Heat

Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.1

Dr. Richard Johnston
Heat kills
Enzymes denature
Proteins change shape
Cell pressure increases
Boiling
Pasteurization



Introduction

Introduction to HWTS| 2
Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation
Higher pressure, higher boiling
temperature
Autoclave, steam sterilization
121 C at 1 bar for 15 minutes

Lower pressure, lower boiling
temperature

Temperature and pressure
Introduction to HWTS| 3
Dose = Heat * Time

Thermal death kinetics
First-order kinetics assumed (exponential)
D = time required at 121 C for 1 LRV

Canning
12 D reduction of Clostridium botulinum spores


Thermal death kinetics
Introduction to HWTS| 4


Oldest method of HWTS
Estimated 600 million people report
usual practice
>90% in Uzbekistan, Mongolia, Viet Nam,
Indonesia

Effective against all viruses, bacteria
and protozoa
Turbidity is not a problem
Prone to recontamination
Flat taste



Boiling
Introduction to HWTS| 5

Country Reduction in
TTC
% samples
< 1 CFU/100 mL
% samples
< 10 CFU/100 mL
Reference
India 2 LRV 60% 65% Clasen et al., 2008
Vietnam 1.5 LRV 37% 75% Clasen et al., 2008
Guatemala 0.9 LRV 71% 82% Rosa et al., 2010
Indonesia -- 49% Sodha et al., 2011
Cambodia 2 LRV 44% 73% Brown and Sobsey, 2012
Effectiveness in field studies
Introduction to HWTS| 6
If biomass is used as fuel

Health impacts
Environmental impacts

Costly (India, Viet Nam)
Fuel: 0.5%-1.5% monthly income
Time: 20 min/d wood collection (India), 30
minutes extra/day for treatment (Viet Nam)
Another 2-5% of monthly income

Fuel and time
Introduction to HWTS| 7
Not necessary to reach 100
Protein damage
Milk pasteurization
72 C for 15 seconds
63 C for 30 minutes

Heat-up and cool-down time help

Difficulty of knowing
when water is 70C
WAPI
Pasteurization
Introduction to HWTS| 8
System developed in Bangladesh
Readily available waste heat
Inefficient stoves
600 C internal, >80% heat wasted
Inexpensive flow-through heat
exchanger


Chulli system
Introduction to HWTS| 9
System developed in Bangladesh
Readily available waste heat
Inefficient stoves
600 C internal, >80% heat wasted
Inexpensive flow-through heat
exchanger



Chulli system
Credit: Islam and Johnston, 2006
Introduction to HWTS| 9
System developed in Bangladesh
Readily available waste heat
Inefficient stoves
600 C internal, >80% heat wasted
Inexpensive flow-through heat
exchanger

Evaluation: (Gupta et al. 2007)
Microbiologically effective, median 5 LRV E. coli
Low use: 20%


Chulli system
Credit: Islam and Johnston, 2006
Introduction to HWTS| 9
Disinfection effectiveness
Protozoa
Giardia
Bacteria
E. coli,
Viruses
Adenovirus, poliovirus, hepatitis
Lab waters, Indian waters



Protozoa 6-9+ LRV
Crypto cysts inactivated
after 1 min at 72C

Bacteria 6-9+ LRV
B. anthrax can survive
boiling

Viruses 6-9+ LRV
Easily killed, even at 60 C
Introduction to HWTS| 10
Disinfection effectiveness
Protozoa
Giardia
Bacteria
E. coli,
Viruses
Adenovirus, poliovirus, hepatitis
Lab waters, Indian waters



Protozoa 6-9+ LRV
Crypto cysts inactivated
after 1 min at 72C

Bacteria 6-9+ LRV
B. anthrax can survive
boiling

Viruses 6-9+ LRV
Easily killed, even at 60 C
Islam, M. F. and R. B. Johnston (2006).
"Household pasteurization of drinking water: the
chulli water-treatment system." Journal of
Health, Population and Nutrition 24(3): 356-362.
Ericsson, C. D., R. Steffen and H. Backer
(2002). "Water disinfection for international
and wilderness travelers." Clinical infectious
diseases 34(3): 355-364.
Introduction to HWTS| 10
Some key elevations
Dbendorf 440
Zermatt 1608
Addis Ababa 2355
La Rinconada, Peru
5101
La Paz, Bolivia
3640
Mt. Everest 8848
Kilimanjaro 5895
Mt. Fuji 3776
Aspen, Colorado 2579
Kathmandu 1400
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

m

The Dead Sea -427
Dhaka 4
Mean sea level 0
Introduction to HWTS| 11
Some key boiling points (Celsius)
Dbendorf 98.6
Zermatt 94.4
Addis Ababa 92.1
La Paz, Bolivia
87.8
Aspen, Colorado 91.3
Kathmandu 95.2
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

m

The Dead Sea 101.5
Dhaka 100
Mean sea level 100
Introduction to HWTS| 12
Some key boiling points (Celsius)
Dbendorf 98.6
Zermatt 94.4
Addis Ababa 92.1
La Rinconada, Peru
83.2
La Paz, Bolivia
87.8
Mt. Everest 72.0
Kilimanjaro 80.9
Mt. Fuji 87.3
Aspen, Colorado 91.3
Kathmandu 95.2
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

m

The Dead Sea 101.5
Dhaka 100
Mean sea level 100
Introduction to HWTS| 12
Some key boiling points (Relative oxygen)
Dbendorf 96
Zermatt 82%
Addis Ababa 77%
La Rinconada, Peru
54%
La Paz, Bolivia
66%
Mt. Everest 33%
Kilimanjaro 48%
Mt. Fuji 63%
Aspen, Colorado 74%
Kathmandu 86%
-2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
E
l
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

m

The Dead Sea 106
Dhaka 100%
Mean sea level 100% relative = 20.9% actual oxygen
Introduction to HWTS| 13

How long do you need to boil water?
Introduction to HWTS| 14
Advantages Challenges
Highly effective Takes long time, including cooling
Not affected by turbidity Changes taste of water
Simple operation, no special equipment
needed
Possibility of recontamination
Widely accepted, understood, promoted High energy and time costs
Considerations for heat treatment
Introduction to HWTS | 15
Heat kills
Effective against all classes of pathogens
Boiling is very widespread
Recontamination is widespread
Pasteurization works well but is rare

Summary

Introduction to HWTS| 16
Ultraviolet radiation
Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.2
Dr. Richard Johnston
Ultraviolet radiation
Artificial radiation
Natural radiation (solar disinfection)



Introduction: Ultraviolet Radiation

Introduction to HWTS| 2
Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation
Cosmic
Rays
Gamma
Rays
X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Micro
waves
Radio
waves
0.1 0.1 1 nm 100-400
nm
400-700
nm
Up to 1
mm
1 cm 1 m
Electromagnetic spectrum
Vacuum UV UV-C UV-B UV-A Visible
400 700 315 280 200 100
Germicidal
Peak
260
Introduction to HWTS| 3
Dose = Intensity * Time
1 mJ/cm
2
= 10 J/m
2


DNA absorbs in 200-300 nm range
Peak at 260 nm

Most effective against
Bacteria, then
Protozoa cysts, then
Viruses, bacterial spores

Typical dose 400 J/m
2
(40 mJ/cm
2
)



Efficacy against pathogens
Introduction to HWTS| 4

Efficacy against pathogens
Source: USEPA 2006, UV Disinfection Guidance Manual
Introduction to HWTS| 5
UV-C generated by lamps
Low-pressure mercury lamps, 254 nm
Medium-pressure lamps, 200-440 nm
LED lamps developing rapidly

Effective in water
No impact of pH
Turbidity can shield particles
Modest temperature effect, more dose needed
at low temperatures


UV-C Generation
Introduction to HWTS| 6
Baja California, Mexico
Small UV-C lamp (electricity)
1200 J/m
2
5 litres per minute, storage in jugs



Evaluation: water quality better than
pre-intervention, than control, than
alternative disinfection
Exclusive use: 40%




UV-C interventions: Mesita Azul
Credit: F. Reygadas, 2012
Introduction to HWTS| 7
Use natural sunlight
PET bottles

Six hours exposure
2 days if cloudy


> 20 countries, 5 million+ people
www.sodis.ch
www.fundacionsodis.org



Solar Disinfection (SODIS)
Introduction to HWTS| 8

Solar irradiation
Introduction to HWTS| 9
Direct inactivation
UV-B
Much removed by PET

Indirect inactivation
UV-A
Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
Internal: chromophores in cell
External: organic matter, iron

Heat
SODIS Mechanisms

Introduction to HWTS| 10
UV Radiation
Sun height
Latitude
Cloud cover
Altitude
Ozone
Ground reflection
Water column

Factors affecting SODIS
Credit: www.sodis.ch
Introduction to HWTS| 11
UV Radiation
Sun height
Latitude
Cloud cover
Altitude
Ozone
Ground reflection
Water column
Temperature
At 50C, one hour exposure is sufficient
Turbidity < 30 NTU

Factors affecting SODIS
Credit: www.sodis.ch
Introduction to HWTS| 11
Disinfection effectiveness



Protozoa 2-4+ LRV
Giardia cysts
Cryptosporidium spores

Bacteria 3-5+ LRV
Salmonella > E. coli >
Shigella > V. cholera

Viruses 1-5+ LRV
Adenovirus, phiX174 >
echovirus, MS2
Introduction to HWTS| 12
Since 2001
Eawag + Fondacion SODIS
Piloted in Cochabamba
Training by NGOs, local health
promoters, schools, health
professionals, women's groups
700 000 users

Evaluation: 32% mean use

Source: Musezahl, 2009, PLoS Medicine.
SODIS in Bolivia

Credit: Fundacin SODIS
Introduction to HWTS| 13
PET = polyethylene terephthalate

Antimony
Adipates, phthalates
Acetaldehydes, formaldehydes
Bisphenol A

Genotoxicity

http://www.sodis.ch/methode/forschung/
publikationen/index_EN
Is SODIS safe?
Introduction to HWTS| 14
Advantages Challenges
Highly effective (UV-C > SODIS) Limited to low turbidity waters
UV-C requires electricity
Simple (SODIS) Dependent on climate
Inexpensive (SODIS) Takes significant time
Low risk of recontamination (SODIS) Small volumes
Considerations for UV treatment
Introduction to HWTS | 15
What UV radiation is
Efficacy against pathogens

How UV-C interventions work and
can be adapted for HWTS
How solar disinfection (SODIS)
works and is applied in low and
middle income countries
Summary

Introduction to HWTS| 16
Chemical disinfection
Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.3
Dr. Richard Johnston

Chlorine
Chemistry and dosing
Forms
Example application

Introduction: Chemical disinfection

Introduction to HWTS| 2
Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation
Since 1890s in England, took off in
early 20
th
century
Used in 98% of US utilities

Second most reported HWTS
5.6% of households
Latin America and Caribbean

Strong oxidant
Devastates cell wall, DNA, enzymes
Mechanisms not fully understood

Chlorine disinfection
Introduction to HWTS| 3
Elemental Chlorine (Cl
2
gas)
High Test Hypochlorite (HTH)
Calcium hypochlorite
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) liquid
Electrolytic generation

All generate Free Chlorine
hypochlorous acid (HOCl)
hypochlorite (OCl
-
)
pKa 7.54
Aim for pH < 8
Chlorine speciation
Introduction to HWTS| 4
Dose = Demand + Residual

Chlorine demand
Organic carbon
Iron and manganese
Ammonia

Target 0.5 mg/L residual
Usually need 1-5 mg/L dose, typically 2
If turbid, double dose
Guideline value for chlorine 5 mg/L




Chlorine dose and demand
Introduction to HWTS| 5
Household water treatment
Safe storage
Behavior change communication


Dilute liquid chlorine 0.75% solution
pH 11+
Water Guard, Clorin, Claro, SurEau
One capful per 20 L water
Dose of at least 1.9 mg/L (e.g. 5 mL of 0.75%)
Double if turbid


Safe Water System (CDC, PAHO)
www.cdc.gov/safewater/
Introduction to HWTS| 6
Sodium Dichloroisocyanurate
About 60% free chlorine
Reservoir chlorine
Guideline value of 40 mg/L
Consistent free chlorine level
Less taste and odour
Effervescent tablets, long shelf life
10 litres: 1x33 mg tablet if clean, 2 if dirty
20 litres: 1x67 mg tablet if clean, 2 if dirty

Easy to use
NaDCC Tablets
Source: www.medentech.com
Introduction to HWTS| 7
Dose = Concentration * Time (Ct)
min-mg/L

Recommended 0.5 mg/L, 30 min
Ct = 15 min-mg/L
Equivalent to 1 mg/ for 15 minutes

HWTS, minimum dose 1.9 mg/L
Ct = 56 min-mg/L








Efficacy against pathogens

Introduction to HWTS| 8
Efficacy against pathogens
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Ct
99
, mg-min/L
Bacteria
0.04 0.08
Viruses
2 30
Protozoa
25 - 245
Source: WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water, 4
th
ed.

Introduction to HWTS| 9
Efficacy against pathogens
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Ct
99
, mg-min/L
Bacteria
0.04 0.08
Viruses
2 30
Protozoa
25 - 245
Source: WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water, 4
th
ed.

Introduction to HWTS| 10
Efficacy against pathogens
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Ct
99
, mg-min/L
Bacteria
0.04 0.08
Viruses
2 30
Protozoa
25 - 245
Source: WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water, 4
th
ed.

Introduction to HWTS| 11
Disinfection effectiveness



Protozoa 2-5 LRV
Cryptosporidium unaffected

Bacteria 3-6+ LRV
Spores may be more resistant

Viruses 2-5 LRV
Longer time requirement
Introduction to HWTS| 12
Free chlorine + Ammonia =
Chloramines
Monochloramine
Dichloramine
Trichloramine

Less efficient disinfectant

Stronger odour
Combined chlorine
Introduction to HWTS| 13
Organic carbon
Trihalomethanes (e.g. chloroform)
Haloacetic acids
Carcinogenic in laboratory animals at high
concentrations

Guideline values, 1 in 100,000 excess
cancer cases



Note: Disinfection By-products

Introduction to HWTS| 16
The health risks from these
byproducts at the levels at which they
occur in drinking water are extremely
small in comparison with the risks
associated with inadequate
disinfection.

Thus, it is important that disinfection
not be compromised in attempting to
control such byproducts.
WHO Guidelines
Organic carbon
Trihalomethanes (e.g. chloroform)
Haloacetic acids
Carcinogenic in laboratory animals at high
concentrations

Guideline values, 1 in 100,000 excess
cancer cases



Note: Disinfection By-products
Introduction to HWTS| 15

Example: Gadyen Dlo in Haiti
Credit: M. Ritter, Deep Springs International
deepspringsinternational.org
Introduction to HWTS| 16
Conducted in Northern Haiti
Not in the earthquake zone

75% report current use
56% had free chlorine residual at time of visit

Expansion to earthquake zone
Massive free distribution
High uptake, uncertain sustainability

Gadyen Dlo evaluation
Source: Harshfield, Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 2012.
Credit: M. Ritter, Deep Springs International
deepspringsinternational.org
Chloramines
Chlorine dioxide
Ozone

Bromine
Silver
Other disinfectants
Introduction to HWTS| 18
Advantages Challenges
Highly effective against bacteria Ineffective against protozoa
Residual protection Taste and odour
Simple to use Requires low turbidity
Low cost Requires supply chain
Misunderstanding about by-products
Considerations for chlorination
Introduction to HWTS| 19
Chlorine is widely used in both
conventional treatment and HWT
A variety of sources, all produce free
chlorine in water
Highly effective against bacteria
Effective against viruses and some
protozoa
Not Cryptosporidium
Summary

Introduction to HWTS| 20
Safe Storage
Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.4
Dr. Richard Johnston




Introduction: Safe Storage

Introduction to HWTS| 2
1
Water Resource
2
Delivery system
3
Collection and Transport
4
Household storage
5
Consumption

Opening
Small enough to discourage hands, scooping
Large enough for easy filling
Cap
Possible to clean
Tap or spigot for withdrawing water

Portable
Stable (flat bottom), robust, opaque
(Size appropriate for treatment)

Inexpensive, available locally

Characteristics of safe storage
Source: UNICEF Water Quality Handbook, 2008
Introduction to HWTS| 3
CDC Container, 20 L

Oxfam bucket, 14 L

Safe storage containers
Credit: www.nrs-international.com Credit: www.cdc.gov/safewater
Introduction to HWTS| 4
Jerrycans
Credit: DFID, Jess Seldon Credit: UNICEF, Pierre Holz

Introduction to HWTS| 5

Buckets and jars
Credit: M. Ritter, Deep Springs International
deepspringsinternational.org
Credit: D. Lantagne
www.cdc.gov/safewater
Introduction to HWTS| 6
Malawi refugee camp
Repeated outbreaks of diarrhea and cholera
Well water, high micrbobial quality at source

Improved 20 L storage container
Provided free to 25% of interviewed households
Exchanged for previous containers

53% reduction in total coliform levels
69% reduction in geometric mean

Finger rinse: high contamination
Water storage in refugee camps
Source: Roberts et al, Bulletin of the WHO, 2001
http://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/79(4)280.pdf
Introduction to HWTS| 7

Rural Benin, high levels of E. coli
At least 40% using public pump or standpipe

Randomized intervention providing 30 L
container with tap
72 villages, 50% selected for full coverage
50% plastic, 50% ceramic.
Cost $24-$33, no cost recovery

88% continued use after 7 months
Clay containers prone to breakage, hard to clean
70% less E. coli contamination

Improved water storage in Benin
Source: Gnther and Schipper, Health Economics, 2012
Introduction to HWTS| 8
Safe storage containers are
designed to minimize
recontamination
Desired characteristics
Examples
Intervention studies



Summary

Introduction to HWTS| 9
Combinations
Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.5
Dr. Richard Johnston







Introduction
Introduction to HWTS| 2
Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation






Multiple barriers

Informal combinations

Commercial combinations

Sedimentation, roughing filtration,
ceramic filtration, or biosand filter +

Heat, SODIS, or chlorine +

Safe storage container


Typical combination:
filtration + chlorine + safe storage

Informal combinations
Source: CAWST - The Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology (www.cawst.org)
Introduction to HWTS| 3
Informal combinations

P&G Purifier
Watermaker

Good for turbid water
Requires stirring container

Separate safe storage
Coagulation and chlorination
Credit: Procter & Gamble
Introduction to HWTS| 4

Filtration and disinfection
Source: www.eawag.ch Source: www.eurekaforbes.com Source:www.pureitwater.com Source:www.tataswach.com
Mineral Pot Filter Aquasure Pureit Swach
Source: biosil.wordpress.com
Introduction to HWTS| 5
Multiple barriers
Variable vulnerability of pathogens

Informal combinations
Formal combinations
Coagulation and chlorination and safe storage
Disinfection and chlorination and safe storage


Summary

Introduction to HWTS| 6
Key Messages, Week 3
Introduction to Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage, Module 3.6
Dr. Richard Johnston

Disinfection
Heat
Ultraviolet
Chemical
Safe storage
Combined systems





Introduction

Introduction to HWTS| 2
Boiling

Pasteurization

Effective against all classes of
pathogens
Heat
Introduction to HWTS| 3
Cosmic
Rays
Gamma
Rays
X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Infrared Micro
waves
Radio
waves
0.1 0.1 1 nm 100-400
nm
400-700
nm
Up to 1
mm
1 cm 1 m
Ultraviolet radiation
Vacuum UV UV-C UV-B UV-A Visible
400 700 315 280 200 100
Germicidal
Peak
260
Introduction to HWTS| 4
Chlorination
Liquids
Tablets

Different effectiveness for different
pathogens

Safe water system
Disinfection
Safe storage
Behaviour change communication



Chemical disinfection
www.cdc.gov/safewater/
Introduction to HWTS| 5


Characteristics of safe storage
containers
Examples
Intervention studies

Safe storage
Introduction to HWTS| 6
Multiple barriers

Informal combinations

Commercial combinations
Combined systems
Introduction to HWTS| 7




HWT technologies reviewed
Effectiveness against different
pathogens
Advantages and challenges

Next: implementation

Summary
Safe Storage Disinfection Filtration Sedimentation
Introduction to HWTS| 8