hand, the supporting singer, by
virtue of being a soloist-in-waiting, and perhaps even a relative of the soloist, would
tend to assume control.
Self-accompaniment is rare, except in t
.
humr . Even here it is usually restricted to a
second accompanying part, more subdued than that of the main accompanist. There
are cases of khayal yas accompanying themselves: it would seem that the practice
most frequently occurs among singers from or in less substantial centres, such as
Pakistan (Fateh Ali Khan, his son, Rustam Ali Khan, Raza Ali Khan) and Lucknow
(Dharamnath Misra), and that the critical responses are negative.
35
The svarman
.
dal is a box zither, played by the vocalist. The strings are tuned to the
pitches of a particular raga, and are plucked without being stopped. In recordings the
instrument might sound more loudly than other accompanying instruments, due to
its proximity to the singers microphones, rather than to intent on the part of the
singer or the audio technician.
36
The soloist may continue to play the svarman
.
dal
while resting, seemingly regardless of the activity of the melodic accompanist.
Interruption of an instrumental solo by the singer playing the svarman
.
dal serves no
structural purpose, but occurs nevertheless. The impression is sometimes gained that
repeated notes, or crashing strumming, are thought by certain singers to be
inherently more interesting than any solo contribution from the melodic accom-
panist.
37
Conclusions: What Is Heard, How It Is Heard
Given the nature of amplification frequently encountered, there is some argument
that sangat may be as much for the benefit of the performer as for the audience. The
rationale for this may be more psychological than aesthetic. In large modern concert
halls, the audience is mostly invisible, especially if unlit. The traditional and valued
interaction of performer and audience is impossible under these circumstances, and
the focus of the soloists attentions may be on the accompanists. The accompanist
may provide both a literal feedback, in the form of gestures or sounds of approval,
and a musical agreement in the form of sangat. Sangat may thus be understood as
serving as dad, the (generally positive) immediate and observable response of the
audience to the artist. In this, it may be seen to fulfil the function implied by the
English-language term support, so frequently used to describe the melodic
Ethnomusicology Forum 295
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accompaniment, and implies a solo-centred hearing of performance. Though this
may seem in accord with Bors conclusions about historic changes in accompaniment,
it must be remembered that such hearings of performance do not necessarily parallel
the attitude of the singer. On the one hand, some singers may state that sangat is not
necessary, while others seem literally to need support. Both of these positions negate
the notion of competition as being at the core of the relationship of soloist and
accompanist: the performance is no longer one in which a lively interplay of ideas
may involve notions of defeat and putting [others] in their place. Musical authority
is useful to inform a general outline of what is done, but to attribute every choice on
the part of the soloist, every departure from the echo or from the soloists writ on the
part of the accompanist as indicative of a dispute over such authority seems
overstating things. Many practices attenuate the role of the melodic accompanist, but
an interpretation which insists that these are specifically adopted to do just this is not
tenable. If an accompanists departure from the echo is to be understood as a
usurpation or a subaltern grumbling, then it is a subtle one. As the evidence from the
transcriptions and from interview shows, the model of performance is at least as
likely to be co-operative and mutually sympathetic.
If an ensemble-centred appreciation is sought, then the accompanist can be heard
to engage creatively with the soloist, establishing a certain degree of autonomy and
stylistic individuality in solo sections, without necessarily threatening the soloists
control over the performance. In other words, the solo section may not necessarily be
thought of a site in which the accompanist contests authority openly with a view to
defeating the soloist. Such a contest is now excluded both by the threat of social and
musical sanction and by the need to maintain a viable and integrated performance.
Interpreting this more positively, as has been shown in the performances of Sruti
Sadolikar and Anant Kunte, and of Bhisen Joshi and Purshottam Walwalkar, the solo
space may instead be one where trust and mutual musical understanding seem to be
exhibited. Such spaces may also be turned into an ouverture, an opening in which a
stylistically individuated accompanying voice can be heard, and differing perceptions
of raga praxis be projected. These, along with detail in timing and articulation, as
well as processes of ornamentation and simplification in the sections of replication,
38
suggest a partial autonomy on the part of the accompanist, one that is enacted with
the understanding that sanction is possible. Accompanists may not necessarily be able
to claim authority over the soloist, or intent on doing so. However, they are able to
project themselves as authoritative voices within an evolving tradition.
Notes
[1] See, for example, Lomax (1976, 86; 1993, 131,138) and Herndon and McLeod (1978,
15761). See also McAllester (1954, 76) and Gioia (1997, 169).
[2] See, for example, DeNoras (1996) discussion of the Beethoven-Wol duel, and Lus (2004) of
the Prix de Rome. There is also a substantial body of pedagogic literature on the value and
adjudication of structured, formalized contests.
296 J. Napier
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[3] The data used in this paper are drawn from aural analysis of nearly 300 performances, mostly
of khayal , as well as complete notations of four khayal performances and partial notations of
two other performances. Exemplary notations were also drawn from the aural analyses. The
complete performances are Malini Rajurkar, Arvind Thatte (harmonium), raga Kedar ; Shruti
Sadolikar, Anant Kunte (sarang ), raga Miyan-ki-todi ; Krishnarao Shankar Pandit, Sabri
Khan (sarang ), raga Bhupali ; Lakshman Krishnarao Pandit, Dhruvo Ghosh (sarang ), Anant
Rane (harmonium), raga Puriya. The part performances are Girija Devi, Ramesh Mishra
(sarang ), t
.
humr in raga Pilu (excluding laggi); Vijay Kichlu, Jyoti Goho (harmonium), jor
(nom-tom) in raga Bhairav. The particular performances have been chosen for a number of
reasons, including in all cases quality of the accompanist. In addition, several observations
are made regarding visual interaction between performers, based on the writers own concert
experience.
[4] The term may also apply to the rhythmic accompaniment: in this paper it will be used to
apply to melodic accompaniment unless specically stated otherwise. The term sath may
also be used. Though the question of musical authority arises between singers and rhythmic
accompanists, the primary focus of my research has been on melodic accompaniment. My
focus here is on control of both the raga and its general path of exposition, and in this the
contest between singer and melodic accompanist is far more explicit.
[5] The violin has never been used with the same frequency as it has in the South Indian or
Karnatik tradition, where it is the most common accompanying melodic instrument.
[6] Wade elsewhere calls this simultaneous improvisation, which suggests a far greater degree of
individualization and innovation on the part of the accompanist.
[7] Neuman writes of sarang yas , but these comments apply equally to harmonium players and
others.
[8] One possible response to this is the tendency of singers to choose accompanists who are not
traditional specialists, particularly harmonium players. The gradual decline of the social
model outlined by Neuman, and its replacement with a more nancially inuenced one, is
outlined in my 2006b paper.
[9] Though this seems amicable, the comments of musicians recounted in Bors text suggest a
more competitive ethos, as will be shown below. His argument also serves to validate a widely
held negative view of the harmonium accompanist, as articulated by Sorrell and Narayan:
when the harmonium is used for an accompaniment, it remains in the background,
reproducing the singers phrases in outline only, as if aware of its own limitations (1980, 60).
[10] In order to formulate and assess the task, the person requesting had to be extremely
knowledgeable themselves, and was often another tabl ya. The farma ish may be conside-
red a direct testing, a competition, between musicians. Kippen also gives account of
organised duels between tabl yas in Lucknow, but notes that these competitions often
involved little more than one player being able to sustain a greater speed for a longer time
(1988, 55).
[11] Interestingly, there are common replies to specic questions about going ahead or taking
control, such as not so much nowadays and if he does, I can control him.
[12] For a discussion of the use of such syntagmatic elements in instrumental performance, see
Slawek (1998), who in turn bases these distinctions on Powers (1977).
[13] Clayton questions the applicability of the notion of teleology (2000, 25). If, as he argues, the
syntagmatic domain is understood to incorporate all elements that go to make a road-map,
teleology can be thought of as merely an aspect of a performances syntagm. However,
I believe it is sufciently important and characteristic to deserve a specic term. The
syntagmatic and teleologic domains may then be understood as interactive. As Wade (1984,
32) points out, singers may eschew early use of the antara, (the second part of a khayal
composition), since it involves higher pitches, including the upper tonic, and, with its more
Ethnomusicology Forum 297
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syllabic text setting, greater rhythmic articulation. Such placement of pre-composed material
would substantially accelerate the teleology.
[14] Wade writes that one rst pays attention to pitch, then to speed, then to rhythm (1984, 30).
Increase in speed is achieved by an increase in note density, often but not always in
conjunction with an increase in absolute tempo.
[15] The shorter the avart , the more likely a full avart solo: full avart solos are far more likely in
vilambit rupaktal (seven beats) than in vilambit ektal (12 very slow beats). In some
performance styles, notably those of singers of, or inuenced by, the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana ,
singers tend to present paragraphs that last for two avarts. Therefore the accompanists solos,
which occupy a whole avart , still represent a shorter period relative to the overall structure.
[16] In fact, accompanists may avoid obvious phrase ends and rest points. Instances of, and
reasons for, this will be discussed below.
[17] It is most common for a soloist to allow a tabla solo to nish on the sam.
[18] The raga used in this performance, Dagori , is extremely rare, almost a family possession.
Sadolikar told me that this is why she left little solo space in this recording. The accompanist
makes a few obvious mistakes.
[19] All transcriptions have been standardized to a tonic of C. The abbreviated Indian pitch
names used in this paper correspond with English pitch names as follows: SaC, ReD,
GaE, MaF, PaG, DhaA, Ni B. Inection is largely contextual, an can be observed
in notation. The terms komal , for a lowered pitch, and t vra, for a raised one, are used.
[20] The practice of leaving substantial spaces unlled is more characteristic of Walwalkar than of
any of the other accompanists on Joshis recordings.
[21] This procedure is very common.
[22] An unusual approach to nishing the solo is demonstrated by Sanjoy Chakraborty,
accompanying his brother Ajoys Bhupali. Immediately after the sam, he performs a short
solo, largely drawn from material of the previous phrase, which cadences on the second beat,
seemingly utilizing it as if it were a secondary sam. The tabl ya reacts accordingly,
emphasizing the closure on the second beat. This occurs at least four times: hardly an
accident. It also occurs in avart 36 of Sadolikar-Kunte: here the tabl ya matches this with a
tiha , a thrice-stated cadential phrase. Such clear-cut endings are comparable to the mukhd
.
a
extensions of Walwalkar, but exhibit a much stronger sense of cadence.
[23] One singer told me that too great a familiarity with a soloists style frequently enabled the
accompanist to pre-empt phrases: she used the word steal (Prabha Atre, interview, 1998).
[24] It is unclear how the critic knew that such phrases were in fact doted rare notes or gures.
[25] The use of ga in this raga is not orthodox: it helps in the execution of the wide interval
from ma to ri. The other three performances on this recording all commence with sarang
solos: in the opening solo of Gujari tod , the harmonium seems to accompany (follow) the
sarang .
[26] On the other hand, L. K. Pandit says that he never hesitates to use an accompanists idea
(Interview, July 1996). It would be interesting to know if accompanists ever resent having
their ideas taken over. Future collaborative research with soloists and accompanists has the
potential to reveal much more on this.
[27] The most blatant violation that I have heard of this cherished convention was made by a
young supporting singer. The comment of one critic was that she must have got a beating
afterwards (Vasant Karnad, interview, February 1998.) Accompanists may subtly, perhaps
unintentionally, create the impression of pushing ahead in a number of ways, and say that
less radical instances of going ahead are almost inevitable. They arise more from a
misjudging of the soloists intentions, or even from pushing the speed of a single phrase so
that a goal-note is reached ahead of the singer, rather than from deliberate attempts to take
control (Sudhir Nayak, interview, February 1998). To some extent, this may even occur
through the more substantial nature of the sound of the instruments compared to that of
298 J. Napier
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the voice: the replication of a subtle inection of a note from above creates the impression
that a higher note has been played. Subtle going ahead may also be created simply by variant
timings of an otherwise closely executed tune. Numerous instances may also be found of the
accompanist leading in terms of articulation.
[28] In some cases, all twelve notes of the gamut may be used.
[29] See Napier (2006a).
[30] The raga performed by Rajurkar-Thatte, Kedar, uses both versions of two notes (ma and ni ),
but under conditions such that which variant is to be used can easily be predicted by the
accompanist.
[31] Gandharva at rst slows in the slide from dha to ma, so that the forbidden note emerges
only gradually. My teacher, the late Ashok Roy, suggested that Gandharva may actually be
singing a separate raga, Pancham Malkauns. I am not suggesting that Patwardhan disdains to
play the unorthodox, but that he may consider it to be for the soloist alone.
[32] Sarang solos against the voice occur in performances of other singers, but are relatively rare.
This procedure is frequently reversed: the melodic accompanist plays the melody while the
singer performs tans. The playing of instrumental solos against the c z was in fact suggested
by Susheela Mishra (Interview, 1998), to be a feature of certain older khayal styles: those of
the qawwal bacche, or children of the qawwals . It may also be heard in Faiyaz Khans
performances, and perhaps speaks of an earlier, more ensemble-oriented approach. Similarly,
when two accompanists are used, the harmonium player may repeat a c z while the sarang ya
plays soloistically.
[33] I subsequently saw this exemplied in performance.
[34] In a few cases, the supporting voice is used as a shadow, following just behind in the manner
of an accompanying instrument. In Mallikarjun Mansurs Bihagda and Yamani bilaval, his
son Rajshekar follows closely during the alap and in the c z, joins the mukhd
.
as, and sings
phrases leading to sa against the sustained sa of the soloist. These elements clearly reproduce
those described in structural denitions of melodic accompaniment, though a harmonium
accompanist is also present.
[35] The use of harmonium as vocal support played by Rustom himself was an anathema to the
spirit of a classical concert (Pande 1993). Pande gives no reason for its supposed lack of
quality.
[36] The volume may be manipulated to some extent.
[37] Fro example, Jasraj, Purya 910, 946 and 1430.
[38] See Napier (2001, 2002, 2006a).
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sette. Music Today A93011.
***. Malkauns . Govindrao Patwardhan (h). Audiocassette. Music Today A93014.
Girija Devi. Maru Bihag, Desh, Pilu. Ramesh Mishra (s). CD. Nimbus NI5315.
Jasraj (Pandit Jasraj). Puriya, Bhinna Shadaja, Bhairavi . Appa Jalgaonkar (h). Audiocassette. Weston
0CLV 3701.
Joshi Bhimsen. Ramkali, Shuddh kalyan. Purshottam Walwalkar (h). CD. Music Today CD A91004.
Kichlu, Vijay. Bhairav. Jyoti Goho (h). CD. India Archive Music CD 1011.
300 J. Napier
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Mansur, Mallikarjun. Yamani Bilawal, Bihagda. Baban Manjrekar (h). Audiocassette. HMV STCS
04B 7267.
Pandit, Krishnarao Shankar. Bhupali, Malgunji, Zila. Sabri Khan (s). Audiocassette. HMV STC 04B
7794.
Pandit, Lakshman Krishnarao. Puriya, Des, Yaman, Bhairavi . Dhruvo Ghosh (s), Anant Rane (h).
Audiocassette. CBS LKP 001.
Rajurkar, Malini. Nat Bhairav, Kedar, Des . CD. Melody MCD 384.
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Interviewees
Prabha Atre, Mumbai.
Hafizullah Khan, New Delhi.
Susheela Mishra, Lucknow.
Sudhir Nayak, Mumbai.
Lakshman Krishnarao Pandit, New Delhi.
Ashok Roy, Sydney.
Sabri Khan, New Delhi.
Shruti Sadolikar, Mumbai.
Shanti Sharma, New Delhi.
Ethnomusicology Forum 301
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