Excavation

Handbook
HORACE K. CHURCH
Consulting Engineer
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY
New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogoth
Hamburg Johannesburg London Madrid Mexim
Montreal New Delhi Panam Paris Silo Paul0
Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Church, Horace K
Excavation handbook.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
I. Excavation. 2. Engineering geology.
I. Title.
TA730.C48 624.1'52 80-19630
ISBN 07-010840-4
Copyright O 1981 by McCraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United St abs of America. No part O F this
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any f onn or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the publisher.
2345 HDHD 83210
The editors for this b m k were Harold B. Crawford and
Joseph Williams, the supervisor was T a s o F
Leaden, and the designer wos Mark E Sofmn. It u s set in
Gael by ComCom.
Printed and bound by Halliday Lithograph Cow.
Contents
Preface xv
. . . . . . . . . . . 1 . EARTH AND GEOLOGY OF EXCAVATION
2 . ROCKS. ORES. MINERALS. AND FORMATIONS . . . . . . . . .
The Grand Canyon-The Classical Record of Rocks . . . . . . . .
. Definition of Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classi6cation of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lgneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metamorphic Rockr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rocks. Ores. and Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lineage of a Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Attitude of For mat i onsDi p and Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Correlation of Rock Formations for Excavation . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . ROCK WEATHERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces of Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deconlposition by Chemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disintegration by Mechanical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combined Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rates of Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . IANDFORMS AND GEOMORPHOLOGV . . . . . . . . . .
Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Valleys and Gorges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Floodplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fanglomerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vlii Contents
Terraces . . .
Mudflows . . .
Mesas and Buttes
Wind . . . . .
Valcanics . . . .
Gravity . . . . .
Crustal Movements
. . . . Faults
Summary . . . .
5 . OPEN-CUT EXCAVATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Building Sites and Large-Foundation Excavations . . . . . . . . .
Canals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dams and Levees . . . . . . . . . . .
Highways . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pits and Open Mines . . . . . . . . . .
Ouarriea . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sanitary Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . Trenches and Small-Foundation Excavations
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . EXAMINATION OF EXCAVATION . . . . . . . .
. Office Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Work
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose of Field Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Observations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Long-Range Surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Walking Centerline-Detailed Observations . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions from Field Work and Subsequent Excavation
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 . EXPLORATION OF EXCAVATION
Manual Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Backhoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulldozers and Angledozers
Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lnstrumental Means-The Seismic Timer . . . . . . . . . . . .
Refraction Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . Ripping and Blasting Zones According to Seismic Velocities
Uphole Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . Velocity-Depth Relationships for the Three Classes of Rock
Comoarison of Methods for Exdoration of Excavations . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 . COSTS OF MACHINERY AND FACILITIES . . . . . . . .
Production of Machinery . . . . . . .
Continuous Production . . . . . . .
Intermittent Production . . . . . . .
Direct Job Unit Cost . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .
9 . CLEARING AND GRUBBING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forest Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Necessary Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber Cruise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crane Method for Heavy Clearing and Grubbing . . . . . . . .
Brush Rake Method for Light Clearing and Grubbing . . . . . . .
Production and Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 . DEVELOPMENT OF WATER SUPPLY . . . . . .
Symbols. Formulas. and Weights and Measures . . .
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fundamental Equations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bernoulli's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Friction Losses in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hazen-Williams Formula . . . . . . . . . .
Frictiou Losses in Hoses . . . . . . . . . . .
Friction Losses in Pipe Appurtenances . . . . . .
Equivalent Length of Pipe Method . . . . . . .
Flow-of-Water Method . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tables of Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Use of the General Equation . . . . .
Solution for Maximum Elevation. hSl. of the Pump
Solution for Mechanical Head. h.". of the Pump . .
Methods and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . .
Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pipe Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Valves
Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meters ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Water Supply Development . . .
Use of Nearby Fire Hydrant . . . . . . .
Use of Reactivated Line of Water Dishict . .
Use of River Water Elevated above the River .
Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 . FRAGMENTATION OF ROCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Ripping . . . . . .
Principles . . . . .
Methods and Machinery
Productions and Costs
Blastine
Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-23
Methods of Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-37
Air Noise and Earth Vibration frarn Blasting . . . . . . . . . .
Safety in the Use of Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blasthole Drills and Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Successful and Economical Drilling and Use of Explosives
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 . LOADING AND CASTING EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . .
Tractor-Bulldozers and Tractor-Angledozers . . . . . . . .
Resolution of Forces when Bulldozing on the Level over Loose
Rock-Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resolution of Forces when Bulldozing Downgrade aver Loose
Rock-Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capacities .md Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loading by Tractor-Bulldozers . . . . . . . . . . . .
Castine bv Tractor-Aneledozers . . . . . . . . . . . .
v . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bucket Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crawler-Mounted Bucket Loaders . . . . . . . .
Wheels-Tire-Mounted Bucket Loaders . . . . . .
Shovels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motions. Mechanics. gnd Specifications . . . . . .
Operating Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Backhoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operating Cycle and Specifications . . . . . . . .
EEciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operating Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . .
Backhoe with Telescoping Boom and Rotating Dipper
Production and Cost Estimation for Difficult Work . .
Small Backhoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Auxiliary Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Uses in Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operating Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . .
Auxiliary Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crane Selection and Prodnction and Cost Estimation .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Draglines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Operating Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production and Cost Estimation for Various Operations
Area Mining by Dragline . . . . . . . . . . .
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trenchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ladder Trencher . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Efficiencies of Trenchers . . . . . . . . . . .
Wheel Trencher . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Productions of Trenchers . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belt Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mobile Belt Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Movable Belt Loaders . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wheel-Bucket Excavators . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimating Productions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents XI
Linear-Digging-Linear-TravelingExcavator . . . . . . . . . . 12-79
Circular.Digging-Linear.TravelingExcavator . . . . . . . . . . 12-82
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-84
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-85
13 . HAULING EXCAVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crawler.Tractor.Bulldozers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crawler-Tractor-Drawn Scrapers and Rock Wagons . . . . . . .
The Effective Drawbar Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coefficient of Tractor and Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . .
Dynamics of Haulage by Crawler-Tractors and Scrapers . . . . .
Production and Cost Estimation for Crawler-Tractor-Scrapers . . .
Pull-type Rock Wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wheels-Tires-Mounted Scrapers and Bottom.Dump. Rear.Dump. and
Side-Dump Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Haulage by Wheels-Tires-Mounted Scrapers and Haulen
Dynamics of Haulage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hauline-Cycle Calculationr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Scrapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Push-Loaded Scraper . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-hading Scraper . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bottom-Dump Haulerr . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison with Scrapers as Fundamental Haulers .
Hauling Cycle Times and Average Loads . . . .
Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary
Rear-Dump Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types and Applications . . . . . . . . . . .
Hauling Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . .
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Side-Dump Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hauling Cycle Timer . . . . . . . . . . . .
Averaee Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production and Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-79
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-80
Considerations for Scraper or Hauler Selection . . . . . . . . . . 13-80
Belt-Conveyor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-84
Parts of a Belt-Conveyor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-91
Dynamics of a BelbConveyor System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-96
Productions and Costs of a Belt Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . 13-109
Rear-Dumo Truck Haulaee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.111
~ u
Belt Conveyor Haulage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.112
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.113
Cableway Scraper-Bucket Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-113
Dragscraper Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-113
Track Cable Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-122
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-127
Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-128
Physical and Economic Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-128
Principles and Dynamics of Railroad Haulage . . . . . . . . . . 13-131
Locomotive Selection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.134
Xi1 Contents
Production and Cost Calculations for Locomotives and Cars . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulickers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Hydraulicking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinery and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production and Costs for Hydraulicking . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Haulage by Hydraulicking and by Scrapers . . . . .
Dredges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grapple Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bucket Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Propelled Hopper Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suction-Cutterhead-Pipeline Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production and Cost Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Haulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 . DUMPING AND COMPACTING EXCAVATION
Dumping and Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Building Compacted Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spreading and Muing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles. Testing. and Specifications for Coznpartian of Embankments
Wettine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
u
Compacting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Compaction of Trash and Cover Material in a Sanitary Landfill or Dump
Summary . . .
15 . HAUL ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE .
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alignment
Methods and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . .
Productions and Costs . . . . . . . . . . .
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tow-Type Graders . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Wagons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16 . ALLIED OPERATIONS. MACHINERY AND COMPONENTS. AND
FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wellpoint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles. Methods. and Machinery . . . . . . . . .
Fstirnated 1978 Cost of Unwatering Fonndation Excavation
Alternative Dewatering Methods for Foundation . . . .
Cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lead Cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Cofferdams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Fundamentals of Cofferdam Design . . . .
Pumps for Unwatering for Excavation . . . . . . . . .
Centrifugal Suction Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Centrifugal Submersible Pumps . . . . . . . . . . .
Diaphragm Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnitude of Large Unwatering Jobs . . . . . . . . .
Lighting Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Estimated Costs for a Floodlighting System . . . . . . .
Contents xiii
Weiehine Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-28
Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tire Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors Affecting Life of Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tire Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection of Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Life of Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repairs to Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative Costs of Nylon Bias-Ply Versus Steel Radial-Ply Tires . . . .
Engines . Engine-Generator Sets, and Mobrs . . . . . . . . . . .
Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EngineGenerator Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transporting Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods and Machiuery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production and Costs for Transporting Machinery . . . . . . . .
Servicing and Maintaining Machinery on the Job . . . . . . . .
Servicing in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maintenance in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yards. Shops, and Offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 . CALCULATIONSOF QUANTITIES FOR EXCAVATION . . . . . . .
Ar a s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subdivision Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prismoidal Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average-End-Area Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average-End-Area Method with Prismoidal Adjustment . . . . . .
Caclulating Excavation Volumes According to Manner of Fragmentation
Excavation Volumes and Weights According to Position or Condition .
Center of Gravity or Center of Maes of Volume in Excavation or
Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Importance of Using Centers of Gravity When Estimating Hauling Casts
Measurement of Haul and the Mass Diagram . . . . . . . . . . .
Making Up Tables 17.1, Calculations for Mass Diagram . . . . . . .
Plotting Mass Diagram. Figure 17-9. from Data of Table 17-1 . . .
Use of Mass Diagram for Calculating More Economical Haulage by
Substituting Another Borrow Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Use of Mass Diagram for Calculating Centers of Gravity in Cuts and
Fills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary
18 . PREPARATION OF BID AND SCHEDULE OF WORK . . . . . . . .
Preparation of Bid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Bid Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Unbalanced Bid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Bid Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schedule of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Critical-Path Method (CPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Observations and the Value of Preplanning and Scheduling
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11" Contents
APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 . Approximate Material Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . Rock Clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . Depreciation Schedule for Machinery and Facilities . . . . . .
4 . Conversion Factors for System of Measurement . . . . . . . .
5 . Fornlulas Frequently Used in Calculations for Rack Excavation
Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . Swell Versus Voids of Materials and Hauling Machine Load Factors
7 . Approximate Angles of Repose of Materials . . . . . . . . . .
8 . Bearing Powers of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 . Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glossary . :
Bibliography
Index follows bibliography