Chapter 45 HORMONES AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones are chemical signals that are responsible for regulating body processes.
Blood transports hormones to the target tissues.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system consists of a collection of glands, cells and tissues that secrete
hormones.
Its function is to regulate many aspects of metabolism, growth and reproduction.
Endocrine glands produce hormones and secrete them to the surrounding tissues and
eventually into the capillaries.
Endocrinology is the study of endocrine gland function and hormonal effect on target tissues.
Exocrine glands release their secretions into ducts.
OVERA! "ET#EEN ENDOCRINE AND NERVO$S RE%$ATION
ome neurons secrete hormones !neuro&ormones" and are #nown as neurosecretory or
neuroendocrine cells.
The regulation of several physiological processes involves structural and functional overlap
between the endocrine and nervous systems.
Endocrine hormones regulate growth, development, fluid balance, metabolism and
reproduction.
$yposecretion% secretion lower than normal.
$ypersecretion% secretion higher than normal.
$omeostasis depends on the normal concentrations of hormones.
CONTRO !ATH#AYS AND 'EED"AC( OO!S
Rece)tors or sensors throughout the body detect stimuli and send information to control
center.
E. g. change in C&' concentration in the blood.
The control center compares the signal to a (desired) value and sends out a signal to direct an
e**ector to respond.
E.g. breathing centers in the pons and medulla oblongata* diaphragm and intercostal
muscles receive a message to increase breathing.
Target cells have rece)tors that combine with a specific hormone. They are responsible for the
specificity of the hormone. The receptors may be in or out of the cell.
Negati+e and )ositi+e *eed,ac- mechanisms control the amount of hormone and response
needed.
Sim)le )at&.ay% timulus + endocrine gland + hormone released into the blood + target
effector + response
Sim)le neuro&ormones )at&.ay% timulus + sensory neuron + hypothalamus,pituitary +
neurosecretory cell + hormone released into the blood + target effector + response
Sim)le neuroendocrine )at&.ay% timulus + sensory neuron + hypothalamus,pituitary +
neurosecretory cell + hormone released into the blood + endocrine gland + hormone into the
blood + target effector + response
CHEMICA SI%NAS TAR%ET CE RECE!TORS
$ormones and other chemical signals bind to target cell receptors, initiating pathways that
culminate in specific cell responses.
Review the mechanisms of chemical signaling, Chapter 11, p. 201.
HORMONE TYPES
1. Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol, e.g. cortisol, progesterone, testosterone.
2. Amino acid derivatives called amines, e.g. thyroid, melatonin.
3. Peptide hormones are short chains of amino acids, e.g. secretin, ADH, oxytocin.
4. Modified fatty acids, e. g. prostaglandins.
Chemical signals produced y secretory cells either ind to a surface receptor or penetrates the cells and
inds to a receptor inside the cell.
!eceptor " transduction " response
!eceptors for water-sou!e hormones are emedded in the plasma memrane and pro#ect out$ard from
the cell surface.
"ntraceuar receptors are found either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus of the target cell.
%ntracellular receptor proteins usually perform the entire transduction $ith the cell.
&he chemical signal acti'ates the receptor, $hich then directly triggers the cell(s response.
&he intracellular receptor acti'ated y a hormone acts as a transcription factor.
&he acti'e factor, the receptor)hormone complex, acti'ates or represses the transcription of a gene.
*pinephrine produces different responses in different target cells ecause the target cells ha'e different
transduction path$ays.
PARA#R"NE S"$NA%"N$
-ocal regulators affect neighboring target cells.
ome cells release hormones that act on nearby cells. This is called )aracrine regulation.
everal types of chemical compounds function as local regulators* many are neurotransmitters.
%ro.t& *actors are peptides and proteins that stimulate cell reproduction and
differentiation.
They must be present in the e.ternal environment for many cells to grow and develop
normally.
/0 may have several #inds of target cells and a variety of functions.
Cyto-ines are local regulators that play a role in the immune system.
Nitric oxide, 1&, is a gas produced by many cells.
It is to.ic and causes a fast reaction in cells before it is bro#en down.
It is secreted by neurons and functions as a neurotransmitter.
ecreted by leu#ocytes, #ills bacteria and cancer cells in body fluids.
2eleased by endothelial cells, cause the blood vessels to rela. and dilate.
!rostaglandins are modified fatty acids that have a wide range of activities.
-ungs, liver, digestive tract and reproductive organs release prostaglandins.
3ffect cells in their immediate vicinity.
4imic cyclic 345 and interact with other hormones that regulate many metabolic
activities.
ome are involved in fever and inflammation.
Interleu-ins regulate immune responses.
VERTE"RATE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Tro)ic &ormones affect other endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus and pituitary glands integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine
system.
Table 45.1 summarizes the activit of ma!or human hormones.
HY!OTHAAM$S
5art of the brain.
-in#s the endocrine system with the nervous system.
4ost endocrine activity is controlled directly or indirectly by the hypothalamus.
5roduces growth releasing and growth inhibiting hormones.
3nterior lobe of the pituitary is the target tissue.
timulates and inhibits secretion.
!IT$ITARY
3t the base of the brain.
It has two regions that develop from different regions of the embryo and have different functions.
/0 !osterior lo,e o* t&e )ituitary or neuro&y)o)&ysis0
The posterior pituitary gland is an e.tension of the hypothalamus.
5roduces oxytosin.
Causes the uterus to contract during birth.
Causes the mammary glands to e6ect mil#.
5roduces antidiuretic &ormone 1ADH2.
Causes the collecting ducts of the #idneys to reabsorb water.
ecretes growth7hormone7releasing hormone or %HRH and growth7hormone7
inhibiting hormone or %HIH also called somatostatin.
30 Anterior lo,e o* t&e )ituitary or adeno&y)o)&ysis0
The anterior pituitary gland develops from a fold in the roof of the mouth of the embryo, which
grows toward the brain and loses its connection with the mouth.
Tro)ic &ormones stimulate other endocrine glands.
T&yroid4stimulating &ormone !T$" causes the thyroid to secrete hormones.
Adrenocorticotro)ic &ormone !3CT$", a peptide, stimulates the secretion of
hormones by adrenal corte..
%onadotro)ic &ormones !follicle7stimulating hormone, 0$, luteini8ing hormone,
-$" stimulate gonad functions.
Nontro)ic &ormones are peptide,protein hormones function in simple neuroendocrine
pathways.
!rolactin is a protein that stimulates the mammary glands to produce mil#.
Melanocyte4stimulating &ormone !4$", a peptide, regulates the activity of
pigment containing cells in some vertebrates* in mammals probably acts as a
feedbac# mechanism that targets the neurons of the hypothalamus.
Endor)&ins inhibit the perception of pain* increase the threshold of pain.
Nontro)ic and tro)ic e**ects%
%ro.t& &ormone !/$" stimulates linear body growth and tissue and organ growth
by promoting protein synthesis.
3 protein of about '99 amino acids.
timulates the upta#e of 33 from the blood and their incorporation into cellular
proteins* increase in s#eletal muscle mass.
4obili8es fats from fat depots for transport to cells, increasing blood levels of
fatty acids.
/$ stimulates the liver to produce peptides called somatomedins including
insulin7li#e growth factor, which stimulate bone and cartilage growth.
ecretion of /$ is regulated by growth7hormone releasing hormone or %HRH
and growth7hormone7inhibiting hormone or %HIH also called somatostatin. Both
are released by the hypothalamus.
It has a diurnal cycle with the highest levels occurring during the night sleep* the
total amount secrete pea#s during adolescence and then decreases with age.
1&15IT:IT32; $&24&1E
1onpituitary hormones help regulate metabolism, homeostasis, development and behavior.
THYROID
In humans and other mammals, the thyroid is located at the base of the nec#, on the ventral
surface of the trachea.
T&yroxine 1T52 and triiodot&yronine 1T62 contain iodine. They are derivatives of the
amino acid tyrosine.
T4 is converted to T< in many cases in target cells.
The receptor protein is located in the cell nucleus and has greater affinity for T<.
timulate general growth and development, and the metabolic rate in most tissues by
stimulating en8ymes involved in glucose o.idation.
T4 and T< help maintain normal blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestion, normal
hydration and secretory activity of the s#in, and reproductive ability and lactation in females.
T< induces or suppresses the synthesis of en8ymes.
$ypothyroidism in childhood leads to cretinism, retarded mental and physical development.
$ypersecretion causes a fast use of nutrients, hunger, e.cessive sweat, high body
temperature, nervousness, irritability and emotional instability.
These hormones re=uire iodine. -ac# of iodine causes goiter due to an over production of
T$ by the anterior pituitary.
The secretion of thyroid hormones is controlled by the hypothalamus through a negative
feedbac# mechanism.
It affects every cell in the body e.cept the adult brain, spleen, testes, uterus and the thyroid
gland itself.
%oiter is a disease caused by hypothyroidism. In the absence of enough thyroid hormones, the
hypothalamus continues to produce T$, which leads to an increase in the si8e of the thyroid.
5roduces calcitonin, which wor#s antagonistically to the parathyroid hormone.
-owers the blood calcium level by inhibiting calcium release form bones.
timulates calcium incorporation into the bone matri..
Calcitonin activity is important in childhood when the s#eleton grows =uic#ly but is wea# in
adults.
!ARATHYROID
These glands are embedded in the connective tissue surrounding the thyroid.
ecrete the )arat&yroid &ormone !5T$" that regulates calcium level in the blood
and tissue fluid.
timulate calcium release from bones. 5T$ stimulates the osteoclasts to decompose
bone matri..
timulates calcium reabsorption from the #idney, and conversion of vitamin > to its
active form.
?itamin > acts together with 5T$ and increases the absorption of calcium in the
intestines. ?itamin > binds to receptors in the nuclei of target cells and regulates
gene transcription.
It increases the concentration of Ca
'@
in the blood and has an effect opposite to that
of the thyroid hormone calcitonin.
-ac# of 5T$ causes a drop of Ca
'@
in the blood leading to convulsion of s#eletal
muscles.
ISETS O' THE !ANCREAS OR O' AN%ERHANS.
The pancreas is considered a ma6or endocrine gland but only A B 'C !by weight" of its cells
secrete hormones. The rest of the cells are involved in the production of digestive en8ymes.
3bout A million little clusters of cells scattered throughout the pancreas.
Al)&a cells secrete glucagon !'D7amino7acid polypeptide", which increases the
concentration of glucose in the blood. Its ma6or target is the liver.
"eta cells secrete insulin !5A7amino7acid polypeptide", which lowers the
concentration of glucose in the blood.
Insulin stimulates cells to ta#e up glucose, inhibits the release of glucose from the
liver, stimulates the deposit of fat in the adipose tissue, and inhibits the use of amino
acids.
/lucose concentration regulates the secretion of glucagon and insulin.
The concentration of glucose is maintained in humans near D9mg,A99m- of blood.
Insulin also inhibits the glycogen brea# down in the liver and inhibits the conversion
of amino acids and glycerol from fats to sugar.
In general, insulin ta#es glucose out of the blood, causing it to be used in energy
production or converted to other forms !glycogen and fats", and promotes protein
synthesis and fat storage.
Dia,etes mellitus is an endocrine disorder.
Ty)e I dia,etics do not produce enough insulin. The immune system or a virus
destroys beta cells.
Ty)e II dia,etics produce enough insulin but the receptors on target cells cannot
bind to it.
The adrenal glands are located above each #idney.
ADRENA MED$A
$elps the body cope with stress, increases the heart rate, blood pressure, metabolic
rate, reroutes blood, mobili8e fats and increase glucose level in the blood, dilates
bronchioles, decreases digestive system activity and urine output.
ecretes e)ine)&rine 1adrenaline2 and nore)ine)&rine. These hormones belong
to a group of compounds called catec&olamines, and derived from the amino acid
tyrosine.
Their secretion is a response to stress.
1ervous system can increase their production.
ADRENA CORTE7
3drenal secretions do not initiate cellular and en8ymatic activity but permit many biochemical
reactions to proceed at optimal rates.
ecretes three hormones in significant amounts, but more than <9 steroids have
been isolated.
The adrenal corte. responds to endocrine stimulus rather than the nervous system.
$ypothalamus + pituitary releases 3CT$ + adrenal corte. secretes
corticosteroids.
Mineralocorticoids !aldosterone" maintain sodium and potassium balance by
increasing sodium reabsorption and potassium e.cretion in the #idney tubules*
increase in blood pressure and volume.
%lucocorticoids !cortisol" help the body adapt to stress, raise blood glucose level
and mobili8e fats and proteins for sugar production, and suppress the immune
system.
Cortisone suppresses inflammation. E.cessive amount of glucocorticoids
suppresses the immune system.
>$E3 !dehydroepiandrosterone" is converted in the tissues to testosterone.
Elevated levels of corticosteroids inhibit the secretion of 3CT$.
There is evidence that corticosteroids help maintain homeostasis when the body
e.periences stress over an e.tended period of time.
3 third group of corticosteroids are se. hormones, androgens and small amounts of
estrogens. The physiological role of adrenal se. hormones is not well understood.
%ONADS
/onadal steroids regulate growth, development, reproductive cycles, and se.ual behavior.
The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce androgens, estrogens and progestins.
Testes produce mainly testosterone, an androgen. It is responsible for secondary male
characteristics.
&varies produce estrogens, the most important of which is estradiol. It is responsible for the
secondary se.ual characteristics of women.
The hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary by releasing /n2$ !gonadotropin
releasing hormone".
The gonadotropin hormones -$ and 0$, from the anterior pituitary control the synthesis of
estrogens and androgens.
!INEA %AND
The pineal gland or body is located near the center of the mammalian brain. In other animals it
is found closer to the surface of the brain.
5ineal body in the brain releases melatonin, a modified amino acid, which influences biological
rhythms, sleep and the onset of se.ual maturity.
4elatonin concentration increases at night and ma#es us drowsy.
-owest levels occur during daylight hours around noon.
>epending on the species, the pineal body has connections from the eyes, and receives input
about the intensity of light and length of the day
4elatonin secretion is a lin# between a biological cloc# daily or seasonal activity.
In some animals, mating behavior and gonadal si8e varies with the length of daylight and dar#
periods. 4elatonin is involved in these effects.
3n area of the hypothalamus called the su)rac&iasmatic nucleus !C1" is rich in melatonin
receptors and functions as a biological cloc#.
Changing melatonin concentration may also be a means by which the day7night cycles influence
physiological processes that show rhythmic variations, such as body temperature, sleep,
appetite, and hypothalamic activity in general.
4elatonin seems to decrease the activity of the C1 neurons. Bright light suppresses melatonin
secretion.
There is still a lot to learn about this gland.
INVERTE"RATE HORMONES
3mong insects, hormones are secreted mainly by neurons.
$ormones regulate regeneration in hydras, flatworms and annelids, molting and metamorphosis
in insects, color changes in crustaceans, reproductive behavior and other activities.
In hydras, the hormone that stimulates growth and budding inhibits se.ual reproduction.
Crustaceans have endocrine glands and neuroendocrine cells.
4olting, reproduction, heart rate and metabolism are influenced by hormones.
5igment cells are located beneath the e.os#eleton.
5igment distribution is controlled by the neurosecretory cells.
>ispersed pigments cause color changes
Insect development is controlled by the interaction of various hormones.
/enerally an environmental factor affects neuroendocrine cells in the brain.
Brain secretes "H &ormone !brain hormone" that stimulates the prothoracic gland to
produce 4$, molting hormone or ecdysome, which stimulates growth and molting.
E$, 8u+enile &ormone, maintains the larval stage and prevents metamorphosis.
Fhen the E$ decreases the larva develops into a pupa.
In the absence of E$, the pupa molts and becomes an adult.
The amount of E$ decreases with each successive molt.