Coring & Core Analysis

FORMATION EVALUATION
Series 3 Rock and Fluid Sampling and Analysis

! "oring and "ore Analysis
B.1. Introduction
In#roduc#ion
Reservoir rocks saturated with hydrocarbons are complex on both a macroscopic and microscopic
scale. The complexity of both rock and fluid properties controls the initial quantity and distribution of
hydrocarbons and the rate of flow of these fluids within the reservoir, as well as the volume of
hydrocarbons recovered. A sample (core) can be taken to recover a portion of the reservoir rock, so
that it may be examined firsthand and tested in the laboratory. uch direct physical measurements
furnish both !eolo!ical and en!ineerin! information and !uide the decisions affectin! both the cored
well and subsequent wells in that area.
Reservoir rock characteristics vary both vertically and areally. "nder the best of circumstances, the
volume of rock recovered throu!h corin!, even when all wells at a location are cored, is small when
compared to the rock volume of the reservoir. Althou!h wells should be cored and data !athered to
define reservoir rock properties in all dimensions, in many cases insufficient core data are taken to
do a complete evaluation. #ell lo!s then become helpful. A syner!ism exists between direct
physical measurements on core samples and what can be learned from downhole well lo!s and
other well$test data. %ood en!ineerin! reco!ni&es this fact and utili&es the stren!ths of all
evaluation tools to make the best possible development decisions.
'ore analysis is the name !iven to the test procedures and data collected on core samples. A
variety of information and data may be obtained via measurements of physical and chemical
properties, visual observations, and photo$!raphs. The two ma(or cate!ories of core analysis are
conventional core analysis, with associated complementary data, and special core analysis. )ther
speciali&ed studies are often made that do not fall neatly within either of these cate!ories but are
important to both en!ineers and !eolo!ists.
Conventional core analysis yields the most basic data about a reservoir, such as*
the presence or absence of hydrocarbons+
the stora!e capacity (porosity), the flow capacity and its distribution (ma!nitude and
profile of permeability)+
the litholo!y and texture of the formation.
These data, and complementary measurements made on request, can be available for use within
hours or days after a core is recovered, since laboratories are normally close to the area where the
cores are cut.
Special core analysis tests are more complex and the data furnished are of wider diversity.
Typically, they will require lon!er core preparation and testin! times and more speciali&ed and
expensive equipment. ,ar!e quantities of data are captured on the more sophisticated tests, and
computer assistance is routinely used to calculate results. The increased time factor should be
reco!ni&ed and accounted for when plannin! a pro(ect. pecial core analysis tests may be divided
into static and dynamic measurements.
#hen cores are removed from the reservoir environment they are sub(ected to alterations of
pressure and temperature. These alterations cause chan!es in bulk and pore volume, reservoir fluid
Dicky Haris Hidayat Library: Coring and Core Analysis
1
saturations, and, in some cases, reservoir wettability (preference of the rock for water or oil). The
effect of these chan!es may be ne!li!ible or substantial, dependin! upon the rock and reservoir
fluid characteristics, as well as the rock property bein! investi!ated. -n conventional core analysis
(with the exception of unconsolidated rock where overburden pressure effects are included) these
effects are normally i!nored. -n many of the special core analysis test sequences, both pressure
and temperature are important, and laboratory equipment and techniques are desi!ned to simulate
reservoir conditions.
O$%ec#i&es o' a "oring (rogram
'orin! has both en!ineerin! and !eolo!ic ob(ectives, and these should be carefully defined before
corin! commences. -n some cases the ob(ectives conflict, and it is impossible to satisfy all
requirements on a !iven well. The ob(ectives that are established will affect the selection of both the
corin! fluid and the corin! device to be used. The decision will also affect the choice of a suitable
core handlin! and preservation technique and will define most measurements required.
Engineering O$%ec#i&es
The en!ineerin! ob(ectives of a corin! pro!ram include*
definin! areal chan!es in porosity, permeability, and litholo!y$the data needed for
estimates of reserves and mathematical models+
definin! reservoir water saturation (this requires the use of corin! fluids that are oil base
or that do not invade the rock,. and that the core be taken from above the water transition
&one)+
assistin! in the definition of reservoir net pay+
providin! information for calibratin! downhole lo!s as well as the measured values of
electrical properties that will be used to improve lo!$calculated water saturations+
acquirin! data on the ma!nitude and distribution of reservoir residual oil saturation (this is
normally needed in enhanced oil recovery studies and utili&es either a pressure or spon!e
core barrel)+
providin! core material from which petro!raphic studies can be made to define clay type
and distribution+ these yield subsequent !uidance in selection of nondama!in! drillin!,
corin!, and completion fluids+
acquirin! rock samples for special core analysis studies, includin! relative permeability,
capillary pressure, and formation wettability tests+
providin! data on porosity, as well as on hori&ontal and vertical permeability distributions,
for use in the desi!n of well$completion pro!rams to ensure that oil is not isolated and left
behind the pipe.
()ne company su!!ests that an oil$base mud, with physical properties close to those of the
reservoir oil and with no surfactants and low A/- filter loss, be used to determine residual oil
saturation and to preserve wettability.)
2
)eologic O$%ec#i&es
The !eolo!ic ob(ectives include*
definin! !as$oil and oil$water contacts, formation limits, and type of production expected+
providin! core data from which the depositional environment can be deduced, includin!
!rain si&e and !rain si&e sequences+ vertical sequence of facies+ sedimentary structures
(ripples, cross beddin!)+ bio!enic structures (root &ones, burrows)+ dia!enetic alterations
(cementin!, secondary porosity, secondary minerali&ation)+
permittin! a visual study of the frequency, si&e, strike, and dip of fractures. This requires
that fracture studies be undertaken and may require the availability of an oriented core+
retrieval of oriented cores so that directional permeability trends can be ascertained+ this
applies to both fractured and to nonfractured samples+ acquisition of samples of
nonreservoir rock in exploration areas so that source bed studies can be made.
B.2. Borehole Environment
"ore Al#era#ion *uring Reco&ery
There are a number of causes of core alteration durin! recovery, three of which are discussed
below.
Fil#ra#e In&asion
-n most cases, filtrate from the corin! fluid will invade the reservoir rock as the core is cut. This
causes an increase in the filtrate saturation within the core and a chan!e of in situ fluid saturations.
The quantity of filtrate invadin! the core is dependent on both controllable and noncontrollable
factors. The noncontrollable factors are related to reservoir rock and fluid properties. 0or example, a
low pressure differential between the drillin! fluid pressure and reservoir pressure at the sandface,
increased corin! speed, hi!h reservoir fluid viscosity, and low rock permeability impede core
flushin!. 0luids that exhibit low filtrate loss durin! standard static$type filtrate tests can still cause
extensive flushin! under the dynamics of corin!. 1valuation of fluid invasion can best be made by
addin! a suitable tracer, such as nitrate or tritiated water, to the corin! fluid, and then checkin! its
concentration in the fluids extracted from the recovered core.
Fluid E+pansion and E+pulsion
2urin! most corin! processes, the core and fluids contained therein are sub(ected to a continuous
reduction in pressure and temperature as the core is retrieved to the surface. 3inor chan!es occur
in the physical dimensions of the core, but reservoir fluids under!o substantial chan!es in volume.
)il releases !as from solution and the oil shrinks. The !as expands and escapes from the core,
dra!!in! oil and water with it. This process can be seen in some cores at retrieval, when both !as
bubbles and oil bleedin! can be observed on the surface of the core. (2espite the seemin!
favorability of this phenomenon, oil bleedin! at this (uncture usually denotes poor quality rocks of
low permeability.) The saturations seen at the surface are different from those downhole. 0i!ure 4
(Saturation changes that occur during coring and recovery with water-based coring luid) illustrates
the ma!nitude of saturation chan!es that occur from reservoir conditions to surface conditions when
a core is taken with a water$base mud.
3
#hen oil or oil$base mud is used to core a well
penetratin! a homo!eneous reservoir that is
hi!h enou!h upstructure to contain immobile
interstitial water, no water will be added by the
corin! fluid. -f excessive pressure differentials
are avoided, the interstitial water will remain in
place durin! both the corin! and core recovery
operations. -n such a case the measured
values of water saturation will approximate
reservoir saturations. 0i!ure 5 (Saturation
changes that occur during coring and recovery
with oil-based coring luid) illustrates this
phenomenon.
The pressure core barrel maintains reservoir pressure in the core durin! the trip to the surface, so
that fluids that would otherwise be lost are maintained in the pore space and can subsequently be
recovered in the laboratory test apparatus. 'onsiderable research effort has been directed toward
reducin! core flushin! durin! the corin! process, and pro!ress has been made. 6owever, even
pressure corin! is likely to flush some of the fluids from the core durin! this process.
*amage #o #,e Rock
)ne of the ma(or ob(ectives of corin! is to recover representative, nondama!ed samples of the
reservoir. 2ama!e to the core must be minimi&ed. This is difficult to achieve with the percussion
sidewall corin! procedure where the core is sub(ected to hi!h$impact stress as the hollow pro(ectile
is fired into the formation from an explosive char!e.
Selection of Coring Fluid
'orin! fluids can be divided into two ma(or cate!ories that relate to the filtrate lost* water$base
muds (which tend to flush the core with water) and oil$base muds (which tend to flush the core with
oil). )ther less frequently used corin! fluids include both water$in$oil or oil$in$water emulsions, !as
4
0i!ure 4.

0i!ure 5.

or air, and foam. The latter is now used successfully in special applications. 'ommon fluids used
and filtrate loss are presented in Ta$le -!, below.
"ompa#i$ili#y .i#, "oring O$%ec#i&e
'orin! fluids must be compatible with the ob(ectives of the core analysis pro!ram. 0or example, if
the specific value of reservoir water saturation is sou!ht, no water should be added to the core.
,ocatin! !as$oil or oil$water contacts requires that no oil be added to the core. )il$base mud filtrate
flushes the !as &one, the oil &one, and any water &one present, and produces similar core residual
oil saturations for all three &ones.
Coring fluids Filtrate Effect on core saturations

Water Hydrocarbons
Water loss fluids

Water-base Water Increased Decreased1
Oil emulsion Water Increased Decreased
Foam* * * *
Oil loss fluids

Oil base Oil No change2 Replaced
Inerted oil Oil No change2! 3 Replaced
emulsion

Gas loss fluids

"as #h$drocarbon% "as No change2!4 Replaced
&ir 'ncertain 'ncertain( Decreased
. 2ata indicate that foam that is properly formulated may exhibit what is essentially a &ero water
loss.
4. aturations are decreased in hydrocarbon$productive &ones. -n water$flushed &ones that
contain residual hydrocarbons, the hydrocarbon is at residual and should remain so.
5. #ater saturation should be unchan!ed if it is at irreducible (immobile) saturation+
otherwise, water saturation.
7. These muds may contain water. ,oss of whole mud in hi!h permeability rock can
increase water saturation.
8. 0rictional heat may evaporate water from core.
(
9. #ater saturations are erratic, dependin! on heat, condition of the hole and the a!ent that
is mixed with air.
Ta$le -! Coring luids, iltrates, and saturation alteration eects
#ater$:ase and )il$:ase 0luids
0i!ure 4 (!ater saturation: oil-base and water-
base coring luids) illustrates core analysis water
saturations as determined from cores cut with oil$
base and water$base muds. #ater in excess of
the reservoir value exists in cores cut with water$
base mud. A saturation approachin! the reservoir
value is observed in cores that come from above
the transition &one and that have been cut with
an oil$base fluid. ;ote that in the transition &one
< the &one where the water saturation chan!es
rapidly from 4===>= to the minimum interstitial
water saturation < the water phase is mobile. -n
most cases the water saturation is reduced by
flushin! with oil filtrate durin! the corin! process.
-n some cases water within the transition &one
will be flushed to the minimum saturation value+
under such conditions, when the core extends
into the water le!, it will be impossible to pick the
oil$water contact.
Foam
0oam corin! fluids are now receivin! considerable attention. They offer the advanta!es of allowin!
a low corin! fluid pressure at the formation face* in addition, preliminary data su!!est that minimal
or no invasion of the foam into the core occurs. "nlike other corin! fluids, which remain in
circulation durin! the operation, corin! with foam is a once$throu!h process. 0oam is !enerated,
then vented at the surface after a one$time use. This fluid has been used in both conventional
corin! and in the recovery of pressure cores, as discussed by parks (4?@5). The technolo!y of
foam corin! requires that the process be monitored by computer and variables ad(usted to assure
proper quality foam durin! corin!.
B.3. Bottomhole Coring (Coring While Drilling)
"oring *e&ices
Bottomhole Goring: An Overview
The core bit and core barrel used in bottomhole corin! are installed below a conventional, but
sli!htly shorter and li!hter, strin! of drill collars and stabili&ers. 'onnectin! the core barrel and
bottom collar is a safety (oint or Aback$offA sub ( 0i!ure 4 , Conventional core barrel and dia"ond
)
0i!ure 4.

core bit). This is a coarse$threaded connector that allows the drillstem to be unscrewed (backed$off)
and retrieved, should the core barrel become stuck in the hole.
0i!ure 4.

"on&en#ional "ore Assem$ly
'ommonly, only a sin!le si&e corin! assembly and only one or two core bit types (based on
formation hardness) will be available at the wellsite. This is mainly because the hi!h cost and
intermittent usa!e of corin! equipment economically precludes maintainin! a full ran!e of
equipment. A core bit havin! the same diameter as the smallest drill bit that will be used can be run
into any hole of this, or lar!er, si&e (the cored hole may later be enlar!ed usin! a hole opener).
-n order to achieve !ood core recovery, it is necessary to use a bit$barrel combination that cuts a
relatively thin kerf, i.e., a lar!e diameter core relative to the diameter of the bit. -f a ran!e of core bit
si&es is used, then a compatible ran!e of core barrels, capable of acceptin! various core si&es,
must also be available. 'orin! costs may be reduced by standardi&in! on a sin!le core bit$barrel
combination. The most commonly used is an @ 4>5$inch AnominalA diameter bit (actual diameter is,
in fact, @ 49>75$inch, since the bit cuts a sli!htly over!au!e hole) and a 7 4>5$inch (inside diameter)
core barrel. This results in an optimal kerf of 5 4>5$inch annular radius.
The core barrel consists of two main parts* a core$retainin! inner barrel, and a protective outer
barrel. :oth are approximately 7= ft lon!. "p to three barrel A(ointsA may be combined to allow a ?=
ft lon! core to be cut. The outer barrel provides
connection between the drill collars and the core
bit, and has stabili&er blades to prevent tiltin!,
bendin!, or flexin!, which may break or (am the
core.
#hen the corin! assembly is run into the
borehole, drillin! fluid is free to flow throu!h the
inner barrel ( 0i!ure 5 (a), Core barrel running
into the hole). #hen the core bit reaches
bottom, the kelly is attached and fluid is
circulated throu!h the inner barrel for a short
*
0i!ure 5.

time in order to flush from it any debris that may have accumulated durin! the trip to bottom ( 0i!ure
5 (b), Core barrel circulating on botto").
A steel ball is then introduced into the drillstem and pumped down to the top of the core barrel,
where it seats in a check valve in the inner barrel ( 0i!ure 5 (c), Core barrel coring).
'irculation is now diverted throu!h circulation ports into the interbarrel annulus (the space between
inner and outer barrels), and to dischar!e ports in the face of the bit. 'orin! is commenced by the
careful application and pro!ressive increase of wei!ht on bit as rotation proceeds.
As the core enters the inner barrel, it pushes the ArabbitA upward, displacin! drillin! fluid and wipin!
the walls of the barrel. The core catcher has sprin!$loaded fin!ers that prevent the core from
movin! downward and out of the barrel. ;evertheless, the !reatest care is required when liftin!,
lowerin!, stoppin!, or startin! rotation. Any (arrin! may result in the core slippin! and bein! lost
from the barrel.
pecial care is needed both when a connection is made and when the drill$stem is finally picked up
off bottom at the completion of corin!. ome overpull (resistance to liftin!) will occur initially+ but if
the core catcher operates correctly, the core will break cleanly and remain in the barrel. ometimes,
slippa!e may occur and the core catcher fail to latch. The barrel must then be lowered back to
bottom and the pick$up attempted a!ain.
'orin! is necessarily complete, in that the rate of penetration falls to &ero, either when the core
barrel is full or it becomes (ammed with core debris. The latter occurs most commonly in extremely
hard, brittle rocks, which may split sub$vertically inside the core barrel to form wed!e$shaped
fra!ments that (am in the barrel and block further core entry.
ofter, less well$consolidated rocks do not break up inside the barrel this way. They may, however,
be eroded by circulatin! drillin! fluid enterin! the core catcher. This erosion within the inner barrel
can reduce the diameter of the core, allowin! it to slip throu!h the core catcher and fall. )nce corin!
is completed, the drillstem should be tripped out of the hole as quickly as possible $but also !ently,
to avoid (olts or sudden accelerations that could cause the core to be lost.
Re#rie&a$le "ore arrel
)ccasionally, it may be necessary to core a lar!er formation interval than the ?= ft maximum
allowed by a conventional core barrel. -n this case, it will be necessary to make several trips out of
the borehole to recover core whenever the barrel is full.
An alternative method utili&es a retrievable inner core barrel. This can be pulled back throu!h the
drillstem to surface on a wireline, or pumped back up by reverse circulation of the drillin! fluid (down
the annulus and up the drillstem). A replacement inner barrel can then be lowered down to bottom,
and corin! continued with minimum delay.
The retrievable core barrel offers a substantial time savin! over conventional corin! in the case
where a lon!er core section is required. 6owever, because the inner barrel must be free to move
throu!h all drillstem components, the cores obtained by this method are substantially smaller in
diameter (44>5 inch or less) than re!ular samples.
Ru$$er/Slee&ed "ore arrel
+
Althou!h a hi!h rate of drillin! penetration is an encoura!in! si!n of !ood porosity and permeability,
it can be very worrisome to the !eolo!ist durin! corin!. The only formations that core quickly are
those that are extremely weak, and almost totally unconsolidated. 'ores of such sediments,
therefore, can be readily lost from the core barrel. 1ven if successfully recovered to surface, they
may collapse into loose debris when removed from the barrel.
The rubber$sleeved core barrel offers a solution to this problem. -t is similar in desi!n to a
conventional core barrel, but incorporates a shrink$fit rubber tube. This is drawn into the inner barrel
by the rabbit as the core enters. The whole core is, therefore, contained in a ti!ht rubber sheath.
)n recovery to surface, the whole sheathed core may be removed in a sin!le piece, and cut into
convenient len!ths for shippin! or analysis. )ne resultin! disadvanta!e, however, is that in order to
visually inspect the core, a wellsite !eolo!ist only has access to the cut ends of the core len!ths.
,ater, the core may be fro&en or artificially consolidated by in(ection of plastic !el. The rubber
sheath can then be removed to allow complete core evaluation.
-n recent years, the use of fiber!lass or aluminum inner barrels has effectively replaced rubber$
sleeve corin! methods in fractured or unconsolidated rock (kopec, 4??8)
"nconsolidated samples can be recovered in a rubber$sleeve core barrel. )nce encapsulated in
this special, tou!h, rubber$sleeved tool durin! the corin! process, the core remains there durin!
removal from the corin! device and on the trip to the laboratory. 'are must be taken when removin!
the sleeve from the core barrel+ this is done by pullin! the sleeve onto a B$shaped tray to prevent
twistin! or bendin! of the core.
Foam/Lined "ore arrel
)ne of the purposes of corin! and core analysis is to obtain an estimate of the type and relative
saturations of water, oil, and !as in the formation. "nfortunately, the decrease in confinin! pressure
as the core is brou!ht to surface will chan!e ori!inal saturations. As the core barrel is pulled from
the hole, the confinin! pressure on the fluids in the pore space of the core will drop from bottomhole
hydrostatic pressure down to atmospheric pressure. 2ependin! on the cored depth, this drop can
be substantial. As confinin! pressure declines, dissolved !as will escape from solution, while free
!as will expand, flushin! oil and water from the core. Therefore, measured saturations at surface
will be hi!her in !as and lower in oil and water than the ori!inal values.
A simple solution is provided by the foam$lined core barrel. 0luids expelled from the core on
recovery are absorbed into the porous plastic foam linin! of the inner core barrel. After the core has
been removed, this foam linin! is stripped from the barrel and analy&ed separately for oil and water
content.
(ressuri0ed "ore arrel
A more complete, but also more expensive, solution to the problem of !as expansion is provided by
the pressuri&ed core barrel. "sin! automatic valves, this apparatus seals the upper and lower ends
of the inner barrel after corin! is completed, so that ori!inal pressures are maintained.
At surface, the mud is removed from between the inner and outer core barrels by displacement with
a !elled diesel oil and the barrels are immersed in dry ice for several hours to free&e the core. )nce
the core is fro&en, the inner barrel may be disconnected, removed, cut into four$ or five$foot len!ths
and shipped to the laboratory for analysis (one disadvanta!e of this procedure is that the wellsite
!eolo!ist has little chance, if any, to examine the core.
,
2urin! shipment and until analysis, the barrel len!th must be kept fro&en. This samples are then
prepared and thawed in the laboratory where the oil that would normally escape with pressure
reduction can be measured. #hen #ilhirt& and 'harlson (4?C@) compared the results of
conventional versus pressure corin!, they found that approximately 9=D of the residual oil in a an
Andres core was lost durin! the pressure drop associated with non$pressured core recovery.
The primary advanta!e of the pressuri&ed core barrel is that fluids do not escape as the core is
brou!ht to surface. Thus, it provides additional information on residual oil saturation valves
(6a!edorn and :lackwell, 4?C5). Althou!h the barrel has been available for years, it achieved
special prominence when enhanced oil recovery became a matter of special interest. #hile this
device does not prevent flushin! of the core, improvements in corin! fluids and bits have assisted in
reducin! flushin!.
-t is often desirable to know the quantity of oil remainin! after waterflood or in a natural water$
encroached &one. At the time a core is taken in a water$flushed &one, the oil exists as an immobile,
trapped phase. :y usin! a corin! fluid with a water filtrate and maintainin! a low sandface pressure
differential, the immobile residual oil is not displaced and, in this case, flushin! is not detrimental.
The pressure corin! process is complex and relatively expensive, but is considered by some to be
one of the better techniques for definin! reservoir residual oil saturation (6ensel, Er. 4?@8+ parks,
4?@5).
Orien#ed "ore arrel
The ma(or advanta!es of the core sample over well cuttin!s is that it offers a coherent Fmini$
exposureA of the selected interval, and therefore offers nearly the same basic ran!e of crucial
!eolo!ic information as a fresh road$cut outcrop. "nfortunately, a conventional core is not oriented,
and important data re!ardin! directional features can not be determined. 1ven if the orientation of
the inner barrel is known, this may drift durin! the corin! operation. 1ven dip amounts may be
uncertain, if the borehole itself is deviated from the vertical.
-n an extreme example, consider a core cut in a borehole that deviates at 89G from the vertical. -n
this example, beddin! planes are observed to dip at 89G to the lon! (AverticalA) axis of the core.
Biewed from one borehole orientation, these beds are hori&ontal (89 $ 89 H =), but from the opposite
orientation they are vertical (89 I 89 H ?=). "nless the orientation of the core, relative to the
borehole, is known, one can only say that true dip is 89G, plus or minus 89G
A conventional core barrel may be adapted for oriented corin! by the addition of two devices that
mark the core with respect to the barrel, and the core barrel with respect to the outside world.
)rientation of the core is performed by addin! an Aorientin! shoeA to the core catcher. This has
blades that scribe !rooves onto the core as it passes into the barrel. :y ali!nin! these !rooves, it is
possible to orient the entire se!mented core relative to itself and to the core barrel.
The latter, meanwhile, is oriented by ri!idly attachin! a AmultishotA survey tool to the top of the inner
core barrel. This tool records a series of measurements of inclination and a&imuth (dip and strike) at
fixed time intervals. :y comparin! these timed measurements with the drillin! record, it is possible
to determine the core barrel orientation foot by foot as the core was cut. 'omparison with measured
dips at measured depths on the oriented core !ives the true dip and strike of structures and !rain
textures.
"ore E%ec#or i#
1-
This is not a real alternative to conventional bottom hole corin!, but rather a means of obtainin!
usable si&e cuttin!s when drillin! with a diamond bit.
The core e(ector bit is similar to a conventional diamond bit, but has a central orifice like that in a
core bit (althou!h much smaller). #hen the bit drills, a small diameter core is cut and passes
throu!h this orifice into the drillstem $there is no core barrel or catcher. -mmediately above the bit is
a Acore catcherA sub$a short section of drill collar$with an eccentric inside diameter. As this sub
rotates, its inner wall will periodically strike the core and break it.
ome fra!ments of core will be retained inside the sub and recovered on its return to surface+
others will fall out of the bit orifice when the bit is picked up off bottom and will be carried to surface
by drillin! fluid circulation.
(repara#ion
#hen extensive corin! and core analysis are planned, a speciali&ed crew of core technicians may
be assi!ned to the wellsite from a core analysis service company. -n most other circumstances, the
mudlo!!in! crew and the wellsite !eolo!ist will be responsible for core handlin! and evaluation.
-n either case, the wellsite !eolo!ist must determine what procedures are to be followed in handlin!
and processin! the core, and what supplies will be required to accomplish this. After takin!
inventory at the wellsite, he or she should order sufficient quantities of the necessary supplies,
leavin! sufficient time for delivery.
As supplies arrive, they should be checked a!ainst the inventory and stored in a clean, dry, safe
place. #ood is a precious commodity on an offshore ri!. "nless locked away, wooden core boxes
and lids will tend to disappear.
-f the drillin! crew are unfamiliar with corin!, a meetin! should be arran!ed so that the !eolo!ist or
mud lo!!er can brief them on what will be expected of them durin! core retrieval. -t should be
explained where they can be of help and where they cannot. 0or example, warn them a!ainst
washin! the core with a hosepipeJ This may dama!e the core and will render it useless for
saturation measurements.
"ore (oin# Selec#ion
/ickin! a core point is a normal (ob of strati!raphic correlation. The approximate depth of the &one
of interest will often be already known from seismic profiles. "sin! lo!s from other wells, it is
possible to identify marker hori&ons immediately above the &one. The sonic lo! is usually best for
this, since it is stron!ly responsive to chan!es in formation rock stren!th and porosity. These are
the same characteristics that affect the rate at which a bit will drill the formation. 0or this reason, the
sonic lo! from a previous nearby well will show !ood correlation with a rate of penetration lo! from
the present well. 1ven better correlation is !iven by Fnormali&ed drillin! exponentsA (dx, ;K, ,
etc.). These are mathematical treatments used to standardi&e and cancel the influence of certain
mechanical variables (e.!., wei!ht on bit, rotary speed, cuttin! structure desi!n) on rate of
penetration, in order to derive a parameter that is predominantly controlled by rock stren!th and
porosity ( 0i!ure 4 , Correlation o sonic and drilling e#ponent logs in order to select a coring point).
11
-f a core barrel is run into the hole
too early, before the selected
interval has been reached, ri! time
and operatin! costs are wasted. -f
the &one of interest is reco!ni&ed
too late, the core can no lon!er be
cut and a ma(or ob(ective of the well
may be lost. -deally, a clear,
prominent marker hori&on should be
found that occurs immediately
above the core point. This, of
course, is not always possible, and
on remote exploration wells (rank
wildcats) it may be necessary, when
approachin! the &one of interest, to
adopt a more time$consumin!, but
failsafe, procedure.
This involves haltin! the drillin!
periodically, or when a drillin! break
occurs+ continuin! to circulate for
the la! time, inspectin! the well
cuttin!s from the drilled interval, and
then decidin! whether to drill further
or commence corin!.
"u##ing #,e "ore
There is little that the !eolo!ist can do to obtain useful information durin! the corin! process itself.
Rate of penetration is slow and unresponsive to litholo!ic chan!es. #ell cuttin!s will be of the same
poor quality as those from a diamond drill bit. There will also be a much smaller volume of cuttin!s,
since only an annular kerf of formation is bein! cut.
Althou!h visual examination of these cuttin!s is virtually useless, the !eolo!ist should have the
mudlo!!er or sample catcher catch as much of them as possible for the archival sample sacks.
These may be dumped later when successful core recovery is confirmed. -f, on the other hand, all
or part of the core is lost, these archival samples will be the only sample material available, for
better or worseJ
#hile corin!, even the depth of the well becomes uncertain, due to the low wei!ht on bit used. The
total depth of a well, durin! drillin!, is determined as the simple sum of the measured len!ths of all
components of the drillstem below the rotary kelly bushin! (RL:), which is used as the datum of
&ero$point for depth measurement. Thus, the depth at any time is taken to be the len!th of the drill
bit, drillstrin!, and as much of the kelly as has been drilled down below the RL:.
#hen drillin!, the drill collar will be in compression, i.e., shortened by wei!ht on bit, and the drillpipe
will be in tension, i.e., stretched. These two effects will introduce small but opposin! errors into the
depth calculation* the net error will be very small$a few feet in several thousands of feet$and will
remain consistent as drillin! proceeds.
#hen a core barrel is run, the bottom$hole assembly will contain fewer drill collars, and the len!th of
the drillstem will be compensated by the addition of extra drillpipe. ,ess wei!ht on bit will be applied
and, therefore, the relative len!ths of shortened or stretched pipe will be chan!ed. The net depth
error will remain small, relative to total depth, but will differ from that measured durin! normal
12
0i!ure 4.

drillin!. The effect is that total depth will appear to have chan!ed after the core barrel is run into the
hole. Althou!h the difference of a few feet is relatively insi!nificant in terms of the total depth, it is
important with respect to the core for two reasons. 0irst, it affects how the coreFs len!th is
estimated. econd, a few feet can become extremely important when the &one of interest is itself
short, say 59 ft or less.
;othin! can be done to solve this problem entirely. 6owever, the !eolo!ist, en!ineer, and drillin!
foreman can work to!ether to have the drillstrin! accurately remeasured before it !oes into the hole.
The kelly is measured when wei!ht is first applied to the core bit on bottom. A consensus start
depth for the core should be decided on$one that can be used for all further reports and
calculations.
Retrieving and Handling the Core
Se#/Up
As soon as the core barrel is picked up off bottom, and the trip out of the hole be!un, !eolo!ical
personnel should be!in their preparations to receive, process, and packa!e the core. This will
require a period of nonstop, hectic activity$especially if the core barrel is to be returned to bottom for
a second or third corin! run. #ork areas should be prepared, and materials made ready, in order to
facilitate these activities.
1ork Area
'ores will be collected, and eventually shipped, in boxes that are approximately M inches in hei!ht
and width, and 7 feet lon!. An area must be found where the whole core can be laid out, walked
around, and worked on by one or two people. -deally, a bench should be used for layin! down the
core boxes so that the !eolo!ist may work in a comfortable standin! or sittin! position. The area
should be under cover and well lit (cores mi!ht be recovered at ni!ht or in bad weather). -t should
have electrical outlets for the microscope illuminator, ultraviolet inspection lamp, and other devices.
Runnin! water is a convenience, but not essential, since the core should not be washed.
-n addition to the equipment required for microscopic examination of cuttin!s, the followin! special
supplies should be available in the work area*
N sufficient clean core boxes to receive the expected core foota!e (plus a few spares)+
supply of clean ra!s for cleanin! the core and stuffin! core boxes+
measurin! tape+
!eolo!ical hammer (or hammer and cold chisel)+
hand lens+
waterproof marker pens in red, black, and other colors (with spares)+
spare work !loves+
13
worksheets, note pads, and pencils+ wrappin!, sealin!, and cannin! supplies+
labeled archival and dried sample sacks+
copy of the core samplin! and shippin! instructions.
Rig Floor
About one hour before the core barrel is due on surface, the !eolo!ist should be!in preparin! the
area of the ri! floor that has been desi!nated as the core$retrieval area. The materials needed
include*
N catchin! set of core boxes, labeled and stacked as shown in 0i!ure 4 (Labeling and stack
order o core bo#es)*
!eolo!ical hammer+
soft metal hammer+
broom+
work !loves+
supply of clean !loves+
notepad and pencils on clipboard.
The catchin! set is used to keep the core in
correct order, both while it is bein! retrieved
and later, after it has been removed to the
work area. After use, the boxes may be
washed and reused. They should be clearly
labeled with top, bottom, and box number,
and stacked in an orderly manner to avoid
confusion even on a crowded, poorly lit ri!
floor at ni!ht.
;otice that boxes are numbered accordin!
to the order of the core as it comes out of
the barrel* box O4 holds the first (bottom)
section of core, box O5, the second section,
etc. This numberin! scheme also reflects
the a!e pro!ression of the rocks sampled,
box O4 holdin! the oldest sediments and so
on.
1nou!h boxes should be available to
accommodate the whole len!th of core.
1ach will hold about two feet of core (it will, in fact, hold almost three feet, but the core cannot be
expected to come from the barrel in convenient len!ths, and should not be broken until after initial
inspection).
14
0i!ure 4.

A nearby area should be cleared for stackin! the filled core boxes and drillin! crew members
dele!ated to help transport them to the work area. -f the filled boxes are to be lifted down from the
ri! floor by crane, then a pallet should be laid down upon which the filled boxes can be stacked.
Reco&ery 'rom #,e arrel
#hen the core reaches surface, the outer core barrel is suspended in the rotary table. The inner
barrel is lifted out and suspended with the travelin! block over the core retrieval area. The core
catcher is removed, and replaced with a barrel clamp and core ton!s, which allow the core to be
slipped from the barrel at a safe and controlled rate ( 0i!ure 5 , Conventional retrieval o the core
ro" the inner barrel).
The first two or three feet of the core should be
slipped from the barrel, briefly inspected, wiped
dry of drillin! fluid, and placed in box O4. The
next section of core should not be AslippedA until
this is completed. -f loose debris falls from the
barrel, it should be swept clear with the broom
and placed into the appropriate position in the
core box. -t may be possible later to piece
to!ether this broken material.
At no time should anyone reach under the core
barrel or block the view of the driller operatin!
the drawworks brake. ,o!!ers should remove
core pieces from beneath the barrel with a
broom or hammer and stand clear when not
doin! so.
-f the core ceases to slide from the barrel, it may
be (ammed (the barrel is not empty until the
rabbit slides out). ,i!ht tappin! with a li!ht metal hammer or mallet should free the core. 2o not use
the !eolo!ical hammer, which can dama!e the barrel. -f hammerin! cannot free the core, it must be
pumped out ( 0i!ure 7 , $etrieval by pu"ping in the case where the core is %a""ed). As core
pieces are pumped free of the barrel, they will fall to the !round and may be pushed away with the
broom to be dried and boxed. 2o not walk in front or handle the end of the core barrel, or any core
that is protrudin! from it.
1(
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 7.

o+ing #,e "ore
)n arrival at the work area, the core must be transferred to clean core boxes, fitted to!ether where
possible, and measured. 3ost oil companies require core boxes to be numbered in the manner
mentioned, i.e., from the bottom upward, but some 1uropean companies prefer a reverse order, so
that the core is reboxed with the top of the core
in box O4. #hatever method is to be used
should be decided on beforehand.
1ach piece of core should be taken from the
catchin! box and wiped clean with a dry ra!+ its
obvious features (such as fractures, beddin!
planes, oil or !as bleedin! from porosity) should
then be noted on a worksheet. The piece is then
transferred to its restin! place in a clean, new
core box. ,oose rubble should be put in a clean
sample sack and labeled with well and core
identification information, as well as an
estimation of the number of feet it represents (
0
i
!
u
r
e
8 , Labeling o the core or shipping).
#hen each box is about full, the core pieces
should be rotated and pushed to!ether to obtain
the best possible fit between broken ends. 1nds
should then be marked with appropriate symbols
to indicate the quality of fit* double chevrons for
no fit, sin!le chevrons for a poor fit, and no
1)
0i!ure 8.

0i!ure 9.

symbol for a perfect fit. The core is then oriented by markin! two lines on it in felt tip pen from top to
bottom (red to the left, black to the ri!ht), with the pieces pushed to!ether for best measured fit. A
tally sheet should be kept with the measured len!th of core and estimated rubble content of each
box. #hen the total len!th of core is known, these len!th measurements are translated into depths (
0i!ure 9 , &#a"ple core tally sheet ) $$missin! core is always assumed to have been lost from the
bottom of the barrel.
0inally, the pieces are moved sli!htly apart and separated by ra!s, which are also stuffed into the
space between pieces and at the ends of the box. This prevents dama!e to the core durin!
transport. The process is repeated for each box until the whole core is reboxed. The catchin! set of
boxes may now be removed, and the !eolo!ist can proceed with samplin! and !eolo!ical
evaluation.
O#,er "oring *e&ices
R"::1R, /,AT-', A;2 0-:1R%,A ')R1* Rubber sleeve, plastic sleeve, and fiber!lass
cores should be marked with waterproof materials for top, bottom, and depth. and then sealed with
caps (when available) furnished by the corin! company. Tape should be wrapped around the
sleeve$cap (oint. This in turn can be dipped in strippable plastic to ensure air ti!htness.
The sleeves are sometimes transported fro&en in full$len!th wooden boxes. )ften they have first
been cut into 7 to 9 ft (4 to 4.9 m) len!ths. The shippin! boxes should also have top, bottom, and
depth identified. 'are should be exercised to prevent the sleeves from bendin!, since this would
destroy the !rain$to$!rain inte!rity of the core.
/R1"R1 ')R1* 'ore handlin! of the pressure core barrel is mana!ed by the corin! company.
The samples remain in the inner barrel for transport to the laboratory. Typically, the inner barrel is
fro&en at the wellsite, cut into 7 to 9 ft (4 to 4.9 m) len!ths while in a fro&en state, and then shipped
in a free&e box. amples must remain fro&en until analysis in the laboratory.
/);%1 ')R1* Thirty ft (? m) of formation is normally cored with the spon!e barrel, after which
the core is hoisted to the surface. The inner core barrel is removed from the outer barrel and laid
down. This inner barrel contains the spon!e liner, which in turn contains the core. 6ydraulic
pressure is used to force the 7= ft (? m) of spon!e liner from the inner barrel. As 9 ft (4.9 m)
sections are exposed, the spon!e$liner$enclosed core is broken off and placed in /B' handlin!
tubes for transport to a core analysis laboratory. -f desired, the handlin! tubes can be filled with
drillin! mud or formation salt water to eliminate exposure of the cores to air.
"ore (reser&a#ion Tec,ni2ues
'ores are packa!ed to prevent fluid loss between the time of recovery and analysis. 6eavy$duty
plastic ba!s are commonly used for short$term stora!e. 0or lon!$term stora!e, samples are often
sealed by first wrappin! the core in layers of aranT3 wrap followed by several layers of aluminum
foil, and then dippin! the wrapped core in strippable plastic or wax. 0ree&in!, cannin!, and
submer!in! a core under fluid have all been successfully employed as means of preservin! cores.
'ores cut to evaluate interstitial water, measure fluid levels, or to interpret !as, oil, or water
production can be packa!ed by any technique other than submersion, since exposure of the core to
liquid would result in imbibition of that liquid and alteration of residual saturations.
1xposure of a core to the atmosphere should be minimi&ed when preservation of core wettability is
desired. -mmediate submersion under deaerated water is suitable for cores taken with water$base
mud. 'ores cut with oil filtrate muds can be stored under nonoxidi&ed oil. The aranT3 wrap$foil$
1*
strippable plastic preservation technique is suitable for all corin! fluids and is !enerally accepted as
the best.
ome corin! techniques have a built$in preservation ability that can be used to !ood advanta!e, at
least for short$term stora!e. Rubber sleeve, pressure, plastic$sleeve, and fiber!lass core barrels
need only be cut into suitable len!ths and then capped to properly preserve the core.
Sealing in (las#ic ags
ealin! a core in plastic ba!s is an excellent short$term preservation technique that should be
restricted to no lon!er than several days. The sample should be placed within the plastic ba! and
air space squee&ed from between the core and the ba! wall. The top can then be twisted to seal the
sample and taped a!ainst the plastic or sealed with a rubber band. -f the samples are to be
shipped, the core should be double$ba!!ed with insulatin! material placed between the cores. 1ach
plastic ba! should be labeled for depth interval, top, and bottom. The plastic ba!s normally used are
suitable for cores of up to approximately 4 ft (7= cm) in len!th. A newer, 7 ft (4 m) ba! with a &ip$
lock liner exists for fast preservation within cardboard boxes. This lon! ba! can be opened and
folded over the side of the box, and then samples may be put in depth sequence within it. This also
allows the top to be opened so that the !eolo!ist may secure small chips of the rock for description
or view the core without the cover of a plastic film.
Sealing in S#rippa$le (las#ic or 1a+
This technique is the best for lon!$term stora!e. -ndividual pieces of core should be wrapped with
several layers of aranT3 wrap or 2ow 6andiwrapT3 (other plastic products affect sample
wettability). The plastic should then be wrapped with several layers of aluminum foil, makin! sure
the foil is pressed to the sample to eliminate sharp corners where subsequent sealin! materials
may run off and not coat. 1ach sample should be marked clearly for well name, depth, and top or
bottom with a permanent marker or an attached label.
6eavy wire or twine should then be tied to each piece of wrapped core to allow immersion of the
sample into molten wax or plastic, or the samples can be dipped from opposite ends with a sealant
overlap. The samples should be immersed and removed rapidly so as not to melt the inner plastic
wrap. amples should be dipped at least twice, and then hun! on a rack to cool. The wire or twine
should be clipped near the core. The clipped end must be sealed to prevent a wick effect that will
allow moisture to escape. -f paraffin wax is used as the preservative material, the wax should be
heated only sli!htly above the meltin! point+ otherwise, the temperatures may be too hi!h, and
dama!e may occur to the inner layer of aranT3
/lastic materials used for coatin! cores must be stable over lon! periods of time, must not react
with water or oil, and should not exude materials when set. Recent research has resulted in the
development of a product with superior sealin! properties known as 'oreealT3 The 'oreealT3
product is new+ history on its performance is available only for a two$year period.
#hen tests are to be made on cores that have been stored for lon! periods, selected samples
should be analy&ed for water saturation. The results should be compared to saturations present in
the core at the time the rock was preserved in order to assess the amount of fluids that mi!ht have
been lost.
Sampling 'or "ore Analysis
)nce the core is cleaned, boxed, and measured, the core analysis samples should be selected and
preserved. ;ormally, samples are taken at re!ular intervals in massive formations considered to
1+
have reservoir potential (porosity and permeability), but must be more carefully selected in thin,
inhomo!eneous beds.
Thick, impermeable formations, meanwhile, need to be sampled only at the top, bottom, and once
in the middle (or every 9= feet, whichever is less). All permeable &ones more than two inches thick
within such formation should also be sampled. Thicker permeable intervals should be sampled
every foot, or every two feet if litholo!ically uniform. -n less homo!eneous formations, the samplin!
interval should be reduced to obtain reasonably representative samples for the whole core.
0or analysis, a coherent piece, about 7 inches lon! and showin! no splits or cracks, should be
taken. At each sample point, the minimum amount of core that will ensure 7 inches of
homo!eneous, unbroken rock should be selected. 'ore samples must be sealed in order to
preserve contained fluids until analysis. There are a number of methods used for this. 'annin! is a
common method, but one that is not recommended. Althou!h it provides a ti!ht seal, the air space
in the can allows evaporation and expansion of core fluids. -mprovement is !ained by wrappin! the
sample in a lar!e quantity of nonabsorbent material prior to cannin!.
2ippin! the core sample in wax or a thermoplastic !el is an excellent method of sealin! and is very
lon!$lastin!. To prevent surface porosity dama!e to the core, it should be wrapped in aran #rapP
or aluminum foil before dippin!.
A modern method, widely used to preserve pressuri&ed cores, involves free&in! in dry ice. -t
requires special facilities at the wellsite, however, and either rapid or refri!erated transportation to a
core laboratory.
#here core analysis is to be performed at the wellsite, and preservation of the core sample is
required for only a few hours, double wrappin! is quite successful. The sample is first wrapped in
aran #rapP (aran #rapP onlyJ )ther forms of food wrap are !as permeable), and then in
aluminum foil. -f lon!er preservation is required, it is recommended that the wrapped sample be
further enclosed in a heat$sealed polyethylene ba! or sleeve.
-f core analysis is to be performed at the wellsite, the sample need only be labeled by depth and
returned to its appropriate location in the core box. -f the sample is to be shipped to a core
laboratory, then it must be labeled in more detail*
oil company name and division+
well name and location+
core number+
sample number+
sample depth interval.
amples should be packed in a wooden or metal container with ra!, straw, or newspaper stuffin!
between the samples. A sample inventory should be prepared, and copies of it made. )ne copy
should be enclosed in the sample box. The other should be retained at the wellsite until receipt of
the samples has been acknowled!ed. The sample inventory should contain the followin!*
name of the laboratory and responsible person+
1,
oil company name and division+
well name and location+
core number and depth interval+
total number of samples+
total number of boxes+
list of samples by number, depth, and box+
type of analysis required+
drillin! fluid type and special peculiarities+
drillin! fluid filtrate loss, salinity, nitrate concentration, and any other special tests that
were run+
name and location of person to whom results are to be reported.
%aps in the core box from removal of a core analysis sample should be stuffed with ra!s and the
notation A')R1 A;A,Q- A3/,1* -;'61A made on the inside of the box at that point.
)eological E&alua#ion3 4and Samples
0ollowin! the brief examination made while boxin! the core, a more thorou!h evaluation should be
made to describe in detail all si!nificant macroscopic features of the core. #hile doin! this, the
!eolo!ist should also be extractin! small chips of core that will be used both for microscopic
examination and to take the place of washed and dried cuttin!s samples in the well sample set.
ample description should include*
litholo!y and thickness of ma(or formation units+
dip (apparent or true$if known) and strike of boundaries, beddin!s, fractures, and other
structures+
nature of litholo!ical boundaries+ nature of beddin! planes, and of sedimentary and
dia!enetic structures+
!radational features in !rain si&e, sortin!, etc.+
spacin! and surface texture of fractures and (oints.
Microscopic E+amina#ion
'ollected core chips should be sub(ected to the full litholo!ical and hydrocarbon examination that is
standard for cuttin!s examination. amples may be broken with a hammer and crushed in the
2-
blender to obtain fine$!rained material for examination of !rain texture and to liberate !as for
analysis by the mudlo!!er. ievin! or point countin! of this disa!!re!ated material can !ive a
quantitative estimate of !rain si&e and sortin!.
A sample lo!, consistin! of a !raphical representation of litholo!y and structure, and a written
description should be prepared from the notes made durin! all sta!es of sample examination.
"ore Sla$$ing
The core slabber is a table mounted, diamond circular saw ( 0i!ure 4 , Dia"ond saw or cutting
core slabs). -t may be used to cut flat hori&ontal or flat vertical slabs of core. The faces on these
slabs !ive very fresh exposure of !eolo!ic features and improve visual inspection at the microscope
( 0i!ure 5 , 'rientation o etched core slab or e#a"ination). After slabbin!, the core may be
polished with carborundum and etched with dilute hydrochloric acid.
0i!ure 4.

0i!ure 5.

T,in Sec#ions
-nspection of porosity, texture, mineralo!y, and microfossils can be much improved by the
production of thin sections from slabbed samples of core. These can be prepared by most core
analysis service companies.
ome mud lo!!in! contractors will also be able to provide thin sections at the wellsite. This can be
especially useful for cores cut in carbonate sections, where determinin! the specific !enetic ori!in
and distribution of porosity can be more important than measurin! its quantitative value.
Ace#a#e (eels
An alternative to thin sections is the acetate peel, which can also be prepared at the wellsite.
oftened plastic is applied to the slabbed and etched surface of the core and allowed to set. The
plastic is then peeled off the surface and, when mounted between !lass sheets, used as a
photo!raphic ne!ative and enlar!ed.
21
The traditional method requires the mixin! of unpleasant chemicals in order to prepare a solution of
cellulose acetate. An improved method uses precut sheets of acetate film that may be softened with
acetone and applied to the core surface.
La$ora#ory Sample
"ore Sampling
-n some cases wellsite samplin! is performed, but it is preferable to preserve and transport the
entire core to the laboratory for samplin! under more controlled conditions. #hen the entire core
reaches the laboratory, it should be placed in depth order on a layout table. After the core is refitted,
the natural !amma activity of the core can be lo!!ed and photos of the native rock can be taken. A
detailed core description should then be made.
Two basic approaches exist in sample selection. )ne is a statistical approach, in which cores are
sampled from the top or middle of each foot of rock, independent of the litholo!y. The second
approach requires that the analyst secure a representative sample, re!ardless of its location, from
each foot. The actual approach will depend upon company philosophy and the formation
characteristics.
"on&en#ional 5(lug6 Analysis
-n homo!eneous formations a core se!ment of approximately 8 inches (4= cm) in len!th or less
taken from every foot of core is sufficient for core plu! analysis. -f the core has !reat litholo!ical
variations, however, samples should be obtained more frequently. -t is important that the samples
be representative < core data have been skewed by improper sample selection.
Full *iame#er Analysis
-f a full$diameter analysis is to be performed, samples M inches (49 cm) or lon!er are prepared in
the form of ri!ht cylinders from each foot of core, usin! a diamond saw. The core ends are
sometimes used for saturation determinations. -t is important that the lubricant selected for the saw
blade corresponds to the filtrate of the corin! fluid, so that additional extraneous fluids are not
added.
Ru$$er7 (las#ic7 and Fi$erglass "ores
Rubber$sleeve cores arrive in the laboratory within the rubber sleeve, and a core !amma lo! is run
on the core to assist in selectin! samplin! points. -n thinly laminated sands, the core is sometimes
K$rayed to locate beddin! planes and sand strin!ers suitable for samplin!. -n some cases the cores
are fro&en and then slabbed. -n other cases the rubber sleeve is placed in a wooden or cardboard
box and a stabili&in! foam or plaster of /aris is used to surround the core. The uppermost part of
the rubber sleeve is removed, the mud cake is cut off, and the core is then available for samplin!.
This technique exposes the full len!th of the sample, and the core can be photo!raphed prior to or
after the samples have been taken.
Another technique is to cut a window in the sleeve, leavin! one side hin!ed so that it may be folded
back while the sample is taken. The window may subsequently be closed and taped. The rock is
sometimes fro&en and plu!s are drilled with liquid nitro!en to assure that !rain$to$!rain contacts are
maintained until tests commence.
22
/lastic sleeve and fiber!lass core barrels containin! unconsolidated reservoir rock are often fro&en
and then slabbed. /lu!s can be drilled from the fro&en core at desired intervals. -n other cases a
hole is drilled into the sleeve and samples are either drilled from the encased rock or removed by a
punch when the rock is very unconsolidated. -n other applications twin cuts are made down the
sides of the barrel parallel to the lon! axis of the core. The sleeve material is lifted away, exposin!
the core for examination and sample selection.
(ressure "ores
'ores recovered in a pressure core barrel arrive in the laboratory fro&en within the inner metal
barrel, havin! been transported in insulated chests filled with dry ice. elected len!ths are placed
on a millin! machine and !rooves are cut alon! the opposite sides of the metal barrel almost to the
core. A tissue$thin layer of metal is allowed to remain to preserve the inte!rity of the barrel. At the
time the analysis is to start, a screwdriver is wed!ed into the !roove and turned, which removes the
upper half of the metal barrel and exposes the core for subsequent samplin!. #hile a plu! analysis
can be performed, it is common to use full diameter samples of up to @ inches (5= cm) in len!th.
Sponge "ores
The spon!e core barrel arrives at the laboratory in a /B' handlin! tube. The aluminum shell and
the spon!e are split open to expose the core. 0ull diameter analysis techniques are employed.
amples are selected and marked on both the core and the spon!e before the core is removed
from the spon!e. pon!e samples for analysis are taken directly ad(acent to the correspondin! core
samples. This is to insure that the oil recovered from the spon!e is attributed to the pore space from
which it was expulsed. The spon!e samples are subsequently extracted and residual fluid volumes
are determined.
B.4. SideWall Coring (Coring Ater Drilling)
Side.all "oring
1ireline "ore )un
The chronolo!ical sample taker or core sample tool ('T) is a multishot !un that is lowered into the
borehole on a wireline lo!!in! cable.
At the appropriate sample depth, a 4$
inch hollow bullet is fired hori&ontally
into the borehole wall, and a core up
to 5 inches lon! recovered ( 0i!ure 4 ,
Sa"ple taking operation o the
sidewall gun). )n a sin!le run into the
hole, combined !uns can shoot up to
C5 sidewall cores.
-n a very irre!ular, washed$out,
over!au!e hole, cores may be much
shorter, or may even consist entirely
of filter cake or drillin! fluid$
contaminated sediments. -n very hard
23
0i!ure 4.

rock, the bullets may break on impact, fail to penetrate, or, if recovered, may contain only fractured
or crushed material.
Thou!h, for a number of obvious reasons, sidewall cores are inferior to bottomhole cores, they are
far more commonly cut. )ne reason is that they are cheap to obtain, requirin! minimum ri! time.
3ore importantly, they are taken after the well has been drilled and lo!!ed and, therefore, are
planned with the benefit of hindsi!ht.
Ro#ary Side.all "orer
This tool is an attempt to combine the advanta!es of sidewall corin! with conventional corin!
technolo!y. The inner barrel is forced out at an an!le throu!h the side of the outer barrel, and into
the borehole wall by the hydraulic action of pumped drillin! fluid. /umpin! is then stopped, and the
inner barrel is retrieved on a wireline+ the outer barrel is moved to a new location in the hole, and a
new inner barrel pumped into place for the next core.
The rotary sidewall cores are 4 inch in diameter and up to 4 foot lon!. They are of only sli!htly
better quality than wireline !un cores and require more expensive equipment and ri! time to obtain.
This type of corin! is not commonly performed.
Side.all "ore Slicer
The tricone tool that is used is run on a wireline and can cut lon! (up to 7 ft) trian!ular cores from
the borehole ( 0i!ure 5 , (he sidewall core slicer )tricone* tool).
The tool is lowered to the &one of interest, at which point a pad is extended a!ainst one side of the
borehole wall, forcin! the cuttin! tool
a!ainst the opposite wall. Two diamond$
tipped, circular saw blades mounted at
M== to each other move out of the tool and
up its len!th, cuttin! a trian!ular slice of
formation, approximately 4 inch on each
side. After cuttin!, the pad is retracted into
the tool and the core falls into a core
catcher below. "p to four cores can be cut
on a sin!le run in the hole. Any irre!ularity
in the borehole will prevent tool contact,
resultin! in a fra!mentary core.
uch core slices are very useful
!eolo!ically. They provide extensive
strati!raphic information rapidly and at a
relatively low cost. "nfortunately, tricores
can only be obtained successfully in very
well$consolidated formations. ofter rocks
tend to disinte!rate with saw vibration.
"ore (oin# Selec#ion
24
0i!ure 5.

idewall core points are selected at intervals that have been indicated to be important by cuttin!s or
wireline lo!s. A second crucial selection criteria is the likelihood of successful recovery of the core.
-f the borehole is deeply washed out and
over!au!e, the normal sidewall bullet will fail
to penetrate the borehole wall ( 0i!ure 4 ,
Selection o the correct sidewall bullets and
asteners or or"ation type and hole si+e).
#here the borehole is this much oversi&ed,
extra lon! wire fasteners are used to extend
the bulletFs penetration ran!e. imilarly,
special hardened bullets are used to penetrate
and core unusually hard formations. 6owever,
lon! fasteners and hardened bullets used in
soft formations and in$!au!e holes can result
in excessively deep bullet penetration and
failure to retrieve the core. /revious
experience with both the interval of interest
and the success rate of the wireline company
bein! used should be a factor in decidin! the
number and type of shots required, includin!
some accountin! for misfires.
"ore Reco&ery
)n retrieval from the borehole, the sidewall core !un is taken to the wireline service company work
area. :efore any other work is attempted, the lo!!in! en!ineer should remove the explosive
char!es from all bullets that failed to fire.
The successful bullets are then removed from the !un by cuttin! the wire fasteners. 1xtra care
should be taken to keep the bullets in correct order after they have been removed from the !unJ
1ach core is then extracted from the bullet into a labeled !lass (ar ( 0i!ure 4 , &#traction o the
sidewall core ro" the hollow bullet ater re"oval ro" the gun).
After the core is cut, the key to successful recovery is preparation. This means efficient and speedy
completion of the various sta!es of recovery, boxin!, samplin!, !eolo!ical evaluation, and shippin!.
-f two !eolo!ists are present at the wellsite, e.!., an oil company !eolo!ist and a mud lo!!in!
!eolo!ist, duties should be allocated between them so that they can work sequentially on each
aspect of the (ob without !ettin! in each otherFs way ( 0i!ure 5 , Se,uential core processing by two
geologists working together). -t is critical that the whole process be carried out in a disciplined
manner.
2(
0i!ure 4.

0i!ure 4.

0i!ure 5.

B.!. "a#or $%&e' o Core Anal%'i'
(lug 5"on&en#ional6 Analysis
"onsolida#ed Forma#ions
This technique is normally restricted to homo!eneous formations that can be characteri&ed with
plu!$si&e samples. Typical plu! si&e is 4 inch (5.9 m) in diameter, and 4 inch (5.9 cm) lon!.
'ylindrical samples ( 0i!ure 4 , Core sa"ple or conventional analysis with properly and i"properly
selected hori+ontal and vertical plugs) are normally cut with a diamond core bit parallel to beddin!
planes and trimmed to yield a plu! from the center of the core where minimal filtrate flushin! and
invasion of mud solids is to be expected. Bertical permeability samples are drilled at ri!ht an!les to
beddin! planes. Althou!h !enerally used for sandstones, this technique is also satisfactory for the
more homo!enous, nonfractured, and nonvu!!y carbonates.
Unconsolida#ed Forma#ions
"nconsolidated sand recovered within a
rubber sleeve core barrel, a plastic inner
barrel liner, or a fiber!lass barrel is often
stabili&ed by free&in! prior to samplin!.
0ro&en interstitial water present at the !rain
contacts immobili&es the rock particles.
/lu!s are drilled usin! liquid nitro!en as the
bit lubricant.
-n other cases a rubber sleeve core is first
immobili&ed by surroundin! it with wax,
plaster of /aris, foam or other suitable
2)
0i!ure 4.

materials, followin! which the sample may be fro&en and drilled. #hen a core is co"pletely
unconsolidated, plu! samples can be removed by insertion of a hollow punch into nonfro&en core.
0riable cores, however, should not be punched, as porosity and permeability will be created in the
core. -nstead, such plu! samples should be confined in a metal, plastic, or rubber sleeve, and be
sub(ected to simulated overburden pressure durin! analysis. 0ailure to treat unconsolidated cores in
this fashion will yield much hi!her porosity and permeability values than those actually present in
the reservoir.
The plastic inner liner has been a successful solution to recovery of unconsolidated 'anadian tar
sands. These formations are subsequently mined, and it is essential that tar content be accurately
defined. A modified evaluation technique is used that does not rely on plu!s cut at selected
intervals, but uses a small representative portion of the full diameter core. This process requires
that the plastic sleeve be cut into 4 ft (7= cm) len!ths, which are then cut in half vertically. Three
additional cuts down the full len!th of the sample are made on one of these core halves. This
results in three continuous wed!e sections of rock approximately 4 ft (7= cm) lon! and 4 square
inch (M.C9 sq cm) in area. The center portion of the half is used for determination of tar saturation
and can be related to a !iven volume or wei!ht of reservoir rock. /lu!s are taken from the one$half
full diameter slice resultin! from the ori!inal cut. These are confined in (ackets, and are then
analy&ed for porosity and permeability, usin! standard techniques.
Full Diameter Analsis
Rou#ine Analysis
0ull diameter analysis was introduced to allow testin! of rocks with complex litholo!y, such as
hetero!eneous carbonates ( 0i!ure 4 , Heterogeneous carbonate re,uiring ull dia"eter analysis)
and fissured, vu!ular formations unsuitable for plu! analysis. Analysis of these rocks requires
samples that are as lar!e as can be obtained, so that pore spaces are small compared to the bulk
volume of the samples. ,itholo!y and pore space in carbonates may be hi!hly variable, and the
porosity can exist as micro$porosity, inter!ranular, vu!!y, fracture, or a combination of all four. The
full diameter technique does not differentiate between the contribution made by each of the various
types of porosity, but yields a sin!le porosity value that includes all pore type combinations.
amples in the form of a ri!ht cylinder up to 4= inches (59 cm) lon! and approximately 9 inches
(45.9 cm) in diameter are often used. 2ata !enerated include :oyleFs law porosities, utili&in! helium
as the saturatin! medium. Two hori&ontal permeability values are determined. #hen fractures or
vu!s are present, one of the permeability measurements is visually oriented throu!h the more
permeable section, and the second
permeability is at ri!ht an!les to this
measurement. -n this manner, the effect
of vu!s or fractures on hori&ontal
permeability is indicated. Bertical
permeabilities are also frequently
determined.
!ro"ert !lug data #hole core data
&ir permeabilit$! md. -.1 ),
/orosit$! 0 1-.3 11.3
Residual oil!0 pore space 14.* 1*.1
2*
0i!ure 4.

1otal 2ater! 0 pore space 24.) 3*.*
Ta$le -! Co"parison o plug and whole-core data on "icro ractured oil-productive sandstone
sa"ples
A method for differentiatin! between matrix properties and full diameter data affected by fracture or
vu! porosity is to drill and test plu!s selected from the more uniform matrix. A comparison of such
data usin! this type of test is shown in Table 4. The difference is si!nificant. 3atrix properties are
important because they control initial water content and, hence, matrix hydrocarbon saturation.
(ressure "ore Analysis
The analysis of full diameter pressure cores follows, in a modified form, the procedures normally
employed in more routine analysis. 0ull diameter samples are cut in the form of a ri!ht cylinder and
then placed in speciali&ed, airti!ht containers where they thaw, so that fluids expulsed from the core
can be collected and measured. The cores are subsequently moved throu!h a 2ean$tark device
(ection M.8.5) for measurement of water saturation in each sample. /ressure core samples should
be further cleaned in the toluene$')5 pressure fluxer after removal from the 2ean$tark device.
This requires that the samples be placed in a sur!ical stockin! so that any rock fra!ments that
come loose from the core durin! cleanin! are retained. This is necessary because the residual oil
saturation value that is obtained from the analysis is at least partially dependent upon wei!hts taken
durin! the analytical process.
The airti!ht vessel in which each fro&en core is placed is evacuated for a short time interval to
remove air surroundin! the core. As the rock thaws, the !as that evolves from the residual oil
saturation escapes from the core and is retained in the vessel surroundin! the core. The volume of
this !as is measured and its composition determined by chromato!raph. The latter is helpful if
exotic !ases have been in(ected into the formation and you must know what portions of the
reservoir have been swept by this in(ected !as. The surface volume equivalent of the residual oil
saturation present in the core at reservoir conditions is determined by summin! the oil that is
expulsed durin! the thawin! process with the oil that is subsequently removed durin! the 2ean$
tark and toluene$')5 cleanin!.
To summari&e the handlin! process for pressure cores*
N The metal barrel is milled down its len!th and the core is removed.
The drillin! mud is chipped from the core surface.
The core is cut into full diameter ri!ht cylinders.
The core is wei!hed and then thawed in evacuated !lass chambers.
The oil, water, and !as expulsed are collected and the !as volume is determined. The
composition of the collected !as can also be measured.
The core samples are cleaned in a 2ean$tark apparatus. This furnishes water saturation
data and partial data for the determination of residual oil.
The core is cleaned in a toluene$')5 extractor.
2+
A :oyleFs law porosity value is determined, as well as hori&ontal and vertical permeability.
The water and residual oil saturations are calculated and a correction for oil shrinka!e is
applied.
At selected intervals, plu!s from sections of the fro&en rock not used in full$diameter
analysis are drilled vertically down the center line of the core. The water that is present in
the centermost plu! and in the surroundin! dou!hnut is analy&ed for the presence of
tracers previously added to the filtrate. This yields insi!ht into core flushin!.
S"onge Core Analsis
0ull diameter analysis of samples recovered within the spon!e barrel proceeds alon! the usual lines
once the core has been removed from the barrel. The spon!e itself is cut from the core barrel and
the fluids it contains are extracted usin! a vacuum retort technique. :oth oil and water volumes
within the spon!e are measured. Ta$le 8!, below shows residual oil saturation data for the core
alone and for the core plus spon!e for a specific field example. ;ote that the contribution of the
spon!e is variable and may be si!nificant.
De"thFeet Core residual oil $
pore space
S"onge residual oil $
pore space
%otal &s"onge "luscore' residual oil$
pore space
4)3) 23.1 -.+ 23.,
4)3* 23.1 -.+ 23.,
4)3+ 21.* +.3 3-.-
4)3, 2-.4 1-.- 3-.4
4)4- 2+.* *.- 3(.*
4)41 22.1 ).2 2+.3
Ta$le 8! Core, sponge, and core-plus-sponge residual oil saturation data
Side.all "ores
idewall core analysis is made on all non$shale samples sent to the laboratory. The samplin!,
therefore, is at the option of the operator selectin! depth points at which to recover a core. Results
of these analyses are often used to define the !as, oil, and water &ones+ hence, samples should be
spaced at re!ular intervals throu!hout the vertical section to be evaluated. -t is important that the
analyst receive these samples in correct vertical depth sequence, as this assists in the
interpretation of the probable production. -n areas where sidewall core$conventional core
correlations are not available, it is important to take a conventional core in a reservoir and then to
follow this with samples of sidewall cores. 0rom this, a sidewall$conventional core data relationship
can be developed for use in subsequent wells.
Side.all "ore Analysis
idewall samples are used extensively in softer sand areas. (;ote, however, that a sidewall$drilled
plu! from a new sidewall corin! device can be used for harder formations and can be analy&ed in
the same manner as a standard plu!$si&ed core.) /ercussion sidewalls are often smaller and
2,
demand additional attention. 1quipment for them is miniaturi&ed to reduce dead volume in the
testin! apparatus, althou!h techniques used for analysis are similar to those utili&ed in conventional
plu! analysis. The sidewall cores are normally coated with drillin! mud, which is removed prior to
analysis. -n areas of hi!h A/-$!ravity (li!ht) oils, sidewall cores are often smaller than 4 inch (5.9
cm) in diameter. -n areas of low A/-$!ravity (heavy) oils, samples are often lar!er.
-er"eabilities measured on percussion samples rarely yield true in situ values. 0or hard, low$
permeability formations, permeability values are too hi!h due to impact fracturin!, while
unconsolidated sands are usually compacted and yield erroneously low values. This conclusion was
documented by Reudelhuber and 0uren (4?9C), as well as Loepf and %ranberry (4?M=).
2ata show that porosities measured on sidewall samples approach conventional analysis values in
formations havin! true porosities ran!in! from 75D to 78D. -n hard formations, sidewall porosity
values are normally hi!her than conventional plu! values, as shown by #ebster and 2awson!rove
(4?9?).
/orosity in hard, well$cemented rock is increased by !rain shatterin! durin! bullet impact, and these
alterations in properties limit sidewall sample usefulness in reservoir en!ineerin! evaluations.
6owever, sidewall cores are excellent indicators of litholo!y, furnish data on the presence or
absence of oil and !as, and are valuable for interpretation of probable production. They also furnish
samples suitable for petro!raphic work.
:ecause of the small sample si&e, techniques employed in some areas require that all the sample
be used for porosity and saturation determinations. -n this circumstance, a visual assessment of the
!rain si&e, the shaliness of the sample, a measured porosity, and the natural density of the fresh
core is used with correlation charts appropriate to the area to arrive at an empirical value of
permeability. -n the hands of an experienced and competent analyst, such estimated values of
permeability are suitable for formation evaluation.
An improvement in the visual assessment of !rain si&e and sortin! was recently developed and is
now used in selected laboratories. The instrument is referred to as a particle si+e analy+er. This
procedure utili&es tokesF law and rapidly furnishes the distribution of !rain si&es for each sidewall
core sample, usin! a tokesF law device. A small portion of the sample is disa!!re!ated and
allowed to settle in a water bath. 3aterial settlin! to the bottom of the tube is retained on a balance
pan and the increasin! wei!ht is transmitted electronically to a computer. The settlin! time within a
tube of known hei!ht is related to the !rain diameter. -nterpretation is made by a computer, which
yields both tabular and !raphical histo!ram reports. The !rain si&e distribution and the median !rain
diameter are then used to assess the quality of the rock and, with correlations, to furnish estimated
values of permeability.
idewall samples from heavy oil formations are sometimes encapsulated in metal or plastic (ackets
prior to analysis. This maintains the inte!rity of the core as the heavy oil is extracted durin!
analysis. A common method of analy&in! encapsulated samples utili&es a 2ean$tark cleanin!
process, followed by a :oyleFs law porosity test.
B.(. Core Sam&le )re&aration
"leaning
The measurement of permeability and porosity usin! :oyleFs law and resaturation techniques
requires that residual fluids be removed and the cores be cleaned and dried. The solvents used to
3-
remove oil must not react with the rock+ they include toluene and xylene. Typically, water is
removed by heatin! the rock, with subsequent vapori&ation, and trappin! of the resultant water
vapor. Althou!h not part of routine core analysis, samples may be leached with water or methanol
to remove salt left from the vapori&ed interstitial or filtrate water.
'ores may be cleaned by*
refluxin! in a 2ean$tark or oxhlet apparatus, which is a slow but !entle process+
flushin! in a centrifu!e, which is limited to plu!$si&e cores and requires that the
mechanical stren!th of the core be sufficient to withstand the centrifu!al forces+
pressure flushin! of solvent throu!h the core, which is a slow process+
repeated pressure cyclin! of the core with a carbon dioxide and toluene mixture (a
relatively fast process not suitable for poorly consolidated sand or chalky limestone, and the
best technique for full$diameter cores)+
vapor soakin!, with condensed toluene drippin! on the core. This technique is suitable for
nonclay and non$!ypsum$bearin! formations.
'ertain clays (primarily montmorillonite) will dehydrate at temperatures lower than 4@=G 0 (@5G ') if
the relative humidity is reduced to &ero durin! the cleanin! process. -t is important to avoid this
because the water on the clay surface is chemically bound to the clays in the reservoir and reduces
pore space available for hydrocarbons. 2ata indicate that reservoir clays at moderate depths retain
two molecular layers of water on their surfaces. Removal of this water in the laboratory results in an
increase of approximately 7.7 porosity points for each 4=D of montmorillonite present. Removal of
this water will also result in an increase in the measured !rain density.
The 2ean$tark and oxhlet cleanin! techniques may not be suitable for clay$bearin! rock, since
samples have been known to crack durin! the cleanin! process when these techniques have been
used. The oxhlet technique can be used in some circumstances by coolin! the toluene prior to the
time it contacts the samples. ,ow$temperature solvent flushin! by centrifu!in! is recommended, as
it is relatively fast and has proven to be a reliable technique when clays are troublesome. :ush and
Eenkins (4?C=) discussed these phenomena and techniques for handlin! clay$bearin! samples.
%ypsum poses similar problems and also requires special analytical techniques that expose the
samples to temperatures no !reater than 48CG0 (M8R'). 6urd and 0itch (4?9?) addressed this
problem in detail and found that the presence of 4=D !ypsum in a rock sample will increase the
porosity 8.C points if all water of hydration is removed from this material.
Dring
2ryin! poses no problems in stable rocks, and temperatures of 58=R0 (449R') can be maintained
with no dama!e to the cores. 0ormations containin! hydratable clays can be dried in a humidity$
dryin! oven set at 89D relative humidity and 489R0 (M8R'). These conditions leave two molecular
layers of water on the clay surfaces, an amount that clay chemists believe to be reasonable.
)bservation of samples taken from depths of 4=== ft (7=9 m) or less shows that some cores crack
while in the humidity oven even under these conditions. This would indicate that more than two
molecular layers are actually present on the clay surfaces at these lesser depths.
31
!ro"ert Oven dried ( )*+, F Humidit Dried-
3ul4 olume5 cm
3
1-.- 1-.-
/ore olume5 cm
3
2.) 2.2*
/orosit$5 0 2).- 22.*
"rain olume5 cm
3
*.4 *.*3
Dr$ 2eight5 g 1,.)1 1,.,4
"rain densit$5 g6cm
3
2.)( 2.(+
.489G 0 and 89D relative humidity
Ta$le -! &#a"ple o porosity and grain density variations between hu"idity-dried and oven-dried
clay-bearing rock sa"ples
The humidity$dryin! technique is sometimes utili&ed in core analysis studies. #ater bound to the
sand !rains reduces both porosity and !rain density. 'lay$bearin! samples subsequently dried in a
re!ular oven will show both an increase in porosity and an increase in !rain density (an example is
!iven in Ta$le -). The user of the core analysis data should know the core analysis dryin!
technique that was employed.
6i!h permeability samples can sometimes be dried within several hours, and this time framework
can be reduced by application of a vacuum to the samples as heat is applied. As permeability
decreases, dryin! time increases. -n some cores, with permeabilities of less than one millidarcy, 8@
hours have been required in nonvacuum ovens. As the sample si&e increases so does dryin! time.
"nconsolidated rock samples enclosed within metal or plastic (ackets will require lon!er dryin!
times than samples exposed on all surfaces.
B.*. )oro'it% "ea'urement
Measuremen# o' (orosi#y
/orosity is a measure of the reservoir stora!e capacity. -t is defined as the void volume (pore
volume) of a sample divided by its bulk volume. -t enters most equations as a fraction and is
reported in core analysis studies as a percent. -t varies from less than 4=D to !reater than 8=D in
sandstones and from 9D to 59D in limestones and dolomites. /orosity can be !reater than 59D in
some vu!!y or moldic limestones or dolomites. -n some diatomaceous earth deposits, porosities
approach M9D. These hi!h values are the result of pore space bein! present between the diatoms
as well as the porosity found within the individual diatom skeletal structure.
32
0i!ure 4.

0i!ure 5.

/ores vary in si&e from microscopic ( 0i!ure 4 ,(hin section o intergranular pore space) to vu!s,
caverns, or fractures normally introduced by secondary dia!enetic processes ( 0i!ure 5 , (hin
section o core containing vugs) . A porous rock sample will have a measurable pore volume (/B), a
measurable !rain volume (%B), and a measurable bulk volume (:B). Two of these three variables
must be measured or calculated in order to determine porosity. These three variables may be
combined in different ways to furnish porosity. The measurement technique selected depends on
the rock type analy&ed and the time required to obtain the data. The followin! equations apply*
/ercent porosity H 5-6
/ercent porosity H 586
/ercent porosity H 536
(otal pore space is defined as all pore space present in a rock sample, whether it exists as an
isolated pore sealed by secondary cementation, or whether it is connected to other pores. &ective
pore space is defined as the pore volume of interconnected pores. )nly the latter contributes to
production, but certain down hole lo!s sense total porosity. #hile both total and effective porosity
exist as theoretical possibilities, practical experience has shown that differences between the two
are normally of little concern. 3ost laboratory techniques sense effective porosity, but total porosity
can be determined if the sample is broken down into !rain si&e and a speciali&ed technique
employed.
Total and effective porosity have a different meanin! in current lo! analysis and should not be
confused with the definition !iven above. Total porosity is that which is available when bound water
is removed from the clays present.
33
Bole.s /aw %echni0ue
The :oyleFs law method of measurin! porosity is a !as transfer technique that involves the
compression of !as into the pores or the expansion of !as from the pores of a clean, dry sample.
1ither pore volume or !rain volume may be determined, dependin! upon the instrumentation and
procedures used. -t is an accurate technique when performed properly+ it is fairly rapid for the
ma(ority of samples encountered, and it yields cores that can be used for further testin!. -t is
essential that the samples be clean and dry, otherwise you will obtain erroneously low porosity
values.
./L0 1'L/2&: The measurement of bulk volume is critical when pore volume is bein! calculated
from the difference between bulk volume and !rain volume. A !ood technique utili&es ArchimedesF
principle of displacement.
)ne of two applications of this principle is typically used. The first application requires that the
sample be saturated with a liquid and then wei!hed. The sample is then submer!ed in the same
fluid, and its submer!ed wei!ht taken. The bulk volume is the difference between the two wei!hts
divided by the density of the fluid with which the core is saturated and in which it is immersed. The
second application also requires that the sample be saturated with water or other suitable liquid.
#ater is typically used, because it can be easily vapori&ed from the core after the test is complete.
After saturation, the sample is immersed in a small vessel of water previously placed on the
laboratory scales. 0or this immersion, the core sample must be suspended and lowered into the
water without touchin! the sides of the vessel. Two wei!hts are taken* that of the vessel and water
before the core sample is immersed, and that of the vessel, water, and sample afterwards. The
wei!ht difference is equal to the wei!ht of the water displaced by the core sample. :ecause the
density of water is 4.= !>cm7, this wei!ht difference in !rams is numerically equal to the bulk volume
of the core sample in cubic centimeters.
Another suitable technique involves immersin! the sample in mercury and measurin! the volume of
mercury displaced, employin! a mercury pump calibrated for plu! si&e samples.
:ulk volume can also be determined by caliperin! the len!th and diameter of a core sample and
then applyin! appropriate mathematical formulas. %enerally, information developed by caliperin! is
not sufficiently accurate to yield valid porosities when !rain volume is to be subtracted to yield pore
volume. -n other cases the bulk volume is determined by a direct measure of the pore volume, and
this is summed with a direct measure of the !rain volume.
3$A45 1'L/2&: 3easurement of !rain volume is easily completed usin! a type of :oyleFs law
apparatus illustrated in 0i!ure 4 (3rain volu"e deter"ination using .oyle6s law porosi"eter). A
clean, dry sample is placed in a chamber of known volume. This chamber is isolated from the
upstream pressure chamber, which is also of
known volume. The upstream pressure chamber
is char!ed to a pressure of approximately 4==
psi (M@? k/a) and then isolated. The connection
between the pressure chamber and sample
chamber is opened and !as expands into the
sample chamber, causin! a drop in the ori!inal
reference pressure. -f volumes of the pressure
and sample chamber are known, the !rain
volume may be calculated by usin! the
measured pressures and the equation shown
beneath 0i!ure 4.
34
0i!ure 4.

/recautions are necessary to secure valid data when utili&in! this technique. -n rocks containin!
free carbon and clays, air molecules can be adsorbed on the mineral surfaces, and can produce an
erroneous measurement of !rain volume and porosity. This limitation is overcome by usin! helium
!as in the laboratory apparatus. 6elium has an extremely small molecule that rapidly penetrates
small pores. -t is inert and will not be adsorbed on the rock surfaces as air can be.
Another advanta!e of this laboratory approach is that !rain volume determined durin! this
measurement can be subsequently combined with measured wei!hts on the sample to yield reliable
!rain density values. -ncomplete cleanin! and insufficient dryin! will yield erroneously low !rain
densities and erroneously hi!h !rain volumes.
-'$& 1'L/2&: /ore volume is often determined indirectly by calculatin! the difference between
measured values of bulk volume and !rain volume. -t can also be measured directly by usin!
:oyleFs law equations. -n order to do this it is necessary to alter the sample holder from the
confi!uration illustrated in 0i!ure 4. The sample must be placed in a holder that has no void space
around the periphery of the core and on the ends. An apparatus suitable for this measurement is
referred to as a 6assler holder or a hydrostatic load cell. The hydrostatic load cell is illustrated in
0i!ure 5 (Hydrostatic load cell or direct "easure"ent o pore volu"e ).
6elium can be in(ected into the core throu!h the end stems as illustrated, and the equation beneath
can be modified to furnish the sampleFs pore space. 2ead volume in the system is measured by
substitutin! a solid metal plu! for the core plu!. The sample is then inserted. -t is essential that the
end stems butt closely a!ainst the sample
faces. -f not, a dead volume not measured
with the metal plu! is created, which will yield
an erroneously hi!h pore space. The sample
should have flat end surfaces at ri!ht an!les to
the axis of the core. The fact that some
samples are less than perfect can be
compensated for by placin! a thin rubber pad
(with a center hole) between the sample face
and the metal end stem. The compressible
rubber fills the space and allows calculation of
valid data.
!arameter 1nade0uate dring- !ro"erl dried
/orosit$ ).*
*.+#7 1).40%
"rain densit$ 2.)2
2.)4#7 .-2 g6cm3%
/ermeabilit$ -.-3
-.-) #7(-0%
.These data were rushed for well completion and used successfully for that purpose. 6owever, this
information would not be adequate for estimatin! reserves.
Ta$le -! &#a"ple o errors in porosity, grain density, and per"eability as a result o inade,uate
core drying
3easurements on cores that are not clean and dry yield values of pore space that are too small.
Ta$le - presents selected data measured on core samples that were rushed throu!h the analysis
without adequate time bein! allowed for core dryin!. These data were required within a short time
3(
0i!ure 5.

for completion purposes, and, while adequate for that ob(ective, would not be suitable for calculation
of reserves$in$place.
Summa#ion/o'/Fluids Tec,ni2ue
/orosity determination by su""ation-o-luids has been used extensively. The technique measures
!as, oil, and water in the pore space of fresh core of known bulk volume. These volumes are
summed to yield the pore volume and hence the porosity. This is the most rapid technique known,
and, when it is used in suitable rock types with proper oil and water calibrations, it yields valid
porosity values. The technique is well suited for routine laboratory work, and it allows porosity and
saturations to be determined on the same sample.
The determination of porosity requires measurements on two portions of a core. )ne portion is
approximately 4== ! in wei!ht, and is crushed to fra!ments approximately 4>8 inch (=.M cm) in
diameter. These are placed in a cylindrical metal holder with a cap on one end ( 0i!ure 4 ,
Sche"atic o su""ation-o-luids retort). 1xtendin! from the opposite end of the holder is a lon!,
steel condensin! tube, approximately 4>8 inch (=.M cm) in diameter. 1ach sample holder contains
material from a sin!le sampled depth, and multiple sample holders are placed in a retort and heated
simultaneously. #ater and oil contained in the pores are vapori&ed, move down throu!h the
stainless steel tube, and are subsequently condensed into calibrated !lassware. The volumes of oil
and water are read and recorded for future calculations. A schematic of the retort is shown in 0i!ure
4.
A second portion of rock wei!hin!
approximately 7= ! is obtained by
shapin! a piece of core to a rou!hly
cylindrical si&e. The sample is wei!hed
and then placed in a device in which its
bulk volume is determined by mercury
displacement. The sample is then
immersed in mercury and pressure on
the mercury is raised to approximately
4=== psi (M@?9 k/a). At this pressure,
mercury enters the sample and
compresses the !as, fillin! the
unoccupied pore space. #ith suitable
calculations this furnishes the !as
volume as a percent of the bulk volume
of the sample.
Lnowled!e of the bulk volume and
wei!ht of the fresh sample into which
mercury is in(ected allows computation
of the natural density of the rock. This in
turn is used to convert the 4== ! to be
retorted into an equivalent bulk volume. The oil, water, and !as volumes are each reported as a
fraction of the bulk volume of the rock from which they came, and the three are summed to yield the
porosity.
This is not a suitable technique for core samples that have been exposed to the atmosphere and in
which residual oil and water have evaporated. 0resh cores contain residual oil and water in the finer
pore spaces, and any in(ected mercury only fills the lar!er spaces occupied by !as. -n cores in
which all liquids have evaporated, the mercury will not penetrate the smaller !as$filled pores at the
4=== psi (M@?9 k/a) pressure imposed, and the resultin! porosity value will be erroneously low.
3)
0i!ure 4.

'4L 1'L/2& D&(&$245A(4'5: The oil and water contents of a sample are determined by hi!h$
temperature retortin! at temperatures of up to 45==R 0 (M9= R '). ome oil is lost within the system
because of cokin! and crackin! of oil contained within the pore space. This results in an observed
oil volume in the condensin! !lassware that is less than that actually present in the core. A
correction is made to increase the observed oil volume prior to the calculation of a summation$of$
fluids porosity. This correction is based on calibration curves that had been made previously usin!
oils similar to those from the area from which the core was recovered. -n those cases where no oil is
available, a standard correction has !enerally proved adequate. The correction curve is essentially
independent of the A/- !ravity, primarily because of the hi!h temperatures induced durin! the
analysis. A typical oil correction curve is shown in 0i!ure 5 ($etort oil correction curve).
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 7.

!A(&$ 1'L/2& D&(&$245A(4'5: 2urin! retortin!, the recovered water volumes are read at a
point that distin!uishes pore water from mineral water of crystalli&ation. A plot of water recovered
from individual cores as a function of time is shown in 0i!ure 7 ($etort water recovery versus ti"e).
These are cumulative$water$recovered curves and most are distin!uished by a plateau that
represents water held within the pore space by capillary forces. This is the water that is required in
the summation$of$fluids analysis. A second plateau representin! a !reater water volume is termed
Atotal waterA in the analysis, and this represents pore water plus any water that has been
contributed by adsorbed water or water molecules within clays. /ore water can be easily
distin!uished from mineral water of crystalli&ation if no clays or other hydratable minerals are
present. #hen clays are present, it is likely that some crystalli&ation water will be included in the
summation, and computed porosity and water saturation values will be too hi!h. This error will be
proportional to the percenta!e of clay in the core.
6ensel (4?@=) documented the idea that data could be improved if the water value were read after
sub(ectin! the cores to a temperature of 79=R0 (4?7R') for a minimum of 7= minutes. This
effectively extends the plateau, and improves the differentiation between capillary$held water and
that formed by breakdown of minerals present.
3*
0i!ure 8 (Su""ation-o-luids porosity
)water read at 789:;<=>>R'* versus .oyle6s
law )heliu"* porosity) shows the difference
in measured porosities between those
obtained with :oyleFs law procedure and
those obtained in retortin! when a constant
temperature of 79=R0 (4?7R') and a plateau
technique were used to determine formation
water volumes.
-'$'S4(?: Balidity of the summation$of$
fluids technique can be rou!hly checked by
a balance (6ensel 4?@=) to yield !rain
density as illustrated in the followin!
equations*
5-6
586
and
B! H Bb$ (Bu I Bo I Bw) 536
#here*
wH rock !rain density, !>cm7
oH oil density, !>cm7
g H water density, !>cm7 (assumed 4.== for water collected)
#4H wei!ht of crushed rock in retort less wei!ht of contained fluids, !
#5 H wei!ht of crushed rock in retort, !
B! H !rain volume, cm
7

Bo H volume of oil collected, cm7 (corrected for vapor losses, cokin!, etc.)
Bw H volume of water collected, cm
7

3+
0i!ure 8.

Bs H volume of unoccupied pore space, corrected based on retort sample wei!ht, cm7
Bb H bulk volume of sample used to determine unoccupied pore space, corrected based on retort
sample wei!ht, cm
7

0urther verification is supplied by comparison of the summation porosities with a porosity value
calculated via a :oyleFs law procedure on ad(acent plu!s. This comparison requires that the plu!
used for :oyleFs law be properly dried. 1xcessive dryin! will dehydrate clays and yield an
erroneously hi!h helium porosity that may a!ree with the erroneous summation data. #hen
troublesome clays are encountered, combination analysis techniques usin! (4) oil and !as volumes
developed from summation$of$fluids and (5) porosity from helium in(ection on a properly prepared
core to!ether will yield water saturation by difference calculations. Ta$le -, below, which presents
data !enerated on a shaly, dirty sandstone, illustrates the error in porosity that is possible if rocks
are improperly analy&ed. The example quoted is an actual field case, but the ma!nitude of porosity
differences shown here is unusually hi!h. These rocks contained up to 7=D montmorillonite, an
amount not normally observed.
"om$ina#ion Analysis.
Saturations2 $ !ore S"ace
!orosit Oil #ater Gas
34.- 4(.+ 33.+ 2-.4
3).4 4*.3 3-.2 22.(
2+.2 (3.( 2*.* 1+.+
34., (1.- 2+.* 2-.3
3*., )-.2 2(.3 14.(
Summa#ion o' Fluids Analysis99
Saturations2 $ !ore S"ace
&3' &)' &4' &*'
!orosit Oil #ater Gas
43.4 34.2 4+.4 1*.4
44.1 3,.2 42.4 1+.4
3(.+ 42.3 43.1 14.)
4-.3 44.2 3+.2 1*.)
4*., 4*.* 4-., 11.4
. 'orrect technique.
3,
.. Technique was unsuitable for this rock which contained hydratable clays.
(4) 6elium porosity on properly cleaned and humidity dried core at 489R0 and 89D
humidity.
(5) )il volume from summation of fluids divided by helium pore volume.
(7) 6elium porosity (4) minus summation of fluids !as and oil as a D bulk volume.
(8) %as volume from summation of fluids mercury in(ection divided by helium pore volume.
Ta$le -! A co"parison o the results o co"bination analysis and su""ation-o-luids analysis on
cores containing hydratable clay.
Analysis of fractured shales containin! !as or oil poses special problems. The retort temperature
reached in the summation$of fluids analysis is sufficiently hi!h to break down kero!en$like materials
whose presence is indicated by dark oil recovery in the retort tube. -f cores are selected from a
known dry !as or condensate &one, the contribution of the kero!en material may be easily
determined. -f the matrix and>or fractures contain a dark oil, temperature control and a combination
analysis with another technique is required, so that only the live oil is removed and no contribution
of the kero!en is included. )il from the kero!en material would not be recovered under normal
producin! practices, and inclusion of this material in the calculations will yield an erroneously hi!h
porosity in the laboratory analysis.
#hen a conventional core is analy&ed, it is important that attention be paid to securin! ad(acent
portions of rock to use for !as and liquid saturation determinations. 6etero!eneous cores can have
widely varyin! pore !eometry in the ad(acent pieces and, hence, yield erroneous porosity values.
/lu! samples are normally not used for hetero!eneous rock, but, when necessary, this samplin!
problem can often be overcome with careful attention to sample selection.
2ifferential flushin! of the core may create still another problem. -f the sample used for !as
measurement is taken from the inner portion of the core and the samples for liquid saturations are
taken from a more hi!hly flushed outer portion, the calculated porosity will be hi!her than the true
value. A!ain, this can normally be overcome with proper sample selection procedures, but should
be reco!ni&ed as a potential source of error.
S4D&!ALL C'$& A5AL?S4S: 3ost percussion sidewall cores are analy&ed usin! the summation
$of$fluids technique. 3ercury is first in(ected into the core sample to yield !as space. The same
sample is then retorted to yield oil and water saturations, usin! procedures previously described.
Resa#ura#ion Tec,ni2ue
The resaturation technique requires that the samples be clean and dry prior to measurement. A dry
wei!ht of the core is taken and the sample is then evacuated and pressure saturated with either
water or a li!ht hydrocarbon. The difference between the saturated and dry wei!hts yields the
!rams of fluid in the pore space. 2ividin! this value by the density of the saturatin! fluid yields the
pore volume. The procedure is slow and fairly difficult and requires that fluids used to saturate the
rock wet, but do not react with, the rock surfaces. -ncomplete resaturation will cause erroneously
low porosity values. The advanta!es of this method include the possibility of usin! the samples for
further testin!, althou!h the core must be recleaned if oil is used to saturate the rock. #hen done
properly, the technique is accurate+ however, the results are sensitive to preparation. The samples
must be clean and dry prior to the initial wei!hin!, otherwise an erroneously low porosity will be
measured.
4-
The resaturation method is commonly used as a quality control check in special core analysis tests,
as many measurements require resaturation of core samples. 'omparison of the resaturation$
measured porosity with an ori!inally measured :oyleFs law value for the same sample pinpoints
problem areas when the two do not a!ree.
!recision of 5easurement
The :oyleSs law, summation$of$fluids and resaturation techniques for porosity measurement have
been accepted as yieldin! values accurate within T =.9 porosity points when the limits imposed on
each method are properly observed.
-n some cases < where the summation$of$fluids data have been found to yield hi!h porosity values
because of the presence of clays, and yet where information is required with rapid turnaround for
completion or decision purposes < both summation and :oyleFs law data have been determined.
The summation$of$fluids data furnish rapid information for the completion decision. The plu!s to be
used for permeability measurements are cleaned, dried, and subsequently used for a :oyleFs law
porosity value comparison. This yields more accurate data for application in reservoir en!ineerin!
calculations.
O&er$urden (ressure E''ec#s
Rocks analy&ed at surface conditions have usually been relieved of downhole confinin! pressures.
#ell$cemented, elastic rocks do not under!o any ma(or chan!e in volume when their environment is
chan!ed from reservoir to surface conditions. 0or this reason porosity is normally determined with
minimal or no confinin! pressure. "nconsolidated and poorly consolidated rock, however, often
expands when released from its natural confinin! stresses. /orosity should be measured on
samples of this type under a confinin! pressure approximately equivalent to reservoir conditions.
A hydrostatic load cell used for simulatin!
downhole stresses is shown in 0i!ure 4
(Hydrostatic load cell or direct
"easure"ent o pore volu"e). The loadin!
imposed on the core sample is referred to as
hydrostatic pressure, or hydraulic loadin!,
because pressures are equal in all
directions. A schematic of reservoir loadin!
on a core sample and the concept of net
overburden pressure is shown in 0i!ure 5
($eservoir versus laboratory overburden
pressure loading). The laboratory
overburden pressure test simulates the net
overburden pressure, which is the difference
between the overburden pressure caused by
the wei!ht of sediments and the reservoir
pressure. -n the illustration presented,
reservoir pressure is estimated to be the
pressure related to a normal hydrostatic
!radient and is approximately equal to =.9
41
0i!ure 4.

psi>ft (44.7 k/a>m) times the depth. #hen the actual reservoir pressure is known, it should be
substituted in this equation,
Reservoir loadin! is thou!ht to be
essentially uniaxial, whereas the loadin! on
the core sample in the laboratory is
essentially equal in all directions. -n well$
indurated rocks this is observed in the
laboratory to cause a reduction in pore
volume believed to exceed that actually
seen in the reservoir. 2ata presented by
wanson and Thomas (4?@=) indicate that
in unconsolidated cores the application of
hydrostatic loadin! adequately approximates
reservoir loadin!. This conclusion was
reached after lon!$term tests on carefully
handled unconsolidated cores.
0i!ure 7 (-orosity reduction with net overburden pressure) illustrates the reduction in porosity
observed for samples of varied levels of cementation. These curves exhibit typical shapes, in that
the !reatest rate of porosity reduction is typically seen at lower net overburden pressures. /ore
space reduction with overburden is minimal in the well$cemented core and assumes more
importance as one moves from friable to unconsolidated formations. This type of information is
easily obtained in the laboratory.
A reduction in porosity with an increase in overburden pressure has also been observed in hi!h
porosity chalk formations. A reduction in pore space would be associated with a reduction in
permeability and, hence, reduced formation productivity. 1xcessive deformation in chalks should
supply reservoir ener!y to displace oil, but could also lead to casin! collapse or related reservoir
problems.
E+ercise -!
%iven the followin! true values for a core sample*
42
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 7.

:B H 45.89 cm7
%B H ?.@? cm7
2ry wei!ht H 5M.54 !
'alculate the porosity and specific !ravity of the rock.
-f, however, the value of bulk volume had been erroneously measured as 45.7? cm7 and the !rain
volume erroneously measured as ?.@7, calculate the error in porosity and !rain density that would
obtain.
1stimate the errors on both an absolute and a percent basis.
olution 4*
H 5=.MD
%2 H dry wei!ht>!rain volume
H 5M.54>?.@?
H 5.M9 !>cm7
Erroneous V H 45.7? cm7 (=.=M cm7 error low)
: 5=.5D (error is =.8 porosity points)
%2 H H 5.M9 !>cm7 (no error)
Erroneous )V H ?.@7 (=.=M cm7 error low)
H 54.=D (error is =.8 porosity points)
H 5.MC !>cm7 (=.=5 !>cm7 error)
E+ercise 8!
43
%iven the followin! data for a core analysis, calculate the porosity and the saturations of oil, !as,
and water.
)as &olume sample
4. :ulk volume* 49.78 cm
7

5. #ei!ht* 74.@M !
7. %as vol* 4.9M cm
7

8. 'omputed natural density H wei!ht>:B H UUUUUUU !>cm
7

Re#or# Sample
9. #ei!ht* 459 ! H #5
M. :ulk volume H ample wei!ht>natural density H Bb H UUUUUUcm
7

C. Recovered oil 5.4 cm
7

@. 'orrected oil* 5.9 cm
7
H Bo
?. -nitial water* @.7 cm
7
H Bw
4=. 0inal water* ?.5 cm
7

44. 0luid densities* H =.@9 !>cm
7

H4.= !>cm
7

olution 5*
Gas volume sam"le
7

5. #ei!ht* 74.@M !
7. %as vol* 4.9M cm
7

8. 'omputed natural density H wei!ht>:B H 5.=@ !>cm
7

Retort sample
9. #ei!ht* 459 ! H #5
M. :ulk volume H ample wei!ht>natural density H Bb H M=.4 cm
7

7

7
H Bo
7
H Bw
7

7

44
H4.= !>cm
7

/orosity and saturations
): #: %:
45. )il D :B I #ater D :B I %as D :B H /orosity fraction
(@) V (M) I (?) V (M) I (7) V (4)
=.=85 I =.47@ I =.4=5 H =.5@5
47. /orosity percent H porosity fraction x 4== H 5@.5
48. )il saturation D pore space H W(@) I (45) (M)X 4== H 48.@D
49. #ater saturation D pore space H W(?) I (45) (M)X 4== H 8?.=D
4M. %as saturation H 4== $ 48.@ $ 8?.= H 7M.5D
E+ercise 3!
"sin! the followin! data, calculate the !rain density of the retort sample.
H !rain density H !rain wei!ht>!rain volume
'ompare calculated !rain density with expected !rain density based on the litholo!ic description of
the core and then decide<
2oes the data appear to be accurateY
#hyY
%as volume sample
7

5. #ei!ht* 74.@M !
7. %as vol* 4.9M cm
7

8. 'omputed natural density H wei!ht>:B H 5.=@ !>cm
7

Retort sample
9. #ei!ht* 459 ! H #5
M. :ulk volume H ample wei!ht>natural density H Bb H M=.4 cm
7

4(
7

7
H Bo
7
H Bw
7

7

H4.= !>cm
7

/orosity and saturations
): #: %:
45. )il D :B I #ater D :B I %as D :B H /orosity fraction
(@) V (M) I (?) V (M) I (7) V (4)
=.=85 I =.47@ I =.4=5 H =.5@5
47. /orosity percent H porosity fraction x 4== H 5@.5
48. )il saturation D pore space H W(@) I (45) (M)X 4== H 48.@D
49. #ater saturation D pore space H W(?) I (45) (M)X 4== H 8?.=D
4M. %as saturation H 4== $ 48.@ $ 8?.= H 7M.5D
olution 7*
H H !rain density
#4 H #5 $ W(Bo ) I (Bw )X
H 459 $ W(5.9 =.@9) I (@.7 4.=)X
H 448.9@
B! H Bb $ WBu I Bo I BwX
Bu H (Bb) (%:)
B! H Bb $ W(Bb) (%:) Bo I BwX
H M=.4 $ W(M=.4) (=.4=5) I 5.9 I @.7X
H 87.4C
4)
'alculated !rain density H H 5.M9 !>cm7
2o the data appear to be accurateY Qes
#hyY The calculated !rain density is that of sandstone. -t should be representative of the Eubilee
sandstone.
B.+. )ermea,ilit% "ea'urement
Measuremen# o' (ermea$ili#y
The ability of a formation to transmit fluids is termed per"eability+ its unit is the darcy (Zm5). This
unit has been subdivided into 4=== smaller units, called millidarcies, and these units are used in
reportin! core analysis measured values. A darcy has been defined as that permeability which
permits a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of one cubic centimeter per second
throu!h a porous medium with a cross$sectional area of one square centimeter under a pressure
!radient of one atmosphere per centimeter. -ts value is determined in the laboratory..
2ry !as has been selected as the standard fluid for use in permeability determinations because it
minimi&es fluid$rock reaction and is easy to use. -n the laboratory, air is caused to flow throu!h a
clean and dry sample of measured len!th and diameter (A/-$R/$5C). The pressure differential and
flow rates are measured and the permeability is calculated from the 2arcy equation. -n the linear
flow system, the 2arcy equation for noncompressible fluids can be used to calculate permeability to
a compressible !as of the rate of flow in cm
7
>s of the !as is expressed as the mean pressure
existin! within the core sample. This conversion of a volume at atmospheric pressure to the volume
existin! at mean pressure is accomplished by usin! the followin! equation*
.-n - units a permeability of one meter squared will permit a flow of 4m
7
>s of fluid of 4 /a.s viscosity
throu!h an area of 4m5 under a pressure !radient of 4 /a>m.
Noncompressi$le Fluid Flo. 5Li2uid6
5-6
Thus*
"ompressi$le Fluid Flo. 5)as6
586
#here*
q H liquid flow rate, cm
7
>s
4*
qa H !as flow rate at atmospheric pressure, cm5>s
Z H viscosity of fluid flowin!, centipoise
, H sample len!th, cm
A H sample cross$sectional area, cm5
p4 H upstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
p5 H downstream pressure, atmospheres absolute
/a @ atmospheric pressure, atmospheres absolute
k H permeability, md
The permeability value resultin! from use of the compressible fluid equation is known as an air
permeability, or Aka.A
2ata are valid when no reaction between the rock and flowin! fluid occurs (normally the case when
air is employed), as lon! as laminar flow exists (where the flow rate remains proportional to the
pressure !radient), and as lon! as one fluid completely saturates the core. These conditions exist
durin! conventional core analysis measurements that yield specific (absolute) permeability.
/ermeability is related to rock textural properties. 0ine$!rained sandstones and intercrystalline
limestones have small pores and low permeability. 'oarse !rained sandstones, fractured lime$
stones, and oolitic limestones have lar!e pore channels and hi!h permeability. 'ombinations of low
matrix permeability with hi!h fracture permeability can yield prolific reservoirs, such as those found
in -ran, -raq, and the ;orth ea.
amples selected for permeability determinations are drilled parallel to beddin! planes. This is
easily accomplished in most formations, but others, such as eolian deposits, often show cross$
beddin! in the plu!s selected. -f vertical permeabilities are desired, a second plu! is drilled
perpendicular to the beddin! plane. 3easurement of this vertically drilled core will indicate the
de!ree of permeability reduction caused by impermeable hori&ontal layers or !rain orientation.
(ermeame#er
(LU)S3 A schematic of the principle involved in permeability measurement is shown in 0i!ure 4 (
Sche"atic low diagra" o per"ea"eter). A
clean, dry sample is placed in a holder+ it must
fit snu!ly and allow no air to bypass alon! the
sides of the sample. "pstream and
downstream pressures are measured to
determine the pressure differential across the
core. As 0i!ure 4 shows, the calibrated orifice
allows the flow rate in cm7>s to be measured
at atmospheric pressure.
-nterest in low permeability !as formations has
resulted in the development of nonsteady$
state permeameters that yield information
4+
0i!ure 4.

within a short time span (0reeman and :ush 4?@7.) This technique allows determination of
permeabilities to be made in a matter of minutes rather than takin! all or a portion of a day as is
required with the steady$state methods. The mathematics allow computation of the air permeability
to be made as fluid is flowin! throu!h the core. This avoids the need for steady$state equilibrium
conditions required in older systems. 6ence, low$permeability samples no lon!er require lon!$term
testin!.
FULL *IAMETER "ORES3 0ull diameter core measurements are normally restricted to carbonates
and formations containin! vu!s and fractures. These measurements can be made on sandstones,
but care must be taken to ensure that the invasion of drillin! fluid solids does not reduce hori&ontal
permeabilities. This type of reduction can happen in sandstones as well as in chalky limestones. -n
the latter, !round limestone powder that has been produced by the temperature and by pressure
conditions encountered while corin! is sometimes plastered on the core, causin! permeability
reduction. This powder must be removed prior to full diameter hori&ontal permeability
measurements, as it forms a Askin Athat will result in erroneously low permeability values. This
material can sometimes be cut away easily when the core is wet, otherwise sand blastin! or raspin!
of the dry core may be necessary to remove the plaster coat.
0i!ure 5 (-er"eability co"parison o
unda"aged plug with da"aged ull-dia"eter
core) offers a comparison of actual plu!
permeabilities with plastered whole core values.
The plu!s in this case were cut from the center
of the full diameter core and were not sub(ected
to dama!e. The data indicate that permeability
reduction was !reatest for the hi!h permeability
section, but all full diameter values were
reduced.
Bertical permeability on a full diameter sample is
easily measured usin! a 6assler$type core
holder, as illustrated in 0i!ure 7 (;ull dia"eter
hori+ontal and vertical per"eability
"easure"ent apparatus). The sample is placed
in the apparatus and the rubber tubin! is then
collapsed around the core. #ith the introduction
of hi!h pressure air to the holder, the tubin!
provides a seal alon! the sides of the sample. ,ow pressure air is introduced on the upstream end
of the core and the measurements needed to compute permeability are easily made.
)btainin! full diameter hori&ontal
permeability measurements is more
complex. creens are placed on opposite
sides of the full diameter core ( 0i!ure 7 )
and the sample is then moved into the
core holder. ;onpermeable rubber disks
are placed on each end of the sample and
the rubber tubin! is a!ain collapsed
around the core. ,ow pressure air,
introduced into the center of the holder,
passes throu!h the rubber boot, intersects
with the screen, and flows vertically in the
screen. The air then flows throu!h the full
diameter sample alon! its full hei!ht and
emer!es on the opposite side, where the
4,
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 7.

screen a!ain allows free flow of the air to the exit port. -n this test the flow len!th is actually a
function of the core diameter. The cross$sectional area of flow is a function of the len!th of the core
sample and of the core diameter. The screens are selected to cover desi!nated outer se!ments of
the full diameter sample. -n most cases the circumference of the core is divided into four equal
quadrants and the screens occupy two opposite quadrants. -n this measurement, a !eometric
factor, %, is substituted for the shape factor, ,>A, in the 2arcy equation. 3athematics relatin! to this
have been presented by 'ollins (4?95).
-t is common to furnish two hori&ontal permeability measurements on all full diameter samples. The
second measurement is made at ri!ht an!les to the first. #hen fractures are visible in the core, the
first measurement is made parallel to these fractures. The maximum hori&ontal permeability is
recorded as kmax and the other at ?=R to the direction of this flow is labeled k?=.
SI*E1ALL "ORES3 #hen sidewall samples have been mounted in thin$walled (ackets,
permeability is determined usin! techniques similar to those employed for normally drilled plu!s.
#hen sidewall samples are sufficiently lar!e, a portion of the sidewall core is cut from the sample
and mounted in a plastic or wax holdin! material. This mounted sample can then be tested in
normal plu! equipment.
-n some cases the sidewall core sample is so small that all of the recovered samples are consumed
in the porosity and residual fluid determinations. #here samples are lar!e enou!h for
measurements to be made, experience has shown that sidewall permeability measured in soft rock
is often equal to one$third or less of the value that would be determined on a conventional core from
the same interval. This is believed to be caused by the invasion of the core by mud solids and
rearran!ement of sand !rains at the time the sidewall core is taken. :ecause of these detrimental
effects, as well as the need to use all of the sample for other measurements, it is common to
estimate permeability values from previously developed correlations.
The correlation used usually relates permeability with porosity, !rain si&e and distribution, and with
shaliness of the core. The correlation is developed from conventional cores on which permeability,
porosity, and !rain si&e distribution have been measured. #ith the value for these parameters
available from a sidewall core, an estimation of permeability of the sidewall core is possible. #hen
the permeability value is an estimated one, a note on the core analysis report should state that fact.
The estimation of !rain si&e and distribution, as well as of shaliness, has been sub(ective. 1stimates
of permeability can be improved if ob(ective means are available for estimatin! avera!e !rain si&e
and distribution, and shaliness of the core. An apparatus for makin! these determinations is now
available and is bein! used in many hi!h volume sidewall core analysis laboratories. This apparatus
allows determination of the presence of silt$si&e and smaller particles, includin! clays, with
experimentation under way for enablin! differentiation between clay and silt.
3easured permeability values for sidewall cores are erroneously lower than those for conventional
cores when both are taken from soft sediment. 3easured values are erroneously hi!h in sidewall
cores from hard, well$cemented rock, which is shattered by the impact of the bullet used to retrieve
sidewall cores.
Factors Affecting 5easured 6alues
Air permeabilities measured in a routine core analysis laboratory on rock samples from nonfractured
reservoirs will !ive hi!her values than the actual reservoir permeability. This difference is dependent
upon the ma!nitude of permeability as well as the pore !eometry. The hi!her laboratory values are
thou!ht to be caused by !as slippa!e (the Llinkenber! effect), relative permeability, reactive fluids,
and overburden pressure effects.
(-
T4E ;LlN;ENER) )AS SLI((A)E EFFE"T3 The flow of !as throu!h porous media was
investi!ated by Llinkenber! (4?84). 6e found that the permeability of a core sample was not
constant, but varied with the !as used to make the measurement, as well as the mean (avera!e)
pressure existin! in the core at the time of
measurement. 6is investi!ations indicated
that at low mean pressures$for example, at
atmospheric pressure$the !as molecules are
so far apart that they slip throu!h the pore
spaces with little friction loss, and yield a
hi!her value of permeability. At hi!her mean
pressures < for example, 4=== psi (M@?9
k/a) or !reater < the !as molecules are
closer to!ether and experience a friction
dra! at the side of the pore walls. This
increases as hi!her mean pressure
increases, with the !as actin! more and
more like a liquid. This means that the
measured value of permeability decreases
as reservoir or laboratory mean pressure
increases.
1xperiments show that a plot of !as
permeability versus the reciprocal mean
pressure existin! at the time of the !as
permeability measurement forms a strai!ht
line that can be extrapolated to infinite mean pressure. This extrapolated value of permeability,
referred to as the 0linkenberg per"eability or e,uivalent li,uid per"eability, is lower than the
measured !as permeabilities and is comparable to the permeability that would be obtained if the
core were saturated with a nonreactive liquid such as oil. 0i!ure 4 (0linkenberg per"eability
deter"ination) shows an example of this relationship for a low permeability sandstone. teady$state
permeability measurements were made at each of the four points shown at each !iven net
overburden pressure. The Llinkenber! value (k,) can be correlated with the value of permeability
determined with air at the mean pressure normally used in the laboratory measurements. Ta$le -,
below, offers examples of the relationship between the air permeability and Llinkenber!$corrected
values for some sandstones. The correction, on a percenta!e basis, is !reater in low permeability
sands and becomes pro!ressively smaller as permeability value increases.
7oncorrected "ermea8ilit &md' 9lin:en8erg corrected "ermea8ilit- &md'
1.- -.*
1-.- *.+
1--.- ++.-
1---.- ,(-.-
.Air permeability that has been corrected for !as slippa!e. The Llinkenber! value is the equivalent
liquid permeability assumin! no reaction between the rock and the fluid.
Ta$le -! A co"parison o noncorrected and 0linkenberg-corrected air per"eability or so"e
sandstones
(1
0i!ure 4.

The table represents the results of laboratory measurements on a suite of core samples that
covered a wide ran!e of air permeabilities.
-n early core analysis reports, measured air permeability was corrected to the Llinkenber!
permeability value, usin! correlations such as those presented in Ta$le -!, above. These
corrections have been found to be !ood approximations for sandstones and some inter!ranular -i
me$stones. The correction is usually applied to plu!$si&ed samples but should not be applied to full
diameter permeability measurements because the hetero!eneity of most full diameter cores renders
the correlations unreliable. -f the need exists, Llinkenber! permeability values should be determined
on individual samples.
The nonsteady$state permeameter allows the calculation of Llinkenber! permeability values on
plu!$si&ed samples and provides a second factor related to the pore !eometry and expressed as
Ab.A 1quation M.? relates air permeability to Llinkenber! permeability+ knowled!e of the Llinkenber!
value and the AbA factor from the nonsteady$state tests allows calculation of the air permeability at
any mean pressure desired.
:ecause reservoirs exist at relatively hi!h mean pressures, the Llinkenber!$corrected air
permeability (equivalent liquid permeability) value is more representative of the reservoir value than
the laboratory$measured ka value.
RELATIVE (ERMEAILIT< AN* REA"TIVE FLUI*S EFFE"TS3 #hen a second fluid phase is
present in a reservoir, the permeability to each phase is referred to as the eective per"eability -n
an oil or !as reservoir, the second phase present in the pore space is interstitial water. The effective
permeability to the hydrocarbon phase in a reservoir with interstitial water present will be less than
the measured permeability to air after correction for Llinkenber! effects )absolute per"eability*. -n
hi!h permeability rock with relatively low values of interstitial water, the presence of water reduces
the !as or oil effective permeability only a minor amount below the absolute permeability. As the
permeability of the rock decreases (a condition that is normally associated with a reduction in pore
si&e), the presence of water has an increasin!ly important and detrimental effect on the effective
permeability to oil or !as.
'lays line the pore spaces of many formations and sometimes react with corin!, drillin!, or other
fluids in(ected into the reservoir. This reaction commonly results in a reduction in permeability that
can vary from minor to catastrophic. Two types of dama!e mechanisms can result. )ne is a
dispersion of clay particles and>or a physical tearin! loose of clay platelets that subsequently block
pore throats and reduce permeability. A second type of reaction involves clay swellin!, which
causes an increase in clay volume and subsequent reduction in cross$sectional area open to flow
within the pore throats. :ecause of the difference in the mechanisms, each demands a different
treatment for correction, but the effect of both is to cause reservoir permeability to be lower than
that measured in the laboratory.
Roc: t"e !ermea8ilit at net over8urden "ressure: $ of original

2-- psi 1--- psi 3--- psi (--- psi *--- psi
8andstone #2ell
indurated%
1--0 ,)0 ,10 +)0 +20
(2
8andstone
#unconsolidated%
1--0 *20 440 3(0 3-0
9hal4 1--0 ,*0 ,30 )-0 3-0
Ta$le 8! -er"eability reduction with increasing overburden pressure
)B1R:"R21; /R1"R1 1001'T: amples tested when makin! routine core analysis
measurements usually have no net overburden pressures applied to them. #hen simulatin!
reservoir conditions in the laboratory, it has been found that the application of overburden pressure
reduces permeability. Reduction in permeability of as little as CD to as much as 4==D has been
reported for overburden pressures up to 9=== psi (788C9 k/a). (3c,atchie, 6em$stock, and Qoun!
4?9@+ Bairo!s et a. 4?C=.) Table 5 presents some permeability reduction data for samples that
ran!e from well cemented to unconsolidated in nature. As was noted in porosity measurements, the
unconsolidated materials show the !reatest percenta!e reduction in value with increasin!
overburden pressure. %enerally, the reduction in permeability with the application of net overburden
pressure is !reater than the reduction seen in porosity.
An experiment with flowthrou!h capillary tubes, as described by the physicist /oiseuille (4C?C$
4@M?), indicates that the quantity of fluid flowin! throu!h a capillary varies with the fourth power of
the radius. :ecause the value of air permeability is directly proportional to flow rate, small chan!es
in pore radii caused by the application of overburden pressure result in correspondin!ly lar!e
reductions in permeability.
-n any !iven reservoir, the effects of !as slippa!e, reactive fluids, and overburden pressure may be
!reat or small, dependin! on pore !eometry. ,aboratory results indicate that these factors become
more important as absolute permeability of a rock decreases. -n some low permeability !as
reservoirs, a hi!h interstitial water level causes a si!nificant reduction in effective permeability, with
further reductions caused by an increase in net overburden pressure and the !as slippa!e effect.
0i!ure 4 illustrates these effects. -t represents data on a sample with an initial air permeability of .5@
millidarcies. #hen a nonmobile, interstitial water saturation of 97D of pore space was introduced,
the ori!inal air permeability determined on the dry core was reduced to an effective permeability of .
=94 millidarcies. These measurements were made with a minimum net overburden pressure of 5==
psi (47C? kpa), to prevent air bypassin! the core and flowin! down the sampleFs sides.
The Llinkenber! permeability value, obtained from the extrapolation of four measured air
permeabilities at different mean pressures, showed a further reduction in effective permeability, to .
=79 millidarcies. An increase in overburden pressure from 5== to M=== psi (47@= to 847C k/a)
resulted in a final effective permeability of .==7 millidarcies. This is approximately a 4==$fold
decrease in permeability. imilar ma!nitudes of reduction have been observed by Eones and
)wens (4?C?) for ti!ht !as reservoirs.
Accuracy o' Measuremen#
The accuracy of the permeability value measured in the laboratory is approximately 9D of its true
value when the permeability is in the ran!e of 4=H9== md. As permeability decreases to the [4.=
md, accuracy may decrease to 5=D of true value. Above 9== md, the accuracy of measurements
is typically 4=D of true value.
6ori&ontal permeability values determined by core analysis yield the vertical distribution of
hori&ontal permeability at the wellbore. They provide a measure of permeability variation, which
may be used in subsequent reservoir en!ineerin! calculations. )ther reservoir evaluation tools,
(3
such as buildup pressure tests, provide interwell permeability values, but supply only an avera!e
value for the formation permeability and not the distribution of permeability. :oth types of data have
a place in formation evaluation.
lippa!e, relative permeability, reactive fluid, and overburden pressure effects can all be measured
in the laboratory. They require additional testin! time and are usually not measured at the time that
a conventional core analysis is run. The conventional data are adequate to describe permeability
distribution profiles, to indicate formation productivity, and to serve as a !uide for selectin! samples
to be used in more complex special core tests.
E+ercise -!
%iven*
Z! H =.=4@ cp
A H 9.=M cm5
- H 5.98 cm
pa H atmospheric pressure H 4.= atmosphere
qa H volumetric !as flow rate at atmospheric pressure, cc>sec
0a "3 ")
3.*( 1.( 1
(.() 2.2( 1.*(
1-.4+ 4.2( 3.*(
2(.2- 1-.2( ,.*(
And 2arcyFs equation for flow of !as in a porous medium*
H millidarcies
'alculate the air permeability and the liquid permeability (Llinkenber!) values.
olution 4*
0a "3 ") " "m :a 3;"m
(4

&"3 < ")' &"3 = ")';)

3.*( 1.( 1 .( 1.2( (4.2 -.+
(.() 2.2( 1.*( .( 2.-- (-.2 -.(
1-.4+ 4.2( 3.*( .( 4.-- 4*.4 -.2(
2(.2- 1-.2( ,.*( .( 1-.-- 4(.( -.1-
To do*
4. 'ompute ka (millidarcies) at each of four flow rates.
5. /lot ka versus 4>pm and extrapolate to find equivalent liquid permeability k, where 4>pm H =
( 0i!ure 4 ).
7. k, from plot equals 88.5 millidarcies.

0i!ure 4.

B.-. Saturation "ea'urement
T,e Re#or# *is#illa#ion Me#,od
The retort distillation method uses the same apparatus ( 0i!ure 4 , Sche"atic o su""ation-o-
luids retort) as is used in the summation$of$fluids estimation of porosity. -n this procedure the
sample is wei!hed and its bulk volume measured or calculated+ it is then placed in a cylindrical
metal holder with a screw cap on the top and a hollow stem pro(ectin! from the bottom. The top is
sealed and the sample holder is placed within a retort oven. A temperature controller raises the
temperature of the core to a selected level, at which point the water within the core is vapori&ed and
((
recovered. The temperature is then increased to 45==R0 (M9= R') to vapori&e and distill oil from the
sample.
The apparatus is referred to as a downdrat retort because vapori&ed fluids build up pressure in the
sample holder and then move vertically downward throu!h the hollow stem. They are subsequently
condensed and measured in a calibrated receivin! tube. The retort oil correction curve is used to
correct the volume measured in the receivin! tube to the actual volume that was present in the core
sample.
This laboratory procedure is
normally restricted to small samples
that are destroyed in the process+ it
is not !enerally used for full
diameter cores. #hen a full
diameter core is analy&ed in a full
diameter retort, a vacuum is pulled
on the system and a temperature
not !reater than 89= R0 (575 R') is
normally used. The lower
temperature is selected to avoid
dama!in! the rock sample, which
may subsequently be used to
measure permeability. -f the
saturatin! oil has an A/- !ravity of
7= R or less, some residual oil is left
in the full diameter core after
retortin!. This volume can be
estimated by usin! additional test
information from hi!h temperature
retortin! of ad(acent rock samples,
or by monitorin! the volume of oil
recovered durin! retortin! and
applyin! a correction factor.
The correction factor for low A/- !ravity oils can be substantial. -f helium is subsequently used to
estimate porosity of the sample and compensation is not made for the volume occupied by residual
oil, the :oyleFs law porosity value will be too low. This full diameter retort procedure for estimatin!
residual saturations is used in limited situations and under those conditions where speed of analysis
is paramount. -t is not the preferred technique for full diameter analysis.
2urin! the retort distillation procedure, water and oil content are measured concurrently. #hen the
volume of the collected water is measured durin! the temperature rise to 45==R, a distinction must
be made between pore water held by capillary forces (the value we are seekin!) and that which is
the result of mineral decomposition. )ne approach to distin!uishin! between the two is to plot the
water recovered a!ainst the elapsed time of retortin!.
T,e *ean/S#ark Appara#us
()
0i!ure 4.

#ith the 2ean$tark method of measurin! residual fluid saturations we can obtain residual
saturations, porosity, and permeability of a cylindrical sample from the same piece of rock. This
assures compatability of data+ that, for example, a plot comparin! permeability and porosity is valid.
The measurin! device ( 0i!ure 4 , Dean-Stark apparatus or "easuring residual luids) furnishes a
direct determination of the water content of the sample. The oil content is calculated from wei!ht
difference and therefore it is important that no sand !rains be lost from the core durin! the analysis,
as this would result in an erroneously hi!h calculated residual oil saturation. Rock !rain loss is
easily controlled by maintainin! the sample within a tare ( 0i!ure 4 ) throu!hout the 2ean$tark
analysis < and !ood quality work utili&es this technique.
The principle of operation is strai!htforward. #hen the core to be analy&ed is wei!hed, the resultin!
measurement will consist of the wei!ht of the sand !rains, as well as the oil and water present in
the pore space. The sample is then placed within a tare in the apparatus, and this unit is suspended
above a flask containin! a solvent such as toluene.
#hatever the solvent, it must have a
boilin! point hi!her than water and be
both immiscible with and li!hter than
water.
;ext, heat is applied to the solvent,
causin! it to boil (toluene boils at
approximately 58=R0 (449R')). The hot
solvent vapor rises, surrounds the
sample, and moves up into the
condensin! tube, where it is cooled and
condenses. The condensate falls to the
bottom of the offset calibrated tube. The
tube slowly fills until the liquid reaches
the spill point, whereupon solvent
condensate runs down the connectin!
side arm and drips onto the sample,
which contains residual fluids. The
drippin! solvent mixes with oil from the
sample, and both the solvent and oil are
returned to the solvent flask.
The process continues until the sample is raised to the boilin! point of water. #hen it does, the
water vapori&es, rises in the condensin! tube until it is condensed, and falls back into the calibrated
tube. :ecause it is heavier than the solvent, it collects at the bottom of the tube, where its volume
can be measured. #hen successive readin!s indicate no additional water recovery has occurred,
we know all water has been removed from the sample, and the water volume is recorded for further
calculations. The rock sample may be retained in the 2ean$tark apparatus until all oil is removed
or it may be moved to another apparatus for subsequent cleanin! and dryin!.
After all water and oil have been removed from the sample, it is dried and a!ain wei!hed. The
difference between the ori!inal and final wei!ht equals the wei!ht of oil and water ori!inally in the
sample. :ecause the water collected in the calibrated tube is distilled water with a density of 4.=
!>cm7 and the volume of water recovered is known, the wei!ht of oil in the sample can be
calculated. Lnowin! the density of the oil allows its volume to be calculated. #hen this information
is subsequently combined with the estimated porosity of the clean, dry sample, the volumes of
residual oil and water can be converted to percent pore space.
(*
0i!ure 4.

alts, ori!inally dissolved in the residual water, remain in the core sample when water is vapori&ed
from the core. The water volume collected in the calibrated tube contains no dissolved ions+
consequently, the volume occupied by the residual water in the pore space is !reater than that
read. The difference is small and is typically i!nored in conventional core analysis, but is measured,
when appropriate, in the special core analysis tests.
Accuracy o' Measuremen#
:oth the retort distillation and the 2ean$tark analysis are capable of yieldin! residual saturation
values within T9D of the true value. -n a study made by Rathmell (4?MC), where hi!h temperature
retort oil saturation measurements were compared with !ravimetric measurements, avera!e
residual oil saturation a!reed to within T4.8D pore volume. The avera!e residual oil saturation in
these cores was approximately 89 D pore space, and the scatter of the data was T M.4 D pore
volume. A/- R/ 8= reports the accuracy of the retort distillation technique to be T9D of the true
value.
#yman (4?CC) points out what many investi!ators have reco!ni&ed* it is difficult to relate oil
saturation values measured from conventional cores with true in situ values. 6e shows that routine
saturation measurements from conventional cores are not adequate to describe in situ saturations,
not even residual oil saturations after waterfloodin!, unless a pressure core barrel is used and a
carefully desi!ned mud and core handlin! pro!ram is followed.
Rathmell, :rown, and /erkins (4?C5) qualify this statement by su!!estin! that routine core analysis
oil saturations ad(usted for bleedin! and shrinka!e can !ive reliable values for waterfloodin!
residual oil saturation in many sandstone reservoirs.
E+ercise -!
%iven the followin! data, calculate the porosity, oil, and water saturations*
0resh sample (oil I !as I water) wei!ht H 5@.94? !
'lean and dry sample wei!ht H 5M.8?= !
#ater recovered in 2ean$tark apparatus H 4.9? cc
/ore volume from helium in(ection H 5.@? cc
:ulk volume from ArchimedesF law H 45.@9 cc
)il !ravity H 7M.4GA/-
olution 4*
4. 0resh sample (oil I !as I water) wei!ht H 5@.94? !
5. 'lean and dry sample wei!ht H 5M.8?= !
7. #ater recovered in 2ean tark H 4.9? cm
7

8. #ei!ht water (cm
7
recovered 4.= !>cm
7
) H 4.9? !
(+
9. )il I water wei!ht H (4) $ (5) H 5.=5? !
M. )il wei!ht H (4) $ (5) $ (8) H =.87? !
C. )il volume H (M) V = H =.95= cm
7

@. /ore volume from helium in(ection H 5.@? cm
7

?. :ulk volume from Archimedes H 45.@9 cm
7

4=. /orosity H (/B V :B)(4==) H ((@) I (?))(4==) H 55.9D

44. )il saturation H W(C) V (@)X W4==X H 4@.=D /B

45. #ater saturation H W(7) V (@)X W4==X H 99.=D /B

GA/- H 7M.4

% H 484.9>(474.9 I A/-G) H 484.9>(474.9 I 7M.4)

H =.@88 !>cm
7
H
r
=

B.1.. Com&lementar% Core Inormation
"omplemen#ary "ore Analysis In'orma#ion
-n addition to the basic data concernin! porosity, permeability, and residual saturations, we can !ain
important information from the visual study of a core. These observable characteristics may be
subsequently computeri&ed and analy&ed statistically, as in fracture study results, or they may be
permanently recorded by the use of white li!ht color photo!raphy or ultraviolet li!ht photo!raphy.
Additional information may be recorded and used in specific applications. A discussion of the more
routinely recorded data follows.
Li#,ology7 Te+#ure7 and Fluorescence
#hen conventional cores are taken, a detailed core description should be made. The description
should list the thickness of the pay &one+ the depth and thickness of shale, anhydrate, and salt
&ones+ the presence of cross$beddin!, slumpin!, or other features+ the presence of slickensides and
fractures+ estimated !rain si&e and fluorescence. -n laminated &ones, the measured thickness of
pay and shale &ones forms the basis for net pay determinations. 2epositional environment can
often be inferred from the occurrence of ripple marks and cross$beddin!, and a coarsenin! or finin!
of !rain si&e with depth.
Li#,ologic *escrip#ion
(,
The litholo!y of the rock is important because chan!es in litholo!y indicate variations in chemical
and physical properties as well as in depositional environment. 'han!es in litholo!y !ive rise to
chan!es in !rain density, natural radio$activity, acoustic properties, and resistivity < all of which are
important in formation evaluation and, in particular, in understandin! down hole lo! response.
The litholo!ic description of core samples should follow a basic format similar to that used in the
description of cuttin!s. wanson (4?@4) has prepared a manual for the American Association of
/etroleum %eolo!ists that !ives detailed instructions on sample description.
'ore descriptions typically include all or a portion of the followin! information in the order in which it
is listed.
"ore *escrip#ion Forma#3
rock type+
color+
!rain or crystal si&e+
ma(or characteristics+
minor characteristics+
hardness+
oil show and fluorescence.
-t is beyond the scope of this module to discuss all litholo!ical traits in detail, althou!h some !eneral
comments, on at least two items, are in order. 6ydrocarbon reservoir rock types usually break down
into either clastics, composed predominantly of siliceous !rains (i)5), or carbonates, composed of
limestone ('a')7) and dolomite ('a3!')7).
The color of the rock varies from all shades of !ray throu!h reds and yellows. The color may be
uniform or it may be mottled, spotted, or banded. -n areas where most productive rocks exhibit
essentially the same color, this property may be omitted from core analysis reports.
Te+#ure
Textural characteristics of the rock include !rain si&e, !rain si&e distribution, and the de!ree of
shaliness. These characteristics influence porosity, permeability, and the interstitial water
saturation. A commonly used scale for assessin! !rain si&e in clastics is the #entworth cale
(4?55). This scale, shown in 0i!ure 4 (!entworth scale o grain si+e) links medium, fine, or other
reported !rain si&es to specific !rain
diameter. 2a%or characteristics mi!ht
include the fact that the rock is
laminated, or shaly, or contains
fossils, as well as the minerals present
(quart&, feldspar, clays, etc.).
2inor characteristics mi!ht indicate a
minor percenta!e of accessory
minerals such as mica, pyrite, or
!lauconite. )ther important
sedimentary structures, such as the
presence of stylolites, should be
recorded when present. Althou!h a
hardness scale exists for pure
minerals, it is not used for the core
)-
0i!ure 4.

description. -nstead, the de!ree of consolidation or unconsolidation, and whether it is friable or well
cemented, are traits that are noted in describin! a core.

Oil Fluorescence
The presence and color of oil stain and oil luorescence are also routinely recorded. 'ore samples
that contain oil will !low when placed under an ultraviolet li!ht. -t is often possible to prove the
presence of hydrocarbons by observin! this fluorescence, and to predict expected production from
a &one. 0or example, !as condensate typically appears as a uniform bri!ht blue>white, whereas oil
productive &ones exhibit a uniform bri!ht !old fluorescence. The absence of fluorescence indicates
either that oil is absent, or, if oil is present, aromatic compounds have been leached from the oil in
the core.
ome minerals exhibit fluorescence under ultraviolet li!ht, but mineral fluorescence is of no interest
in the core description. #here it is not possible to differentiate between oil fluorescence and mineral
fluorescence, a small portion of the core is chipped off and placed in a clean, dry dish. A solvent,
such as chlorothene, is poured on the chip. This dissolves the oil that is present, and fluorescence
may be observed in the solvent movin! away from the core sample. This is referred to as an oil cut.

Typical "ore *escrip#ion
The litholo!ic, textural, and fluorescent properties of a core are combined to form the description,
which mi!ht read as follows* AAandstone, buff, fine !rained, shaly and laminated, friable, blue>white
uniform fluorescence.A
Grain Densit
The !rain density of a rock is defined as the wei!ht of the rock (exclusive of the wei!ht of fluids
contained in the pore space) divided by the volume of the solid rock material (exclusive of pore
space). The density varies with the mineral composition of the rock and the state of hydration of the
minerals. -n complex litholo!ies containin!
inter$mixed limestone, dolomite, sandstones,
and heavy minerals !rain density will vary
vertically and hori&ontally. 1ven in
formations described as homo!eneous,
measured densities often vary considerably
from published values for pure components
(Ta$le -!, below). 3inor amounts of
secondary cement, such as calcite or
siderite, will cause !rain densities to exceed
values shown in the table. An example of
the variance in interwell and intrawell
differences that was recorded in one study is
shown in 0i!ure 4 (3rain density variation).
Com"onent A""ro>imate grain densit &g;cm4'
)1
0i!ure 4.

8andstone 2.)(
:imestone 2.*1
Dolomite 2.+(-2.+*
&nh$drite 2.,+
"$psum 2.3
/$rite (.-
8iderite 3.,
9la$s 2.2-2.,
Ta$le -! 3rain densities o pure rock or "ineral co"ponents
%rain density is important in core analysis for two reasons. 0irst, it can be used as a quality control
check of the core analysis measurements themselves. econd, a value for !rain density is required
in the equation that is used to calculate the porosity from the bulk density value that has been
sensed by the down hole lo!!in! tool. The equation takes the form*
#here*
%2 H %rain 2ensity, !>cm
7
(assumed or measured)
:2 H :ulk 2ensity, !>cm
7
(from down hole lo!)
02 H 0luid 2ensity, !>cm
7
(assumed)
H /orosity, fractional
%rain density values that exceed estimated values for pure components occur when carbonate
cements are present, or when impurities such as pyrite or siderite are in the pore space. Balues can
exceed 7.= !>cm
7
. -n these cases, assumptions of erroneously low !rain densities will yield
calculated values of porosity that are too low. This potential error is of extreme importance in
evaluatin! poor quality, low porosity rock. #hen the erroneously low porosity value is substituted
into water saturation equations that utili&e resistivity data, the calculated water saturations are too
hi!h. A combination of underestimated porosity and overestimated water saturations can cause
calculated oil$in$place to be underestimated by as much as 59D
An exception to the !eneral rule that impurities in the rock increase its !rain density is the case of
core samples that contain lar!e quantities of hydratable clays. #hen such a sample is dried in a
humidity oven, the two molecular layers of water are maintained on the clay surfaces and the
calculated !rain density has a lower value than the rock itself. Removal of this water increases the
!rain density.
)2
#hen !rain densities are reported from core analysis, it is important to know how the samples were
prepared. -n some cases, the equations used in the evaluation require that the !rain density be
measured on samples with all bound water removed from clay surfaces+ in other circumstances, it is
desirable to measure !rain densities and porosities with this water still in place.
After the core has been cleaned and dried to specifications, the measured !rain density is accurate
to T =.=4 !>cm
7
.
"ore (,o#ograp,y 5Na#ural and Ul#ra&iole# Lig,#6
'ore photo!raphy has advanced from black and white photo!raphs to color photo!raphy and to
pictures taken under ultraviolet li!ht. /hoto!raphs are often taken of the core prior to the time it is
slabbed, with its residual hydrocarbons still in place. The color and ultraviolet li!ht photo!raphs
supplement one another, the former recordin! what the eye sees and the latter revealin! oil
fluorescence and, hence, the location of hydrocarbons. -n reservoirs that are fractured,
enhancement of the fracture pattern is sometimes observed by the ultraviolet photo!raphs.
/hoto!raphs are often taken at 4 ft
(7= cm) intervals alon! the core. -n
other cases, the cores are !rouped
into len!ths of 49 or 5= ft (8.9 or M.4
m) and a sin!le photo!raph is made of
the sequence. ome detail of the core
may be lost in the multiple foota!e
shots, but chan!es in litholo!y as well
as core structures are sometimes
observed better this way. #hile
laminations and other core structures
are visible on nonslabbed core, they
are sometimes easier to study on a
core that has been cleaned, slabbed,
and then photo!raphed.
3ultiple foota!e pictures, such as
those shown in 0i!ure 4 (Core
photograph illustrating structure and
depositional environ"ent), are helpful
for seein! chan!es in core beddin!
and structures that indicate
differences in permeability, porosity,
and depositional environment. These photo!raphs form a permanent record of the coreFs
appearance and can be easily shipped to interested persons. A photo!raphic record is invaluable in
reservoir studies when the rock is no lon!er available. #ritten litholo!ic descriptions are important,
but they are complemented by the photo!raphic record. %eolo!ic interpretations may chan!e as
additional wells are drilled and new information becomes available. -n such cases a permanent
record of the coreFs appearance is a very helpful tool. The photo!raph !raphically reveals &one
transitions, stained sections, minerals, fractures, dips, stylolites, shale partin!s, and other critical
formation !uideposts.
"ore/)amma Log
The natural !amma radiation of the core may be sensed in the laboratory with instrumentation
similar to that used in the downhole lo!. This radiation is !enerally attributed to the presence of
uranium minerals, or the potassium isotope L$8=, or both. hales typically have hi!h !amma
)3
0i!ure 4.

activity, carbonate rock activity is low, and sandstone activity falls between the two. The !amma
radiation tool is used for discernin! litholo!y and for correlation purposes+ the data it !enerates are
referred to as the 'ore$%amma lo!.
#hen a core sample reaches the laboratory, it is placed on a motor$driven conveyer belt. The
sample travels throu!h a lead tunnel containin! a scintillation !amma$ray detector. -mpulses from
the detector are electronically inte!rated and the output is recorded on a lo! to the same scale used
for downhole !amma ray lo!s.
3easurements in the laboratory are restricted to continuous cores+ they are not available for
sidewall core samples. 2ata are recorded in chart form for comparison with visual assessment of
core litholo!y, and for depth correlation with the downhole lo!. 6istorically, laboratory responses
have not been calibrated in A/- units, but standards are now available so that this can be
accomplished.
:y ali!nin! the peaks and valleys of the laboratory$measured !amma radiation profile with those of
the down hole !amma ray lo!, the depth recorded on the core analysis can be calibrated to the
depth on the downhole lo!. Ad(ustments are normally made to the core analysis depth profile to
correct it to the downhole lo! values. 'ore depths are computed by countin! the pipe (oints
recovered from the hole. -n some cases, a (oint (7= ft, or ? m) or stand (?= ft, or 5C m) may be
missed in the tally. -t is common to find depth discrepancies of 7 to C ft (4 to 5 m) between lo!
depths and core depths. #hen no correlation is found between the two, it is advisable to shift the
depth in intervals of 7= ft (? m) to see if a correlation can be found. The lar!est depth discrepancy
between the two devices noted to date by the author has been 4@= ft (99 m).
The natural !amma radiation tool
possesses a feature that allows
output to be sent to a computer,
where it is di!iti&ed and stored for
timely retrieval. The data can then
be replotted to various scales for
easier correlation and interpretation,
or presented in a tabular printed
report. "sually the surface
measurements of !amma radiation
can be completed within an hour
and are ready for immediate
comparison with physical
characteristics of the core and for
correlation with downhole lo!s from
the same or ad(acent wells. These
data are usually reproduced on a
core !raph alon! with other basic
laboratory information.
)4
0i!ure 4.

'ores that were not ori!inally tested for !amma radiation and that have been stored for lon! periods
of time are still suitable for this measurement. amples that were previously analy&ed, and cleaned
and dried in the process, are also suitable candidates. 1ven samples that have been preserved with
'oreealT3 can be tested without removal of the preservative material. -t is recommended that
cores not be tested within closed
wooden or cardboard boxes because
this inhibits proper fittin! of the core prior
to sensin! its !amma activity.
#hen rubber sleeves are within the
unopened boxes, for example, &ones
where the sleeve has collapsed because
of sand washout will not be identified.
A recent advance in surface
measurements of !amma radiation
emitted from the cores has been the
introduction of the spectral !amma
analysis. This test presents not only the
total !amma activity recorded
previously, but also furnishes the portion
of the total recordin! contributed by
uranium, potassium, and thorium.
-n some areas of the world, the
presence of mica and other clays within
the pore structure or rock fabric has caused hydrocarbon productive &ones to be hi!hly radioactive
and to appear to be shales. The use of this spectral lo! is expected to assist in identifyin! such
&ones, as well as others with anomalous radioactivity. 0i!ure 4 (Core-3a""a surace log and Core
Spectral log) illustrates a 'ore$%amma surface lo! (traditional laboratory !amma radiation test) and
the associated 'ore pectral lo! (special analysis of elements). 0i!ure 5 (Correlation o downhole
ga""a log with Core-3a""a surace log) shows the correlation between a downhole and 'ore$
%amma surface lo!.
*irec#ional (ermea$ili#y
/ermeability is often a directional quantity. -n both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs, it is
common to find low permeability &ones that may be only millimeters thick, yet serve as effective
barriers to vertical flow. -n such a case, the vertical permeability of a formation is some fraction of
the hori&ontal permeability. A lack of information with respect to this phenomenon can result in
improper completion practices, or installation of an improved recovery scheme that does not work,
or both. An example of an inappropriate recovery scheme occurred when a crestal in(ection of
liquified petroleum !as was used to improve displacement efficiency from pinnacle reef reservoirs.
-n some instances, vertical flow barriers extended over lar!e hori&ontal distances, causin! a holdup
of the downward advancin! liquified hydrocarbon fluids and an unanticipated hi!h residual oil
saturation in noncontacted &ones.
-n thinner formations, where differences in vertical and hori&ontal permeability may not be
si!nificant, there may still exist a preferred permeability direction in the hori&ontal plane. 3any rocks
are made up of !rains that were transported by and deposited in water currents. -f the !rains were
not spherical, they acted like weather vanes. This means that they came to rest with their lon! axis
parallel to the current, and their !reatest cross$sectional areas parallel to the earthFs surface. This
preferred !rain orientation !ives rise to directional permeability.
)(
0i!ure 5.

Tests to define directional permeability can be made on plu!s cut around the core periphery or by
conductin! studies on full diameter cores. -n either case, these data are most helpful, especially
when they are obtained for oriented cores and reported at 7=R to 89G increments around the
circumference of the rock.
2irectional permeability tests are a natural ad(unct to oriented core analysis. They can be
complemented by studyin! thin sections cut in specific orientations to explore and explain
directional permeability differences.
"a#ion E+c,ange "apaci#y
The cation exchan!e capacity ('1') is a measure of the ability of clays, such as montmorillonite,
chlorite, illite, or kaolinite, to exchan!e ions between the clay surfaces and surroundin! water. -t is
normally expressed as milliequivalents per 4== !rams of dry rock. -ts ma!nitude is a function of the
clay type and amount, and may be determined usin! wet chemistry techniques that utili&e an
ammonium or a barium exchan!e. This technique ori!inated within the soil science discipline. A
newer technique furnishes the '1' throu!h a correlation with the adsorbed water content of test
samples. :ush and Eenkins (4?CC) have presented data and test information on the procedure.
'ation exchan!e capacity is a mechanism that has been related to strippin! of ions from in(ection
fluids, trace element accumulation, and over$pressurin! of the formation. These data have also
been used to identify chan!es in environment resultin! from chan!es in climate, sediment source,
and erosion rate. A primary use of these data in the petroleum industry is in the #axman and mits,
and #axman and Thomas equations (4?M@ and 4?C8) where they are used for calculation of water
saturation in clay$bearin! formations. The '1' is converted to an exchan!e capacity per unit pore
volume prior to use.
"lay "E" 5ME=>-?? grams69
3ontmorillonite @=$49=
-llite 4=$8=
'hlorite 4=$8=..
Laolinite 7$49
."nits are milliequivalents>4== !rams of dry rock.
..-n some studies reported the '1' has been as low as =.= to 4.=
Ta$le -. Cation e#change capacities )C&C* o various clays
Application of this equation and its influence on calculated water saturations was demonstrated in a
paper by Leel an and 3c%inley (4?C?). -!norin! the cation exchan!e capacity will result in
calculated water saturations that are erroneously hi!h. This may cause hydrocarbon productive
&ones to be overlooked, or at best have their oil$in$place underestimated. Ta$le -! presents cation
exchan!e capacities for various clays.
))
)rain Si0e *is#ri$u#ion
%rain si&e distribution relates to both porosity and permeability and is an important indicator of
reservoir quality. 1ven thou!h, !enerally, the more unior" the !rain si&e the hi!her the porosity
and permeability, porosity is actually independent of !rain si&e. tudies have shown that both silt$
si&ed and coarse$!rained sands will exhibit essentially the same porosity < but the coarse$!rained
rock will have much hi!her permeability.
The !rain si&e distribution of poorly consolidated to unconsolidated sands is often arrived at by
!rain si&e analysis. 6ayes (4?CC) emphasi&ed the practical aspects of these measurements. %rain$
si&e data are used for si&in! the !ravel packs that are employed to prevent sand flow into the
wellbore+ the data is also one indicator of depositional environment. The new particle si&e analy&er
used in sidewall core analysis provides a rapid measure of !rain si&e distribution and, with it, a
better estimate of permeabilities on these small samples.
Two basic analytical techniques are commonly employed to estimate !rain si&e distribution. )ne
involves sievin! a disa!!re!ated core sample throu!h a series of screens with increasin!ly finer
mesh. 2ifficulties occur in this technique because the electrical attraction between disa!!re!ated
clay particles causes them to clump and not pass properly throu!h dry screens. An improved
procedure allows the sieve analysis to be done usin! a wet technique. #ith this procedure the finer
clay particles can be washed throu!h a 57= mesh sieve (=.=M59 mm) to remove the clay. The
remainin! portion of the sample is then passed throu!h a nest of various si&ed screens, and the
portion remainin! on each screen is wei!hed. -t is common to present the !rain si&e distribution as
a function of cumulative wei!ht percent of the total sample, as shown in 0i!ure 4 (3rain si+e
distribution using sieve analysis). 1xamination of this fi!ure shows the $shaped distribution curve
normally encountered. The further to the left on the hori&ontal axis that the distribution curve falls,
the coarser the material. The more uniform the sample the more vertical the , and a completely
uniform sample would result in a vertical line.
The second analytical technique for measurin! !rain si&e distribution utili&es the principles of
tokesF law on the settlin! time of free$fallin! !rains in a liquid column. The sample is carefully
disa!!re!ated and wei!hed, and then placed in a holder where ultrasonic a!itation completely
disperses the particles and detaches clay from any sand$si&ed !rains. The dispersed sample is then
spread evenly and simultaneously over the surface of the solution in the settlin! tube. /articles
fallin! to the bottom of the tube collect on a balance as a function of time. #ei!hts are monitored
electronically and transmitted to a computer. The results, when analy&ed, furnish both tabular and
!raphical data similar to that illustrated in 0i!ure 4.
A sample may be characteri&ed
mathematically by (4) its standard
deviation, which indicates the de!ree of
sortin!, and (5) the median !rain
diameter. )ther information is also
presented. A !rain si&e distribution not
symmetrical about the mean !rain si&e
is said to be skewed. The coefficients of
skewness are calculated, as well as the
relationship of the total hei!ht of the
distribution to its base width. This is
referred to as the peakedness (kurtosis)
of the distribution. The Trask (4?75)
sortin! coefficient is an indicator of the
de!ree of sortin!, with the value of 4.=
representin! a well$sorted sample. The
)*
0i!ure 4.

coefficient is defined as the square root of the quotient resultin! when the !rain diameter observed
at 59D of the cumulative sample wei!ht is divided by the !rain diameter found at C9D cumulative
sample wei!ht.
0irmly cemented samples pose problems in measurin! !rain si&e distribution. There are two
common types of cement* carbonate and silica. 'arbonate cement can be removed by washin! the
core with dilute hydrochloric acid. -f the sample is cemented by silica, it may be impossible to
disa!!re!ate it without crushin! the !rains, and the only available technique for !rain si&e
distribution determination would be the use of thin sections. neider (4?@4) has reported that even
in cemented sandstones the !rain si&e distribution is a helpful indicator of rock quality and has been
used successfully in studies of both cuttin!s and cores. #hile !rain si&e distribution is an indicator
of depositional environment, it normally must be supplemented with other information.
Frac#ure S#udies
The purpose of fracture studies is to describe the nature and de!ree of natural fractures in
recovered cores. These data are subsequently used*
to aid in locatin! exploration and development wells from whose fracture permeability we
may benefit+
to assist in the plannin! of well completion and stimulation by identifyin! fracture intervals+
to evaluate wireline fracture$findin! lo!s and correlate them with actual rock fracture
conditions+
to assist in the structural analysis of hydrocarbon accumulations as they relate to fault
orientation and location+
to assist in the calculation of theoretical block hei!ht and cross$sectional area of matrix
fracture blocks for mathematical modelin!.
-n order to obtain !ood fracture data, !ood
core handlin! procedures must be
employed at the wellsite. 'are should be
taken not to break the rock excessively
and to fit it properly to!ether prior to
markin!. The core must be spatially
oriented to be of maximum benefit to the
study. This can be accomplished by corin!
with a special orientation tool, as
discussed by Rowley, :urk, and 3anual
(4?MC), or by ali!nin! visible core beddin!
dip with formation dip as identified either
by down hole dipmeter or by re!ional
!eolo!ic information.
After the core is properly orientated, both
the dip and strike of observed fractures
are recorded. An example of such a
)+ 0i!ure 4.

recordin! is !iven in 0i!ure 4 (Distribution o "easured racture strike in a core), which shows a well
with a ma(or fracture trend that runs in a northwest to southeast direction, with a secondary trend at
essentially ri!ht an!les to it. 0i!ure 5 (Histogra" o racture dip) is a histo!ram that indicates that
the preponderance of fractures found in this well occur at dip an!les of 9=R or !reater.
-t is common to record all observed fracture data
on a core fracture lo!, as discussed by nyder
and 'raft (4?CC). This lo! displays fracture
depth, len!th, frequency, density per foot, and
dip, to!ether with litholo!y and rock hardness,
on a foot$by$foot basis. -n addition, the lo!
records core porosity and matrix oil saturation.
The latter data are of particular importance in
thick carbonates that display wide variations in
rock properties and whose &ones of oil
saturation are sporadic, appearin! and
disappearin! at different depths.
"alcime#ry Measuremen#s
'ore samples are sometimes treated with acid
to determine their total acid solubility, while in
other cases it is desirable to know the percenta!e of limestone, dolomite, and insolubles present
within the core. These data aid in typin! rocks, and are often helpful in correlatin! various
information about rock properties. 'alcimetry measurements are sometimes made usin! a wet
chemistry technique that is referred to as a versenate analysis. wanson (4?@4) furnishes an
operational method for makin! this determination.
There is a rapid, practical, and economical method for determinin! the ratios of limestone and
dolomite and the total amount of acid$soluble material in small samples, usin! a calcimetry
instrument. A one$half !ram sample is crushed and placed in a chamber to which acid is added.
The reaction of the acid with the rock releases carbon dioxide, which builds up pressure in the
chamber. This rise in pressure is related to the rate of reaction and, when monitored, can be used
to differentiate between limestones and dolomites, as well as to measure the total solubility of the
rock.
(yroc,roma#ograp,y
5T,ermal E+#rac#ion
",roma#ograp,y6
The term pyrochro"atography is
derived from the process in which
heat is applied in a controlled
manner to small hydrocarbon$
saturated rock samples, which
causes the fluids to leave the
sample and be swept into a
chromato!raph for Afin!erprintin!.A
3aness and /rice (4?CC) have
),
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 4.

shown that these data are helpful in providin! a distinction between !as productive, oil productive,
and nonproductive &ones. The most important application of this procedure, currently, is in
evaluatin! reef formations. -ts application requires the use of production as well as other
conventional well evaluation data to establish workin! correlations.
0i!ure 4 (Chro"atographic ingerprints or productive and nonproductive or"ations) presents
chromato!raphic fin!erprints for a nonproductive and an oil productive formation. The oil productive
formation is characteri&ed by hi!h percenta!es of '$49 throu!h '$4? and reco!ni&able percenta!es
of '$5= and above. ;ote that essentially all of the hydrocarbons less than '$@ are missin!. This
indicates the rock has permeability and that these components vapori&ed and escaped on the trip to
the surface. Another important indicator is the total hydrocarbon quantity in the sample (the area
under the curve), which is sufficient in this case to indicate oil production. The nonproductive
fi!ure shows less total hydrocarbon in the core and a hi!h percenta!e of '$@ and lower. This
indicates that the rock contained little residual hydrocarbons and was of such poor quality that the
li!hter hydrocarbons could not escape as the core moved to the surface.
This technique has been extended to the analysis of cuttin!s, and it embodies certain of the
characteristics of the analysis used to evaluate source rock quality. Research is in process for
extendin! the technique into the evaluation of other rock types.
3aness (4?@7) has reported on
advances in the technolo!y of
fluorescence and their recent
application to pyrochromato!raphic
measurements. -n the procedure he
describes, portions of the rock are
placed in a chemical solvent to leach
out residual hydrocarbons.
0luorescence measurements of the
leached solution are taken at
predetermined time intervals, usin! a
laboratory instrument that yields
relative levels of fluorescence. This
provides an indication of how rapidly
available hydrocarbons are extracted
from the rock, which is an indication of
the permeability of the samples.
0luorescence data can then be plotted
by depth to identify wellbore intervals
that do and do not exhibit
fluorescence. 0i!ure 5 (Co"parison o
hydrocarbon proile by relative
luorescence and chro"atographic
analysis) is an example of a comparison between fluorescence and chromato!raphic analysis and
includes a prediction of the !as, oil, and water &ones.
Salini#y o' (ore 1a#er
-t is sometimes desirable to know the salinity of the water present within a reservoir rock. #hen
prior knowled!e exists about the salinity of both the formation brine and the corin! fluid,
measurement of salinity of water recovered in the core will !ive an indication of the extent of filtrate
flushin!. This technique can be applied to cores cut with water$base mud. -n samples that have
been taken with oil$base mud, where no extraneous water has been added to the core, the salinity
of water in the sample should represent that in the reservoir.
*-
0i!ure 5.

-n formations where the water level has not been previously penetrated by drillin! and no water
production has occurred, the salinity of the formation brine may be unknown. This salinity can
sometimes be calculated from the spontaneous potential lo! if a sufficient salinity difference exists
between the corin! fluid and the in$place formation brine. 1ven in this case further verification of the
calculated salinity is often desired.
A laboratory technique for estimatin! water salinity that is relatively rapid and often employed uses
a sample of core taken ad(acent to those used for the 2ean$tark or summation$of$fluids sample. -f
it is assumed that the porosity and water saturation present in the ad(acent sample are the same as
that in the summation or 2ean$tark sample previously analy&ed, the quantity of water in the
salinity sample can be estimated. The sample can then be crushed and washed with a known
volume of distilled water. This leaches the salt from the sample. This solution can then be titrated to
furnish a measure of water salinity. This technique has been documented in A/- R/ 8=.
alinity measurements on cores taken with oil$base mud have also been used to estimate the
vertical sweep efficiency. -n those reservoirs where the salinity of the in(ection water varies
sufficiently from that of the formation water, determination of the core salinity on a foot$by$foot basis
will yield that portion of the formation that has been contacted by the in(ected water and, thus, has
been swept.
There are practical limitations to makin! these calculations on low porosity formations that contain
moderate water saturations. -n such cases the quantity of water present in the test plu! may be
quite small, and a small error made in estimatin! its volume will yield a lar!e error in the calculated
salinity.
Oil A(I )ra&i#y
Lnowled!e of the oil A/- !ravity is helpful in the interpretation of core analysis data, and estimates
of its value may be useful prior to the time the well is completed. 1stimates of the in$place oil !ravity
can be made usin! several techniques. A common method requires the collection of oil samples
from the area of interest. The A/- !ravity is determined on these samples, which are then retorted,
usin! procedures similar to that to which the core will be sub(ected. The A/- !ravity is then
determined on the oil recovered in the retortin! process, and correlations are made between the
retorted oil !ravity and the initial, nonretorted oil !ravity. Retort oil from the core analysis can be
used with the correlations in subsequent wells. 2ata included on the core analysis report represent
a non retorted oil !ravity.
-n cases involvin! analysis of heavy oil and tar sands, where no produced oil is available or likely to
be available, oil is actually recovered from the core. ufficient oil can sometimes be recovered by
centrifu!in! the core+ in other cases, solvents such as methylene chloride have successfully
removed the oil from the core. The solvent is subsequently vapori&ed and measurements are made
on the remainin! oil. Application of heat and a!itation is necessary to remove the solvent from the
oil, and some uncertainty exists as to how representative the !ravity of the remainin! fluid actually
is. ;evertheless, this measurement has proved helpful in those cases where no other source of oil
!ravity was available.
Three basic techniques exist for the determination of oil !ravity. The first technique involves fillin!
and wei!hin! a capillary of small volume with water, and then fillin! and wei!hin! the capillary with
the sample of oil. 'omparison of the two wei!hts yields the specific oil !ravity from which A/-
!ravity is calculated.
The second technique involves the suspension of an oil droplet in a water$alcohol mixture. The
mixture is ad(usted by water or alcohol addition to cause the oil droplet to float. #hen this
*1
ad(ustment has been completed, a hydrometer is inserted into the mixture and the specific !ravity of
both the oil and the mixture is read.
A third technique and one commonly used in sidewall core analysis is to measure the refractive
index of the retorted oil and, throu!h the use of correlations, to estimate the A/- !ravity of the non
retorted oil. This is a relatively rapid measurement technique. -t requires previously developed
correlations between non retorted oil A/- !ravity and retorted oil refractive index. The followin!
equations express the relationship between specific !ravity and A/- !ravity*
% H 484.9>(474.9 I A/-G)
B.11. Core Anal%'i' /e&ort'
"ore Analysis Repor#
(lug 5"on&en#ional6 Analysis
0i!ure 4 (Conventional core analysis or the CAD 5o. =, a 3ul Coast well) shows a computer$
!enerated report of a conventional core analysis of a %ulf 'oast well. :oth saturations and
fluorescences indicate that the &one is oil saturated from top to bottom. A plotted core!raph for the
same well is illustrated in 0i!ure 5 (Co"pletion coregraph or the CAD 5o. =, a 3ul Coast well).
The low permeability &one from M==C to M=47 ft shows low porosity, hi!her water, and low oil
saturations. This is not an oil$water transition &one, but is the result of a decrease in rock quality
accompanied by a decrease in hydrocarbon saturation in the reservoir < and hence in the core.
0i!ure 4.

*2
0i!ure 7 (-er"eability and porosity histogra"s or a 3ul Coast well) offers us computer$
!enerated porosity and permeability histo!rams for the same core. These provide visual
documentation of frequency (percenta!e of total samples) distribution patterns and median values,
as well as arithmetic avera!e porosity and !eometric avera!e permeability values. The stora!e
capacity (in porosity feet) and flow capacity (in millidarcy feet) are presented as cumulative curves.
-f you enter the porosity histo!ram with a porosity cut$off, for example, at 5=D, you will find that
5=D of the 79 ft recovered has a
porosity of 5=D or less. Therefore
disre!ardin! samples of 5=D porosity
or less will result in a loss of 49D of
the total stora!e capacity of the
reservoir. imilar information is
available from the permeability
histo!ram.
0i!ure 8 (-orosity versus per"eability
or a 3ul Coast well) !ives us a plot
of permeability versus porosity data
for the same well. The normal trend is
evident+ that is, increasin!
permeability is accompanied by
increasin! porosity. This curve can be
compared to curves from ad(acent
wells to see if relationships are
essentially the same or vary across
the field. -f similar porosity versus
permeability trends are observed,
special core data !enerated in one
well can be confidently applied to
others. This plot, in con(unction with the histo!rams, serves as a basis for selection of a suite of
cores to be subsequently tested by special core analysis. 'ertain rock properties trend as a function
of permeability, while others trend with porosity+ therefore, it is essential that the test suite cover
observed ran!es of both permeability and porosity.
0i!ure 7.

0i!ure 8.

Full *iame#er Analysis
*3
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 4 (;ull dia"eter core analysis o a !est (e#as well ) presents tabular core data for a full
diameter core analysis of a hetero!eneous
carbonate (dolomite) formation. Two hori&ontal
permeability measurements (maximum and ?=
de!ree), plus vertical permeability and !rain
density, were run and are reported in this
fi!ure.
0i!ure 5 (;ull dia"eter co"pletion coregraph
o a !est (e#as well) presents the core
analysis data !raphically for the total interval
analy&ed. A !amma ray analysis ('ore$
%amma) was also run and is included in the
results. The !amma ray results can be easily
compared to porosity, permeability, and
residual saturations, and are available for
comparison with a down$hole lo! of the well
for core versus lo! depth correlation.
The total interval shown is oil saturated. The
presence of low permeability hori&ontal
barriers is clearly seen, and the hi!her
permeability and porosity &ones to be perforated
are easily identified. -n thick carbonate reservoirs,
failure to reco!ni&e the presence of low
permeability lateral barriers can result in oil bein!
left unrecovered behind the pipe (hirer, ,an!ston,
and tron! 4?C@). The &ones separated by the low
permeability barriers will waterflood at different
rates, dependin! upon the ma!nitude of
permeability. This &onation must be accounted for
in reservoir en!ineerin! studies.
Side.all "ore Analysis
-rre!ular intervals used for sidewall core samplin!
reduce the usefulness of a !raphical presentation
of the sidewall data. :ecause of this, tabular
information, as shown in 0i!ure 4 (Sidewall core
analysis), is all that is normally presented.
:ecause sidewall cores are most helpful in soft sandstones, which in turn are often separated by
shale barriers, data from multiple &ones are often seen in a sin!le report.
0our separate &ones of !ood porosity and permeability are illustrated in 0i!ure 4 . The upper &one
is interpreted to be oil productive, but to contain an oil$water contact between @554 to @559 ft. This
is indicated by the loss of residual oil and increase in total water saturation below @554 ft. ;o
hydrocarbon odor and no fluorescence were observed in the &one interpreted to produce water.
The &one between @8@8 to @947 ft is interpreted to be !as condensate productive in the upper
portion. This overlies an oil column, with an oil$water contact below @9=@ ft.
*4
0i!ure 4.

0i!ure 5.

The lower two &ones are both interpreted to be water productive. This interpretation is based on the
existence of low to &ero oil saturation, hi!h total water content, and no odor or fluorescence.
everal pieces of data unique to sidewall
analysis are shown. The column AR1' -;A
refers to the len!th in inches of the
sidewall sample recovered. A)-, D :",LA
and A%A D :",LA equal, respectively,
the cubic centimeters of corrected oil and
!as volumes in the analy&ed sample,
divided by the bulk volume of the sample.
This fraction has been multiplied by 4== to
yield the percent data shown. A%A 21TA
is the result of a measurement to detect
hydrocarbon vapors in the sidewall !lass
container. A readin! !reater than &ero is a
positive indicator of hydrocarbons. -f at
&ero, it means only that vapors were not
present at the time of testin!. They may
have escaped from the bottle+ therefore a
&ero is not necessarily ne!ative.
A'R-T #TR DA defines the maximum
water saturation a sample with the
measured permeability and porosity can
retain and yet not produce water. This value is determined independently, usin! special core
analysis data, and then correlated with basic core analysis permeability and porosity information. -n
subsequent wells, knowled!e of permeability and porosity allows estimation of the critical water
saturation.
The critical water value should be compared to the reservoir in$place water saturation that has been
calculated from downhole electric lo!s. -f the in$place water saturation does not exceed the critical
value, the well will produce hydrocarbons. These data are particularly important in low permeability
reservoirs whose critical water saturation can be as much as M=D or !reater, but which will still
produce only hydrocarbons. #ithout knowled!e of the permeability and porosity from core data and
the estimate of hi!h critical water saturation, a well that has been evaluated on the basis of lo!s
alone may not be tested further or may be abandoned on the basis of its hi!h level of lo!$calculated
water. This water, althou!h present, is held in place by capillary forces and will not flow.
B.12. S&ecial Core Anal%'i'
Special "ore Analysis
pecial core analysis tests on homo!eneous formations are normally made on 4 or 44>5 inch (5.9 to
7.@ cm) diameter cylindrical plu!s approximately 4 to 7 inches (5.9 to C.9 cm) lon!. amples are
selected to cover the permeability, porosity, and rock$type ran!e. 0or hetero!eneous formations,
tests are made on full diameter cores. 'ertain measurements are made on fresh, preserved cores
that are not extracted and leached prior to the laboratory tests. -n other cases, samples are
extracted, leached, and dried. After porosity and permeability are determined, the samples are
restored to the desired saturation conditions.
The problem of not havin! suitable cores for special tests may arise because cores were taken for a
conventional analysis without subsequent special work in mind. The remote location of some oil
*(
0i!ure 4.

wells may make the use of a desired corin! fluid and packa!in! technique impractical. 1ither way,
the en!ineer or !eolo!ist must use the available rock in the state in which it exists.
)ther than when stora!e of rock has caused deterioration, the primary factor that may affect the
soundness of the results of special tests is rock wettability. -t is complex in theory, but a simplified
illustration of the concept of wettability as a function of contact an!le is shown in 0i!ure 4 (Contact
angle as an indication o wettability). -t appears that normally rocks in their initial state are water$
wet. 3any remain in this state, while others become neutral or oil$wet over !eolo!ic time when
contacted by oil containin! surface$active (polar) compounds that are adsorbed on the rock
surfaces. This has been discussed in some detail by 2enekas, 3attax, and 2avis (4?9?).
amples of !iven ori!inal reservoir wettability have been shown to chan!e because of contact with
corin! fluids, temperature and pressure
effects, core stora!e and packa!in!, core
exposure, and core cleanin!. -n other
instances, however, rocks were found to be
virtually insensitive to these same factors,
indicatin! that valid results can be obtained in
many cases with less than optimum conditions
prior to special analysis.
The data presented by ,uffel and Randall
(4?M=) indicate that capillary pressure
measurements, !as$oil relative permeability,
and electrical property information can be
reliably obtained on extracted cores. Althou!h
it was not specifically stated, it is likely that the
reservoirs reported on were water$wet.
1xtracted samples are suitable for most tests
not involvin! the simultaneous flow of water
and oil.
%reater awareness now exists that many reservoirs trend toward either neutral wettability or a state
of preferential oil$wetness. Treiber, Archer, and )wens (4?C5) have provided a laboratory
evaluation of reservoir wettability. They found that lar!e percenta!es of both carbonate and
sandstone formations appear to be other than stron!ly water$wet. #hen the rock is neutral or oil$
wet, the laboratory capillary pressure data are likely not to be suitable for calculation of reservoir
water saturations.
#ater$oil relative permeability can be measured on extracted cores from water$wet formations.
#here the formation is believed to be intermediate or oil$wet in nature, these tests should be made
on samples recovered with oil$base corin! fluids (native state cores) to which no extraneous water
has been added. The assumptions in this case are that the water saturation present in the sample
in the laboratory is equal to that in the reservoir, that it is in the proper pore spaces, and that the
wettability of the laboratory rock sample mirrors the reservoir wettability. #hen the formation is oil$
wet, electrical properties may also need to be measured on native state core.
Ca"illar !ressure %ests
#ater is retained in the reservoir pore space by capillary forces as hydrocarbons mi!rate and
accumulate. This interstitial water, in water$wet reservoirs, adheres to sand or carbonate surfaces.
Retentive forces are proportional to the water$hydrocarbon interfacial tension and the affinity of
water for the rock (wettin! preference), and inversely proportional to pore si&e. This implies that low
*)
0i!ure 4.

permeability formations that are composed of very small pore spaces have hi!h water retentive
forces, and hence often contain hi!h immobile water saturations.
The measurement of capillary pressure requires that core samples be selected so that the pore radii
distribution of the sample represents that of the reservoir. The data obtained in the test are used to
define initial water saturation distribution in the reservoir as a function of the hei!ht above the
hydrocarbon$water contact, and to furnish pore throat si&e and distribution data that are helpful in
identifyin! various rock types present in the formation.

Measuremen# Tec,ni2ues
Three commonly utili&ed techniques for measurin! capillary pressure data are*
N the restored state cell technique (:ruce and #el!e 4?8C)+
the centrifu!al technique (lobod, 'hambers, and /rehn 4?94)+
the mercury in(ection technique (/urcell 4?8?).
All three techniques furnish multiple saturation values so as to define water saturation as a function
of capillary pressure. The restored state technique has one advanta!e over the other two* water is
present in the core samples, which allows electrical properties to be measured alon! with capillary
pressure. The centrifu!al technique is the most rapid and is the best for poorly consolidated rocks,
provided they have been mounted in sleeves with screens over the sample ends. The mercury
in(ection technique yields the maximum number of data points. -t is the best one for obtainin! pore
throat distribution data, but the sample will be filled with mercury at the conclusion of the test and
will have no further value.
0i!ure 4 (Sche"atic o restored state
capillary pressure cell) is a schematic of
the restored state capillary pressure cell.
'lean, dry samples are wei!hed,
evacuated, pressure$saturated with
simulated formation brine, and a!ain
wei!hed. 3ultiple samples of varyin!
permeability can be run in one cell. The
nonwettin! phase is introduced at a low
and constant pressure. This low pressure
in(ection, which acts as a drivin! force to
remove the water, is counterbalanced by
the capillary retentive forces. #hen no
further water is movin! from the core at
the imposed pressure level, the sample is
removed and wei!hed. The water
saturation remainin! in the core is then
determined !ravimetrically.

**
0i!ure 4.

The pressure imposed on the sample
in the laboratory is equivalent to the
pressure difference that exists
between the wettin! and nonwettin!
fluid phases. This in turn is
proportional to the pressure difference
between the wettin! and nonwettin!
phase in the reservoir, which is related
to the hei!ht of a !iven saturation
above the ori!inal water$oil level and
the oil and water hydrostatic !radient.
0i!ure 5 (-ressure dierential )-C*
between water and hydrocarbon
versus height and water saturation)
illustrates this concept. As the
hydrocarbon column increases in
hei!ht, the buoyant force of the
hydrocarbon column increases. #ater
saturation is therefore pushed from the
pore space and reduced to lower
values as the hei!ht above the free
water surface increases.
-n 0i!ure 7 (Capillary pressure curves
representing dierent depositional
environ"ents) we see examples of
capillary pressure data for rocks that
represent three different depositional
environments. ;ote that the hi!her
permeability rocks have the lowest water
saturation at any !iven capillary
pressure, thus yieldin! a smaller
transition &one. There are some
su!!estions, however, that this may
hold true only at lower capillary
pressures. The capillary pressure that
yields a !iven water saturation is a
function of the rock$wettin!
characteristics. Typically, this contact
an!le varies between the laboratory and
the reservoir. 'apillary pressure is also
a function of the interfacial tension
between the fluids in the test core at the
time of testin!, which differs from the
reservoir value. )ne of the ma(or uses
of capillary pressure data is for definin!
the initial water saturation of the reservoir.
1a#er Sa#ura#ion &ersus 4eig,#
1quations ?.4, ?.5 and ?.7 (below) may be used to correct the laboratory measured capillary
pressure to an equivalent hei!ht above the free water level in the reservoir. The free water level is
defined as the depth where the capillary pressure is &ero+ for practical purposes, it is the depth at
which a hi!h permeability and porosity reservoir rock would show no residual oil saturation as the
&one of 4==D water saturation is approached.
*+
0i!ure 5.

0i!ure 7.


Sstem Contact
angle
Cosine 1nterfacial
%ension %
% > Cosine
/a8orator &ir-2ater - 1.- *2 *2

Oil-2ater 3- -.+)) 4+ 42

&ir-
mercur$
14- -.*)( 4+- 3)*

&ir-oil - 1.- 24 24
Reservoir Water-oil 3- -.+)) 3- 2)

Water-gas - 1.- (-* (-
./ressure and temperature dependent. Reasonable value to depth of 9=== feet.
Ta$le -. (ypical interacial tension and contact angle values or a waer-wet syste"
The equations require knowled!e of the interfacial tension of the fluids, both in the laboratory and in
the reservoir. ome estimate must also be made of the contact an!le in the reservoir. 0or water$wet
systems, the values reported in Ta$le - may be used as an approximation for those two variables if
no further information is available. chowalter (4?CM) discusses the importance of capillary pressure
and presents data that may be used for estimatin! the parameters required in the three equations.
1xamples of conversions of capillary pressure to reservoir hei!ht have also been presented by
Leelan in the manual published by 'ore ,aboratories, -nc., entitled Special Core Analysis.
5-6
or
:ut
586
Therefore
536
#here*
*,
h H hei!ht above free water table, ft or m
/c H capillary pressure, psi or k/a
H interfacial tension, dynes>cm
H contact an!le, de!rees
pw H density of brine, !>cm
7

ph H density of hydrocarbon, !>cm
7
! H !ravity term used to convert density to fluid !radient
R H subscript used to indicate initial reservoir conditions
, H subscript used to indicate laboratory conditions
(ore T,roa# *is#ri$u#ion
'apillary pressure data obtained from mercury in(ection tests can be converted to equivalent pore
radii, and 0i!ure 8 (Cu"ulative pore throat distribution or dierent depositional environ"ents)
illustrates plots of pore entry radius developed from the capillary pressure curves of 0i!ure 7 .
These data have been helpful in rock typin! and in selection of net pay (Eodry 4?C5+ 3cLen&ie
4?C9).

0i!ure 8.

Electrical !ro"erties
1lectrical measurements made in the laboratory on cores define, for a !iven formation, the
parameters that are used in electric lo! calculations of water saturation. The measured properties
include the resistivity of the core at 4==D water saturation (Ro), at other saturations (Rt), and the
resistivity of the brine (Rw). The relationship between rock properties and water saturation is as
follows*
+-
5-)
586
or
536
#here*
w H formation brine saturation, fraction
Rw H formation brine resistivity, ohmmeters
Rt H true formation resistivity, ohmmeters
Ro H true resistivity of 4==D brine$saturated rock, ohm$meters
0 H formation resistivity factor Ro>Rw
H measured porosity, fraction
a H intercept on 0 versus plot
n H saturation exponent, slope of R- versus w plot
m H cementation exponent (slope of 0 versus plot)
:y usin! these equations we can refine lo! calculations and need no lon!er rely on estimates
presented in the literature.
Forma#ion Fac#or &ersus (orosi#y
The formation factor (0) has been defined
(Archie 4?85) as the resistivity of a 4==D water
saturated rock (Ro) divided by the resistivity of
the saturatin! brine (Rw). #hen the measured
formation factor is plotted a!ainst measured
porosity, the slope of the resultin! line yields
the cementation exponent (m). This is
illustrated in 0i!ure 4 (-lot o or"ation actor
versus porosity, illustrating variation in intercept
AaA), alon! with limits observed in laboratory
tests.
+1
0i!ure 4.

Resis#i&i#y Inde+ &ersus 1a#er Sa#ura#ion
As water saturation decreases in a !iven sample, the true resistivity rises. This occurs because less
water and subsequently fewer ions are available to conduct electricity. The resistivity index (R-) is
defined as the true resistivity (Rt) at any saturation divided by the resistivity at 4==D saturation (Ro).
0i!ure 5 (-lot o sesistivity inde# versus water saturation or range o "easured values o the
slopeAnA) shows a typical plot of the resistivity index versus water saturation over a ran!e of
laboratory measured data. ;ote that the saturation exponent (n) is the slope of the resistivity index
versus water saturation line.
-n rare cases, both m and n values exceed
the limits illustrated on the fi!ures. 0or
example, if the rock matrix contains
conductive matrix components, the n value
often falls outside the illustrated limits. The
calculation of water saturation is very
sensitive to " as porosity decreases, and
use of an incorrect m value will yield water
saturation errors of 9=D pore space.
"lay E''ec#s
The presence of clay can suppress rock
resistivity, and yield lower m and variable n
values. The water saturation equation that was developed to accommodate the presence of clays
that conduct electricity becomes more complex than that !iven in 1quation 7. The saturation
equation that incorporates measured cation exchan!e capacity effects caused by clays is !iven by
the #axman$mits$Thomas equations (4?M@,4?C8)*
5@6
#here*
0.H 0a (4 I Rw : \v) 5A6
+2
0i!ure 5.

5B6
#here, in addition to the definition of nomenclature !iven after 1quation 8, the followin! apply*
0. H formation resistivity factor independent of clay conductivity H a.> m.
n. H saturation exponent independent of clay conductivity
: H specific counterion activity, 4>ohm$m>equiv>liter
\v H quantity of cation exchan!eable clay present, meq>ml of pore space
'1' H cation exchan!e capacity, meq>4== !m
maH !rain density of rock matrix, !>cm7
a H equation coefficient associated with m.
m. H cementation exponent (slope of 0. vs plot)
;e!lectin! the cation exchan!e capacity < that is, usin! 1quation 8 rather than 9 < yields
pessimistic estimates of hydrocarbons in place (see Loerperich 4?C9+ Leelan and 3c%inley 4?C?).
#ith the present extent of knowled!e, the cation exchan!e capacity can only be reliably determined
on rock samples from the formation bein! evaluated.
The #axman$mits$Thomas equation requires a trial and error solution, as the water saturation
(w) appears on both sides of 1quation 9. /ro!rams for hand$held calculators have been published
by :ush and Eenkins (4?CC) that allow the calculation to be made more easily. Leelan and
3c%inley (4?C?) have shown how the measured laboratory values of m and n may be modified to
furnish the m. and n. values required for the #axman$mits$Thomas equations. Ta$le -!, below,
illustrates the differences in calculated water saturation that may occur when usin! m and n values
for clean sand versus values developed for use in the #axman$mits$Thomas equations. ;ote the
pessimistic estimate of hydrocarbons in place that will result if the clean sand rather than the latter
equations for shaly sand are used.
#a>man<Smits<%homas /a8orator Data Clean Sand
a;1.- a* ;1.- a;1.- a;1.-
m;1.)3 m*;(1.,2 m;1.)3 m;2.-
n;2.3+ n*;2.+* n;2.3+ n;2.-

#1% #2% #3%
7o? !orosit 82: $ !6 82: $ !6 82: $ !6
+3
1 2-.4 4*. ((. )).
2 1*.+ (). )+. +*.
3 1).3 (*. *2. ,(.
4 2-.1 (4. )4. *,.
( 14.3 )1. +-. 111.
) 2(.2 (,. (,. ),.
* 2(.4 ((. (1. (+.
+ 2*.3 (*. (1. (*.
, 1*.( *4. *3. ,(.
1- 2-.- )-. *-. ++.
11 1*.4 )+. *(. ,,.
12 14.4 *4. +). 11,.

(4) ,aboratory data correctly ad(usted to .values (equation 5)
(5) ,aboratory values used as reported
(7) 'lean sand values assumed correct and i!norin! clay and shale effects (equation 8)
Ta$le -! Co"parative values o calculated water saturation, using clean sand and shaly sand
e,uations, or a shaly or"ation )ro" 0eelan and 2c3urley, =B>B, reprinted by per"ission o
S-!LA*
Relative !ermea8ilit
*e'ini#ions
$elative per"eability is a dimensionless
term that has importance when two or more
fluids move throu!h the pore spaces<for
example, oil and water. pecific or absolute
permeability is the permeability of a porous
medium to one fluid at 4==D saturation.
1ffective permeability is the permeability to a
!iven phase when more than one phase
saturates the porous medium. The effective
permeability, then, is a function of
saturation. Relative permeability to a !iven
phase is defined as the ratio of effective
+4
0i!ure 4.

permeability to the absolute or, in some cases, a base permeability. Relative permeability, then, is
also a function of saturation.
-n data that were !enerated prior to 4?C7, the specific permeability to air was often used as the
base permeability. ince that time, the common base has been the hydrocarbon permeability in the
presence of irreducible water. 0or an oil$water reservoir, this would mean the base permeability
would be effective permeability to oil at irreducible water. 0or a !as reservoir, the base permeability
would be that to !as in the presence of irreducible water. 0i!ure 4 (3as-water relative per"eability
curves) illustrates !as$water relative permeability data when water displaces !as.
Im$i$i#ion &ersus *rainage
The terms i"bibition and drainage are also employed when discussin! relative permeability tests.
Their meanin!s imply what is happenin! in the pore space to the wettin! phase as relative
permeability tests are measured. -f the wettin! phase is decreasin!, that phase is drainin! and the
curve is called a draina!e curve. -f the wettin! phase is increasin! or bein! imbibed durin! the test,
the curve is referred to as an imbibition curve ( 0i!ure 4 ).
0or a water$wet reservoir, the draina!e curves apply durin! the time that water is drainin! from the
reservoir and hydrocarbons are accumulatin!. )nce the reservoir rock or laboratory sample has
attained an equilibrium water$saturation value and the water is subsequently increased by natural
water influx or the introduction of corin! or test fluids, the imbibition curves apply. (-n oil$wet rock, a
reduction in the oil phase by water floodin! would be referred to as a draina!e curve.) These data
are required in many reservoir en!ineerin! calculations, and the laboratory tests that develop them
should follow the same saturation history as that in the reservoir.
La$ora#ory Me#,ods 'or Measuring Rela#i&e (ermea$ili#y
Two ma(or laboratory methods have evolved to measure relative permeability. These are referred to
as the steady$state and nonsteady$state techniques.
S(&AD? S(A(&: The steady$state test, the older of the two methods, is made at low flow rates,
and the test apparatus contains upstream and downstream mixer heads to remove capillary end
effects. 3ost research !roups prefer data obtained from this test. Two fluids are in(ected
simultaneously into a core sample and the water saturation is increased slowly. This simulates the
slow increase in water saturation that would occur in the formation between the in(ection and
producin! wells. aturation increase is monitored by measurin! the !ain in wei!ht occurrin! in the
sample or by K$ray technique.
5'5S(&AD? S(A(&: The nonsteady$state technique uses a viscous oil and is normally made at a
hi!her flow rate than that present in the reservoir. -t is this hi!her rate that sometimes yields
pessimistic estimates of recovery from rocks of intermediate wettability. 6eaviside and :lack (4?@7)
have analy&ed the two techniques and presented recommendations on the most appropriate way to
measure water$oil relative permeability dependin! upon the wettin! characteristics of the rock.
1e##a$ili#y E''ec#s
The natural preference of a porous medium, which causes one fluid to adhere to its surfaces rather
than another, is referred to as wettability. A water$wet porous medium causes water to adhere to its
surfaces. The wettability of a rock has a dramatic influence on relative permeability curves. -t is
therefore necessary that the core samples tested in the laboratory reflect the actual formation
wettability, and that initial water saturation in the test sample be of the same ma!nitude and have
the same spatial location as it has in the reservoir. This need has led to the recovery of Anative
+(
stateA cores. These are cores taken with crude oil or with other oil$base fluids that do not alter the
wettability or water saturation present in the recovered core.
0i!ure 5 (&ects o wettability on water-oil
relative per"eability: i"bibition data or
(orpedo sandstone) illustrates the effects of
core wettability on water$oil relative
permeability measurements ()wens and
Archer 4?C4). These data indicate that as
the rock becomes more oil$wet, the relative
permeability to oil decreases and the relative
permeability to water increases at any !iven
saturation. This results in unfavorable
recovery efficiency. -t also indicates that the
residual oil saturation in intermediate to oil$
wet rocks is a function of the volume of
water that flows throu!h the core sample,
and that the relative permeability to water
existin! at floodout will be much hi!her for
the oil$wet formation. An interestin!
observation is that the reduction of capillary
retentive forces in the oil$wet rock allows a
lower residual oil saturation to be achieved
in the oil$wet rock if economics would
support continued water in(ection.
#ettability may be estimated from shapes of relative permeability curves+ however, it should be
remembered that a similar shift in the relative permeability curves can also be caused by chan!es in
other rock properties. This was documented by 3or!an and %ordon (4?C=).
!etrogra"hic Studies
idewall and conventional cores, as well as cuttin!s recovered from wells, can be used for
petro!raphic studies. /ro!ress in instrumentation now allows us to look into the pore spaces and
examine samples at ma!nifications of 8=,=== times or !reater. These various microscopic
measurements are complementary in nature, and all may be made on a sin!le sample that is
representative of a !iven depth. everal such tests are detailed below.
T,in Sec#ion Analysis
-n thin section analysis, samples are mounted on !lass and !round to a uniform thickness of =.=7
mm. They are studied with a petro!raphic scope under normal and polari&ed li!ht. The minerals that
are present are identified, and the estimated porosity, median !rain diameter, and de!ree of
roundin! and sortin! are recorded. The accumulation of minerals can be ascertained, and the
chan!es in composition, texture, and cement that have occurred after deposition can be
determined. These studies use ma!nifications of up to M== times normal si&e. Thin section analysis
is a less successful method for identifyin! clays, but there may be cases where a particular clay is
abundant enou!h to be seen and identified. 0i!ure 4 ((hin section "icroscope display) shows a thin
section sample+ Ta$le -!, below, depicts a core description made from this type of analysis.
+)
0i!ure 5.

8ample depth5 4)4- <eet "rain si=e5
9olor5 >edium gra$ >inimum5 -.-) mm
Name5 Fine-grained sandstone >a?imum5 -.(1 mm
8orting5 Well &erage5 -.24 mm
:ithi<ication5 Well &ngularit$ and shape5 &ngular to subrounded
1e?ture5 >assie "rain contacts5 9oncao-cone?
0i!ure 4.

Detrital grains<
$
Cements<$ 5atri><$ 6isi8le "orosit<$
@uart=5 ), 8econdar$ Detrital5 2 Intergranular5 (
9hert5 3 Auart= &uthigenic5 4 "rain-moldic5 2
Feldspars #total%5 2 oergro2ths5
*

Dissolution5 1

Feldspar

>icroporosit$5 1
:ithic <ragments5
4
oergro2ths5
1race
Fracture5 -

9alcite5 -

/$rite5 1race

3easured porosity* C.8D
3easured permeability* 7@.7 md.
+*
Ta$le -! (hin section data
Scanning Elec#ron Microscopy 5SEM6
cannin! electron microscope photo!raphs provide a three$dimensional view of a pore space with a
ma!nification of up to approximately 8=,=== times normal. :oth distribution and morpholo!y of clays
within the pore space can be studied with this type of display. ;ormally, samples for analysis are
first coated with a thin film of conductive material and then bombarded with electrons. This causes a
secondary electron emission that yields a visual ima!e such as that shown in 0i!ure 5 (&lectron
"icroscope display) plus K$ray photons that are then available for elemental analysis. The latter
assists in definin! clay type and chemistry.
'lays influence core analysis analytical
procedures, permeability and porosity
ma!nitude, well$completion techniques, and
response of the downhole lo!s. The ability to
identify clay types, and to observe the
microporosity present in both clay linin!s and in
carbonates, are two of the most important uses
of 13 information.
(ample depth* 8M8= ft.)
5ineral Bul: sam"le 7et cla fraction &*?)$ of 8ul: sam"le'
@uart= ,1

Feldspars (

9alcite B

Caolinite 3 *-
9hlorite B B
Illite6>ica 1 3-
1otal 1--0 1--0
Ta$le 8! C-ray diraction data
++
0i!ure 5.

C/ray *i''rac#ion
All crystalline materials reflect K$rays from atomic planes within the 'rystal that yield a unique
diffraction pattern. This allows the identification of minerals, includin! those too small to be identified
by thin section studies. -mproved clay mineral identification results when clay$si&ed particles of four
microns or less are separated from lar!e sand !rain particles and K$rayed as a unit. Ta$le 8!,
above, is an example of such data.
"a#,odoluminescence
Thin sections of rock that are placed within a vacuum chamber will !low with color when hit with
electrons. -f the electron emitter is mounted on a petro!raphic microscope, immediate comparison
of samples by polari&ed li!ht and luminescence is possible, and !rowth rin!s similar to those of
trees may be observed in individual crystals. #est (4?C@) su!!ests that these rin!s have proved to
be correlatable over lar!e distances, and that their color pattern reflects trace elements present in
formation waters at various sta!es of the crystal history. The color pattern, then, offers insi!ht into
water temperature and chemistry durin! the history of the rocks.

Micropaleon#ology and (alynology
3icropaleontolo!y is the study of fossils that are not identifiable with the naked eye. :oth the
petro!raphic microscope and scannin! electron microscope are essential tools in these studies.
/alynolo!y is a speciali&ed area of micropaleontolo!y, that deals with acid$insoluble or!anic plant
fossils. -ncluded in this classification are plant spores and pollen, which are associated with
terrestrial environments. ,eRoy (4?CC) su!!ests that other microfossils are associated with the
marine environment, and that still others, typical of fresh and brackish water, are found in
transitional environments. These data, when observed in core samples and related to sedimentary
structures, texture, and litholo!ic characteristics, aid in the classification of environments of
deposition. 0i!ure 4 ((errestrial and "arine "icroossils) presents some examples of terrestrial and
marine microfossils.
+,
0i!ure 4.

Trace Elemen# Iden#i'ica#ion
Lukal (4?C4) indicates that trace elements present in shales have been used successfully as !uides
to ma(or variations in water salinity, and hence serve to differentiate between fresh water and
marine sediments. The presence of trace elements is related to the cation exchan!e capacity of
clay minerals located within the shales. 'lays have tremendous surface area and are often
electrically imbalanced. Trace elements are adsorbed on clay surfaces, and many trace metals
survive at these absorptions points. :oron, chromium, copper, nickel, vanadium, rubidium, and
lithium are !enerally found in hi!her percenta!es in marine clay sediments deposited in salty water.
ome studies have indicated lead associated with fresh water sediments.
Insolu$le Residues
Tests for insoluble residues are conducted to determine the materials remainin! after rock samples
have been di!ested in hydrochloric, formic, or acetic acid. -reland (4?CC) reports that quart&, chert,
pyrite, and clay are common residues. The reportin! of data may simply identify residues or may
furnish their wei!ht percenta!es as well. The techniques for such studies are also discussed by
wanson (4?@4). Residue identification helps to specify rock environment.
"ompu#er/Assis#ed Tomograp,y 5"AT6 Scanning
A computer$assisted tomo!raphy, or 'AT scan, produces an ima!e of the internal structure of a
cross$sectional slice throu!h an ob(ect by reconstructin! a matrix of x$ray attenuation coefficients.
'AT scannin! is a non$destructive x$ray technolo!y that is most familiar throu!h its use in medicine,
but which has been found to have oil industry applications as well. Applications relatin! to core
analysis include (4) visuali&in! the extent of mud invasion, (5) detectin! fractures, (7) characteri&in!
the litholo!y of cores contained in opaque preservation material, rubber$sleeve core barrels and
stainless$steel pressure vessels, (8) screenin! cores prior to flow tests and (9) correlatin! scan data
to porosity, permeability and litholo!y (6unt et al., 4?@@).
Nuclear Magne#ic Resonance 5NMR6 Logging
,-
The ;3R lo!!in! tool has been used for a number of years to measure in situ rock properties such
as porosity, permeability and residual oil saturation. 3ore recently, nuclear ma!netic resonance
technolo!y has been applied as a tool for core analysis (1delstein et al., 4?@@). ;3R ima!in!
enables the analyst to visuali&e fluids in a porous medium in dimensions, on a sub$millimeter scale
and thus to study porosity and fluid saturation distributions, alon! with fractures and drillin! mud
invasion. ;3R ima!es only mobile fluids within the pore structure.
E+ercise -!
%iven*
N )ri!inal oil formation volume factor (0B0o) of 4.9 reservoir bbl>stock tank bbl.
Reservoir oil !radient of =.77 psi>ft ] reservoir conditions.
Reservoir water !radient of =.88 psi>ft ] reservoir conditions.
0ree water$oil level of M=== ft (correspondin! to &ero capillary pressure).
0i!ure 4 and core analysis data.
0i!ure 4.

Core analysis data )water base*:
De"th : So&$ !6' So&$ !6'
(,(- 3(- 2+.4 2- ((
(,(1 ).4 1+.+ 1( (+
(,(2 3(- 2+.4 21 ((
(,(3 1) 21.- 1+ (*
,1
(,(4 1-- 2(.- 2- (4
'alculate the saturation versus hei!ht profile for the reservoir and the oil$in$place per unit volume of
reservoir.
4. 'onvert capillary pressure to hei!ht above free water level.
5. 'alculate hei!ht above free water level at which each core analysis sample exists.
7. Lnowin! hei!ht and permeability of each core sample, !o to capillary pressure curves
and read reservoir water saturation for each sample.
8. 'ompute avera!e porosity .
9. 'ompute arithmetic avera!e permeability
M. 'ompute avera!e water saturation in the core .
C. 'ompute avera!e oil saturation in the core .
@. 'omputer avera!e reservoir water saturation usin! capillary pressure data (w res).
?. 'ompute avera!e reservoir oil saturation (o res).
4=. 'ompute oil$in$place in the reservoir.
#here and are fractional and avera!es of the &one.
The followin! equations and worksheet will be helpful*
,2
Sam"le de"th Height a8ove free
water level
: Sw 3 < Sw
(,(- DDDDDDDDDDDD 3(- DDDDDDDD DDDDDDDD
(,(1 DDDDDDDDDDDD ).4 DDDDDDDD DDDDDDDD
(,(2 DDDDDDDDDDDD 3(- DDDDDDDD DDDDDDDD
(,(3 DDDDDDDDDDDD 1) DDDDDDDD DDDDDDDD
(,(4 DDDDDDDDDDDD 1-- DDDDDDDD DDDDDDDD
&g

; DDDDDD 0 ; DDDDDDDD <ractional
&g
arithmetic

; DDDDDDD md

&g 82 in core

; DDDDDDD 0

&g in
core

; DDDDDDD 0

&g res
; DDDDDDD 0 ;DDDDDDD
<ractional
&g res
; DDDDDDD 0

Oil in place*

; DDDDDDD bbl6acre <t

where and are fractional.
E+ercise 8!
%iven the followin! data, calculate the cementation exponent AmA and the intercept AaA used in the
equation*
,3
Rw H =.54 ohm $ meters ] CMG0i!ure
Sample (orosi#y Forma#ion 'ac#or
4 48 7C.5
5 4@.@ 58.=
7 54 4?.C
8 59 48.9
9 5@.8 44.?
olution 5*
4. 'onstruct lo!$lo! plot of 0ormation 0actor vs. /orosity.
5. 'ompute slope of line to yield AmA H 4.M?
7. 1xtrapolate data to intercept where 8) H 4.= to find intercept AaA H 4.8
E+ercise 3!
%iven*
k@ H 74@= md
ko ] irreducible water saturation H 598= md
-rreducible water saturation H 5@.=D
krw H kw>kbase
kro H ko>kbase
kbase H 598= md
/orosity H 5@.=D
#ith the !iven relative permeability curves ( 0i!ure 4 ) compute the effective permeability in
millidarcies to water and to oil when the reservoir water saturation equals 9=D pore space.
,4
0i!ure 4.

olution 7*
] w H 9=D
kro H =.5@
krw H =.=5C
ko H (=.5@) (598=) H C44 md
kw H (=.=5C) (598=) H M@.M md
B.13. /eerence' and Additional Inormation
Re'erences
American /etroleum -nstitute, A/- R/5C, Recommended /ractice for 2eterminin! /ermeability of
/orous 3edia.
American /etroleum -nstitute, A/- R/8=, Recommended /ractice for 'ore Analysis /rocedures.
Archie, %.1., 4?85, The 1lectrical Resistivity ,o! as an Aid in 2eterminin! ome Reservoir
'haracteristics, Trans., A-31, v. 48M, p. 98$MC.
:ilhirt&, 6.'. and %.. 'harlson, 4?C@, 'orin! for ln itu aturations in the #illard "nit ')5 0lood
3initest, /1 paper C=9=, 0ifth ymposium -mproved 3ethods for )il Recovery, Tulsa )L (April
4M$4?,4?C@).
:ruce, #.A. and 6.E. #el!e, 4?8C, The Restored tate 3ethod for 2etermination of )il in /lace
and 'onnate #ater, 2rill. and /rod. /rac., A/-, p. 4MM.
:ush, 2.'. and R.1. Eenkins, 4?C=, /roper 6ydration of 'lays for Rock /roperty 2eterminations, E
/et. Tech. (Euly), p. @==$@=8.
,(
<<<, haly and ,o! Analysis "sin! 'ation 1xchan!e 'apacity 2ata, Trans., '#, ()ctober
4?CC).
'ollins, R.1., 4?95, 2etermination of the Traverse /ermeabilities of ,ar!e 'ore amples from
/etroleum Reservoirs, E Applied /hysics, v. 57, p.M@4.
2enekas, 3.)., '.'. 3attax, and %.T. 2avis, 4?9?, 1ffect of 'rude 'omponents on Rock
#ettability, Trans., A-31, v. 54M, p. 77=$777.
1delstein, #.A., 6.E. Bine!ar, /.;. Tutun(ian, /.:. Roemer and ).3. 3ueller, 4?@@, ;3R -ma!in!
for 'ore Analysis, /1 4@5C5, presented at the M7rd /1 Annual 3eetin!, 6ouston, TK, ()ctober
5$9). Richardson, TK* ociety of /etroleum 1n!ineers.
0reeman, 2.,. and 2.'. :ush, 4?@7, ,ow /ermeability ,aboratory 3easurements by ;onsteady$
tate and 'onventional 3ethods, E /et. Tech. (2ecember 4?@7), p. ?5@$?7M.
6a!erdorn, A.R. and R.E. :lackwell, 4?C5, ummary of 1xperience with /ressure 'orin!, A-31
Technical /aper /1 7?M5 /1$A-31 Annual 0all 3eetin!, an Antonio ()ctober 4?C5).
6arris E.2. and 2.L. Leelan, 4?CM, 'ore Analysis Techniques, 'ase 6istories, and -nterpretation of
2ata for the Rocky 3t. Re!ion, /1 paper 9?=9, 3ay 44$45,4?CM.
6ayes, E.R., 4?CC, %rain i&e Analysis and Application, ubsurface %eolo!y, ,.#. ,eRoy, 2.).
,eRoy, and E.#. Raese (eds.), 'olorado chool of 3ines, %olden, '), p. M4$C8.
6eaviside, Eohn and '.E.. :lack, 4?@7, 0undamentals of Relative /ermeability* 1xperimental and
Theoretical 'onsiderations, /aper 454C7, 9@th Annual meetin! of /1 of A-31, an 0rancisco.
6ensel, #.3, Er., 4?@=, ummation$of$0luids /orosity Technique, /1 paper ?7CM, 99th Annual
3eetin! of /1, 2allas (eptember 54$58,4?@=).
<<<,4?@8, -mproved 0ormation 1valuation from /ressure and 'onventional 'ores Taken with
table 0oam* :ennett Ranch "nit, #asson 0ield, /1 /aper 47=?9, 9?th Annual 3eetin! of /1,
6ouston (eptember 4M$ 4 ?, 4?@8).
6unt, /.L., /. 1n!ler and '.E. :a(sarowicx, 4?@@, 'omputed Tomo!raphy as a 'ore Analysis Tool*
Applications, -nstrument 1valuation and -ma!e -mprovement Techniques. /1 4M?95 E/T
(eptember).
6urd, :.%. and E.,. 0itch, 4?9?, The 1ffect of %ypsum on 'ore Analysis Results, Trans., A-31,
v.54M, p. 554.
-reland, 6.A., 4?CC, -nsoluble Residues, ubsurface %eolo!y, ,.#. ,eRoy, 2.). ,eRoy, and E.#.
Raese (eds), 'olorado chool of 3ines, %olden, '), p. 97$9?.
Eodry, R.,., 4?C5, /ore %eometry of 'arbonate Rocks (:asic %eolo!ic 'oncepts), )il and %as
/roduction from 'arbonate Rocks, 1lsevier /ublishin! 'o., p. 79$@5.
Eones, 0.). and #.#. )wens, 4?C?, A ,aboratory tudy of ,ow /ermeability %as ands, A-31
Technical /aper /1 C994, 2enver (3ay 4?C?).
,)
Leelan, 2are L., 4?C5, A 'ritical Review of 'ore Analysis Techniques, E. 'anadian /et. Tech.
(April$Eune 4?C5), --, 5, p. 85$99.
<<<,4?@5a, 'ore Analysis for Aid in Reservoir 2escription (2ist. Author eries, /1 4==44), E
/et. Tech. (;ovember 4?@5), v. 78, p. 58@7$58?4.
<<<,4?@5b, pecial 'ore Analysis, company publication, 'ore ,aboratories, -nc.
Leelan, 2are L. and 2.'. 3c%inley, 4?C?, Application of 'ation 1xchan!e 'apacity in a tudy of
the hannon and of #yomin!, Trans., /#,A (Eune 4?C?), 4, /aper #.
Llinkenber!, ,.E., 4?84, The /ermeability of /orous 3edia to ,iquids and %ases, 2rill. and /rod.
/rac., A/-, p. 5==.
Loepf, 1.6. and R.E. %ranberry, 4?M=, The "se of idewall 'ore Analysis in 0ormation 1valuation,
E. /et. Tech. ()ctober 4?M=).
Loerperich, 1.A., 4?C9, "tili&ation of #axman$mits 1quations for 2eterminin! )il aturation in
,ow$alinity, haly and Reservoir, E. /et. Tech., v. 5C, p. 45=8$45=@.
Lukal, ^denek, 4?C4. %eolo!y of Recent ediments* Academic /ress, ;ew Qork, p. 854$85M.
,eRoy, 2.)., 4?CC, 1conomic 3icrobiostrati!raphy ubsurface %eolo!y, ,.#. ,eRoy, 2.). ,eRoy,
and E.#. Raese (eds.), 'olorado chool of mines, %olden, '), p. 545$577.
,uffel, 2.,. and R.B. Randall, 4?M=, 'ore 6andlin! and 3easurement Techniques for )btainin!
Reliable Reservoir 'haracteristics, 0ormation 1valuation ymposium Eointly ponsored by %ulf
'oast ection, A-31, "niversity of 6ouston tudent 'hapter, A-31, and "niversity of 6ouston
2ept. of /et. 1n!. (;ovember 54$55,4?M=), -, p. 54$7C.
3aness, 3abre, 4?@7, 'ores, 2rillin! amples 1ssential for Reservoir 1valuation, 3ichi!an )il and
%as ;ews ()ctober 5@, 4?@7), p. 5@$75.
3aness, 3abre, E.%.#. /rice, and /.2. 'hin!, 4?CC, #ell 0ormation 'haracteri&ation by Residual
6ydrocarbon Analysis, /1 /aper MMM=, /1 95nd Annual Technical 'onference and 1xhibition,
2enver ()ctober ?$45, 4?CC).
3cLen&ie, #.T., 4?C9, /etrophysical tudy of the 'ardium and in the /embina 0ield, /1 paper
9984, 9=th Annual meetin! of /1, 6ouston, 4?C9.
3c,atchie, A.., R.A. 6emstock and E.#. Qoun! 4?9@, The 1ffective 'ompressibility of Reservoir
Rock and -ts 1ffects on /ermeability. Trans., A-31, v. 547, p. 7@M.
3or!an, E.T. and 2.T. %ordon, 4?C=, -nfluence of /ore %eometry on #ater$)il Relative
/ermeability, oc. /et. 1n!. E. ()ctober 4?C=), p. 44C?.
)wens, #.#. and 2.,. Archer, 4?C4, The 1ffect of Rock #ettability on )il$#ater Relative
/ermeability Relationships, E. /et. Tech. (Euly 4?C4), p. @C7$@C@.
/urcell, #.R., 4?8?, 'apillary /ressures$Their 3easurement "sin! 3ercury and the 'alculation of
/ermeabilities Therefrom, Trans., A-31, v. 4@M, p. 7?.
,*
Rathmell, E.E., 4?MC, 1rrors in 'ore )il 'ontent 2ata 3easured by the Retort 2istillation 3ethod, E.
/et. Tech. (Eune 4?MC), p. C9?$CM8.
Rathmell, E.E., /.6. :raun, and T.L. /erkins, 4?C5 Reservoir #aterflood Residual )il aturations
from ,aboratory Tests, /1 paper 7C@9, -mproved )il Recovery ymposium, Tulsa, )L, (April 4M$
4?).
Reit&el, %.A. and %.). 'allow, 4?CC, /ool 2escription and /erformance Analysis ,eads to
"nderstandin! and %olden pikeFs 3iscible 0lood, E. of /et. Tech. (Euly 4?CC), p. @MC$@C5.
Reudelhuber, 0.). and E.1. 0uren, 4?9C, -nterpretation and Application of idewall 'ore Analysis
2ata, Trans., %ulf 'oast Assn. of %eol. ocieties, B--.
Rowley, 2.., '.A. :urk, and T. 3anual, 4?MC, )riented 'ores, company publication, 'hristensen
2iamond /roducts 'o. (0ebruary 4?MC).
chowalter, T.T., 4?CM, The 3echanics of econdary 6ydrocarbon 3i!ration and 1ntrapment, The
#yomin! %eolo!ical ociety 1arth cience :ulletin (2ecember 4?CM), v. ?, p. 8.
hirer, E.A., 1./. ,an!ston, R.:. tron!, 4?C@, Application of 0ield$#ide 'onventional 'orin! in the
Eay$,ittle 1scambia 'reek "nit, E. /et. Tech. (2ecember 4?C@), p. 4CC8$4C@=.
lobod, R.,., A. 'hambers and #.,. /rehn, 4?94, "se of 'entrifu!e for 2eterminin! 'onnate
#ater, Residual )il, and 'apillary /ressure 'urves of mall 'ore amples, Trans., A-31, v. 4?5,
p. 45C.
neider, R.3., 4?@4, 3ethods for 2etection and 'haracteri&ation of Reservoir Rock, 2eep :asin
%as Area, #estern 'anada, A-31 Technical /aper /1 4==C5, /1$A-31 4?@4 Annual 0all
3eetin!.
nyder, R.6. and 3. 'raft, 4?CC, 1valuation of Austin and :uda 0ormations from 'ore and 0racture
Analysis, %ulf 'oast Assn. of %eol. ocieties Trans., p. 7CM$7@9.
parks, Ron ,, 4?@5, A Technique for )btainin! -n itu aturations of "nderpressured Reservoirs,
E. /et. Tech. (;ovember 4?@5), p. 5C=4$5C=C.
wanson, :.0. and 1.'. Thomas, 4?@=, The 3easurement of /etrophysical /roperties of
"nconsolidated and 'ores, ,o! Analyst (eptember$)ctober 4?@=), p. 55$74.
wanson, R.%., 4?@4, ample 1xamination 3anual, 3ethods in 1xploration series published by
AA/%.
Trask, /.2., 4?75, )ri!in and 1nvironment of ource ediments of /etroleum, %ulf /ublishin! 'o,
6ouston.
Treiber, ,.1., 2.,. Archer, and #.#. )wens, 4?C5, A ,aboratory 1valuation of the #ettability of
0ifty )il$/roducin! Reservoirs, Trans., A-31, v.597, p. 974.
Bairo!s, E., '.,. 6earn, 2.#. 2arein!, and B.#. Rhoades, 4?C=, 1ffect of Rock tress on %as
/roduction from Ti!ht Reservoirs, 89th Annual 0all meetin! of A-31, )ctober 4?C=, /1 7==4.
,+
#axman, 3.6. and ,.E.3. mits, 4?M@, 1lectrical 'onductivities in )il$:earin! haly ands, oc.
/et. 1n!. E. (Eune 4?M@) Trans., A-31, p. 4=C$455.
#axman, 3.6. and 1.'. Thomas, 4?C8, 1lectrical 'onductivities in haly ands$-. The Relation
:etween 6ydrocarbon aturation and Resistivity -ndex+ -- The Temperature 'oefficient of 1lectrical
'onductivity, E. /et. Tech. (0ebruary 4?C8) p. 547$559, Trans., A-31, v. 59C, p. 547.
#ebster, %.3. and %.1. 2awson!rove, 4?9?, The Alteration of Rock /roperties by /ercussion
idewall 'orin!, E. /et. Tech. (April 4?9?), v. 5=74, p.9?.
#entworth, '.L., 4?55, A cale of %rade and 'lass Terms for 'lastic ediments, E. of %eolo!y, v.
7=, p. 7CC$7?5. #est, usan, 4?C@, ,uminescent ,itholo!y, cience ;ews (;ovember 8,4?C@), p.
74M.
#yman, R.1., 4?CC, 6ow hould #e 3easure Residual )il aturationY, :ul. 'an. /etr. %eolo!y, v.
59, p. 577$5C=.
Nomencla#ure
A H sample cross$sectional area, cm5
a . H equation coefficient associated with m.
: H specific counter ion activity, 4>ohm$m>equiv liter
:2 H bulk density, !>cm7 (assumed or measured)
:B H bulk volume
'1' H cation exchan!e capacity, meq>4== !m of sample
%2 H !rain density, !>cm7 (from downhole lo!)
%B H !rain volume
0 H formation resistivity factor independent of clay conductivity, Ro>Rw
0. H formation resistivity factor independent of clay conductivity, a.>
02 H fluid density, !>cm7 (assumed)
! H !ravity term used to convert density to fluid !radient
h H hei!ht above free water table, ft or m
k H permeability, md
k4 H Llinkenber! permeability value, md
ka H air permeability, md
,,
- H sample len!th, cm5
, H subscript used to indicate laboratory conditions
m. H cementation exponent (slope of 0. vs plot)
n H saturation exponent, slope of R- (Resistivity -ndex) versus w plot
n. H saturation exponent independent of clay conductivity
/B H pore volume, fraction or percent
pc H capillary pressure, psi of k/a
pa H atmospheric pressure, atmospheres absolute
\v H quantity of cation exchan!eable clay present, meq ml of pore space
q H liquid flow rate, cc>sec
qa H !as flow rate at atmospheric pressure, cc>sec
R H subscript used to indicate initial reservoir conditions
Ro H true resistivity of 4==D brine$saturated rock, ohms
Rt H true formation resistivity, ohm$meters
Rw H formation brine resistivity, ohm$meters
w H formation brine saturation, fraction
Bb H bulk volume of sample used to determine unoccupied pore space, corrected based on retort
sample wei!ht, cm7
B! H !rain volume, cm7
Bo H volume of oil collected, cm7 (corrected for vapor losses, cokin!, etc.5)
Bu H volume of unoccupied pore space, corrected based on retort sample wei!ht, cm7
Bw H volume of water collected, cm7
#4 H wei!ht of crushed rock in retort less wei!ht of contained fluids
#5 H wei!ht of crushed rock in retort, !
1--
H contact an!le, de!rees
Z H viscosity of fluid flowin!, centipoise
H fluid !radient, psi>ft
H rock !rain density, !>cm7
H !rain density of rock solids, !>cm7
H oil density, !>cm5
H water density, !>cm5 (assumed 4.== for water collected)
H interfacial tension, dynes>cm
H porosity
S#andard A$$re&ia#ions 'or Li#,ologic *escrip#ions
;ote* Abbreviations for nouns always be!in with a capital letter.
1ord A$$re&ia#ion
about abt
above ab
absent abs
abundant abd
acicular acic
a!!lomerate A!lm
a!!re!ate A!!
1-1
al!ae, al!al Al!, al!
allochem Allo
altered alt
alternatin! alt!
ammonite Amm
amorphous amor
amount amt
and _
an!ular an!
anhedral ahd
anhydrite ($ic) Anhy, anhy
anthracite Anthr
aphanitic aph
appears ap
approximate apprx
ara!onite Ara!
arenaceous aren
1-2
ar!illaceous ar!
arkose ($ic) Ark, ark
as above a.a..
asphalt ($ic) Asph, asph
assembla!e Assem
associated assoc
at ]
authi!enic auth!
avera!e Av, av
band ($ed) :nd, bnd
basalt ($ic) :as, bas
basement :m
become ($in!) bcm
bed ($ed) :d, bd
beddin! :d!
bentonite ($ic) :ent, bent
bitumen ($inous) :it, bit
1-3
bioclastic biocl
bioherm ($al) :ioh, bioh
biomicrite :iomi
biosparite :iosp
biostrom ($al) :iost, biost
biotite :iot
birdseye :deye
black ($ish) blk, blksh
blade ($ed) :id, bid
blocky blky
blue ($ish) bl, blsh
bore ($ed, $in!) :or, bor
bottom :tm
botryoid ($al) :ot, bot
boulder :id
boundstone :dst
brachiopod :rach
1-4
brackish brak
branchin! brh!
break :rk, brk
breccia ($ted) :rec, brec
bri!ht brt
brittle brit
brown. brn
bryo&oa :ry
bubble :ubl
buff bu
burrow ($ed) :ur, bur
calcarenite 'lcar
calcilutite 'lclt
calcirudite 'lcrd
calcisiltite 'lslt
calcisphere 'lcsp
calcite ($ic) 'alc, calctc
1-(
calcareous calc
caliche cche
carbonaceous carb
carboni&ed cb
cavern ($ous) 'av, cav
cavin! 'v!
cement ($ed, in!) 'mt, cmt
cephalopod 'eph
chalcedony ($ic) 'hal, chal
chalk ($y) 'hk, chky
charophyte 'har
chert ($y) 'ht, cht
chitin ($ous) 'hit, chit
chlorite ($ic) 'hlor, chlor
chocolate choc
circulate ($ion) circ, 'irc
clastic clas
1-)
clay ($ey) 'l, cl
claystone 'lst
clean cln
clear clr
cleava!e 'lv!
cluster 'lus
coal '
coarse crs
coated ($in!) cotd, cot!, 'ot!
coated !rains cotd !n
cobble 'bl
color ($ed) 'ol, col
common com
compact cpct
compare cf
concentric cncn
conchoidal conch
1-*
concretion ($ary) 'onc, conc
con!lomerate ($ic) '!l, c!l
conodont 'ono
considerable cons
consolidated consol
conspicuous conspic
contact 'tc
contamination ($ed) 'ontam, contam
content 'ont
contorted cntrt
coquina ($oid) 'oq, coqid
coral, coralline 'or, corln
core c,
cove red cov
cream crm
crenulated cren
crinkled crnk
1-+
crinoid ($al) 'rin, crinal
cross x
cross$bedded x$bd
cross$laminated x$lam
cross$stratified x$strat
crumpled crpld
crystocrystalline crpxln
crystal ($line) Ki, xln
cube, cubic 'ub, cub
cuttin!s 't!s
dark ($er) dk, dkr
dead dd
debris 2eb
decrease ($in!) 2ecr, decr
dense dns
depauperate depau
description 2escr
1-,
detrital detl
devitrified devit
diabase 2b
dia!enesis ($etic) 2ia!n, dia!n
diameter 2ia
disseminated dissem
distillate 2ist
ditto Aor do
dolomite ($ic) 2ol, dol
dominant ($ly) dom
drillin! drl!
drilistem test 2T
drusy dru
earthy ea
east 1
echinoid 1ch
elevation 1lev
11-
elon!ate elon!
embedded embd
equant eqnt
equivalent 1quiv
euhedral euhd
euxinic eux
evaporite ($itic) 1vap, evap
excellent ex
exposed exp
extraclast ($ic) 1xclas, exclas
extremely extr
extrusive rock,
extrusive
1xv, exv
facet ($ed) 0ac, fac
faint fnt
fair fr
fault ($ed) 0it, fit
fauna 0au
111
feet 0t
feldspar ($athic) 0spr, fspr
fenestra ($al) 0en, ten
ferru!inous ferr
fibrous fibr
tine ($ly) t, fnly
fissile fis
fla!!y f-!
flake, flaky 0-k, flk
fiat ti
floatin! flt!
flora 0lo
fluorescence ($ent) 0luor, fluor
foliated fol
toot 0t
foraminefera ($al) 0oram, foram
formation 0m
112
fossil ($iferous) 0oss, toss
fracture($d) 0rac, frac
fra!ment (al) 0ra!, fra!
frequent freq
fresh frs
friable fri
frin!e ($in!) 0r!, fr!
frosted fros
frosted quart& !rains 0.\.%.
fucoid ($al) 0uc, fuc
fusulinid 0us
!abbro %ab
!astropod %ast
!as %
!enerally !en
!eopetal !ept
!ilsonite %il
113
!lass ($y) %las, !las
!lauconite ($itic) %lauc, !lauc
%lobi!erina ($inal) %lob, !lob
!loss ($y) %los, !los
!neiss ($ic) %ns, !ns
!ood !d
!radin! !rad
!rain ($s, $ed) %r, !r
!rainstone %rst
!ranite %rt
!ranite wash %.#.
!ranule ($ar) %ran, !ran
!rapestone !rapst
!raptolite %rap
!ravel %rv
!ray, !rey ($ish) !ry, !rysh
!raywacke %wke
114
!reasy !sy
!reen ($ish) !n, !nsh
!rit ($ty) %t, !t
!ypsum ($iferous) %yp, !yp
hackly hkl
halite ($iferous) 6al, hal
hard hd
heavy hvy
hematite ($ic) 6em, hem
6eteroste!ina 6et
hetero!eneous hetr
hi!h ($ly) hi
homo!eneous hom
hori&ontal hor
hydrocarbon 6ydc
i!neous rock (i!neous) -!, i!
impression imp
11(
inch in
inclusion (ded) -ncl, incl
increasin! incr
indistinct indst
indurated ind
-noceramus -noc
in part -./.
insoluble insl
interbedded intbd
intercalated intercal
intercrystalline intxln
inter!ranular int!ran
inter!rown int!n
interlaminated intrlam
interparticle intpar
intersticies ($itial) -ntst, intst
intraclast ($ic) -ntclas, intclas
11)
intraparticle intrapar
intrusive rock, intrusive -ntr, intr
invertebrate -nvtb
iridescent irid
ironstone 0e$st
irre!ular ($ly) irr
isopachous iso
(asper Easp
(oint ($ed, $in!) Et, (t
kaolin ($itic) Lao, kao
lacustrine lac
lamina ($tions, $ated) ,am, lam
lar!e l!e
late rite ($itic) ,at, lat
lavender lav
layer ,yr
leached lchd
11*
lens, lenticular ,en, lent
li!ht it
li!nite ($itic) ,i!, li!
limestone 1s
limonite ($itic) ,im, lim
limy lmy
lithic lit
litho!raphic lith!r
litholo!y ($ic) ,ith, lith
little ,tl
littoral litt
local loc
lon! l!
loose lse
lower l
lustre ,str
lutite ,ut
11+
macrofossil 3acrofos
ma!netite ma!netic 3a!, ma!
man!anese,

man!aniferous 3n, mn
marble 3bl
marl ($y) 3rl, mrl
marlstone 3rlst
marine marn
maroon mar
massive mass
material 3at
matrix 3trx
maximum max
medium m or med.
member 3br
meniscus men
metamorphic rock, 3eta
11,
metamorphic ($osed) meta, metaph
mica ($ceous) 3ic, mic
micrite ($ic) 3icr, micr
microcrystalline microxln
microfossil ($iferous) 3icrofos,
microfos
micro!rained mic!r
micro$oolite 3icrool
micropore ($osity) 3icropor,
micropor
microspar 3icrospr
microstylolite 3icrostyl
middle 3id
miliolid 3ilid
milky mky
mineral ($i&ed) 3in, min
minor mnr
moderate mod
12-
mold ($ic) 3ol, mol
mollusc 3oil
mosaic mos
mottled mott
mud ($dy) md, mdy
mudstone 3dst
muscovite 3usc
nacreous nac
nodules ($ar) ;od, nod
north ;
no sample n.s.
no show n>s
novaculite ;ovac
no visible porosity n.v.p..
numerous num
occasional occ
ochre och
121
oil )
oil source rock )R
olive olv
ooid ($al) )), oo
oolicast ($ic) )oc, ooc
oolite ($itic) )ol, ool
oomold ($ic) )omol, oomol
oncolite ($oidal) )nc, onc
opaque op
oran!e ($ish) or, orsh
)rbitolina )rbit
or!anic or!
orthoclase )rth
orthoquart&ite )$)t&
)stracod )str
over!rowth ov!th
oxidi&ed ox
122
oyster 'yst
packstone /kst
paper ($y) /ap, pap
part ($ly) /t, pt
particle /ar, par
partin! /t!
parts per million //3
patch ($y) /ch, pch
pebble ($ly) /b-, pbl
pelecypod /elec
pellet ($al) /el, pel
pelletoid ($al) /eld, peld
pendular ($ous) /end, pend
permeability ($able) /erm, k, perm
petroleum,
petroliferous
/et, pet
phlo!opite /hlo!
phosphate ($atic) /hos, phos
123
phyllite, phyllitic /hyl, phyl
phreatic phr
pink pk
pinkish pkish
pin$point (porosity) p.p.
pisoid ($al) /iso, piso
pisolite, pisolitic /isol, pisol
pitted pit
pla!ioclase /la!
plant /lt
plastic plas
platy pity
polish, polished /ol, pol
pollen /oln
poly!onal poly
porcelaneous porcel
porosity, porous
/or, , por
124
possible ($ly) poss
predominant ($ly) pred
preserved pres
primary prim
probable ($ly) prob
production /rod
prominent prom
pseudo$ ps
pseudo oolite ($ic) /sool, psool
pumice$stone /st
purple purp
pyrite ($iti&ed, $itic) /yr, pyr
pyrobitumen /ybit
pyroclastic pyrcl
quart& ($ose) \t&, qt&
quart&ite ($ic) \t&t, qt&t
radial ($atin!) Rad, rad
12(
radiaxial Radax
ran!e rn!
rare r
recemented recem
recovery ($ered) Rec, rec
recrystalli&ed rexl&d
red ($ish) rd, rdsh
reef ($old) Rf, rf
remains Rem
replaced ($ment) rep, Repl
residue ($ual) Res, res
resinous rsns
rhomb ($ic) Rhb, rhb
ripple Rpl
rock Rk
round ($ed) rnd, rndd
rounded, frosted, pitted r.f.p.
12)
rubble ($bly) Rbl, rbl
rudist Rud
saccharoidal sacc
salt ($y) A, sa
salt and pepper s _ p
salt water .#.
same as above a.a
sample pl
sand ($y) d, sdy
sandstone st
saturation ($ated) at, sat
scarce scs
scattered scat
schist ($ose) ch, sch
scolecodont col
secondary sec
sediment ($ary) ed, sed
12*
selenite el
shale ($ly) h, sh
shell hl
shelter porosity hlt por
show hw
siderite ($itic) id, sid
sidewall core .#.'.
silica ($iceous) il, sil
silky slky
silt ($y) it, sit
siltstone ltst
similar sim
skeletal skel
slabby sib
slate ($y) l, sl
slickenside ($d) lick, slick
sli!ht ($ly) sli, slily
12+
small sml
smooth sm
soft sft
solution, soluble ol, sol
somewhat smwt
sorted ($in!) srt, srt!
south
spar ($ry) pr, spr
sparse ($ly) sps, spsly
speck ($led) pk, spkld
sphalerite phal
spherule ($itic) pher, spher
spicule ($ar) pic, spic
splintery splin
spon!e p!
spore po
spotted ($y) sptd, spty
12,
stain ($ed, in!) tn, stn
stalactitic stal
strata ($ified) trat, strat
streak ($ed) trk, strk
striae ($ted) tri, stri
strin!er str!r
stromatolite ($itic) tromlt, stromlt
stromatoporoid trom
structure tr
stylolite ($itic) tyl, styl
suban!ular sban!
sublithic sblit
subrounded sbrndd
sucrosic suc
sulphur, sulphurous u, su
superficial oolite ($ic) pfool, spfool
surface urf
13-
syntaxial syn
tabular ($ate) tab
tan tn
terri!inous ter
texture ($d) Tex, tex
thick thk
thin thn
thin$bedded t.b.
thin section T..
throu!hout thru
ti!ht ti
top Tp
tou!h t!h
trace Tr
translucent trnsl
transparent trnsp
trilobite Tril
131
tripoli ($itic) Trip, trip
tube ($ular) Tub, tub
tuff ($aceous) Tf, tf
type (ical) Typ, typ
unconformity "nconf
unconsolidated uncons
underclay "c
underlyin! undly
uniform uni
upper u
vadose Bad, vad
variation ($able) Bar, var
varicolored varic
varie!ated v!t
varved vrvd
vein ($in!, $ed) Bn, vn
veinlet Bnlet
132
vermillion verm
vertebrate vrtb
vertical vert
very v
very poor sample B./.
vesicular ves
violet vi
visible vis
vitreous ($ified) vit
volatile volat
volcanic rock, volcanic volc, Bolc
vu! ($!y) Bu!, vu!
wackestone #kst
washed residue #.R
water #tr
wavy wvy
waxy wxy
133
weak wk
weathered wthd
well #-, wi
west w
white wh
with wi
without w>o
wood #d
yellow ($ish) yel, yelsh,
&ircon ^r
&one ^n
0rom wanson, 4?@4, reprinted by permission of AA/%.

134

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