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/3
ARITHMETIC
FOR YOU
7
By JAMES R. OVERMAN
FREDERICK S. BREED
CLIFFORD WOODY
Illustrated by
Miriam Story Hurford, A. F. Hurford
LYONS AND CARNAHAN
Chicago Dallas Los Angeles Atlanta New York
Copyright 1945
by
Lyons & Carnahan
Printed in the United States of America
51J53
When requesting answers for this hook, specify numher AFY1457.
FOREWORD
Time marches on, says a familiar voice, and with it social
change. Education, too, is part and parcel of our general Bocial
structure and must be continually reshaped to fit our changing
purposes.
In the spirit of progress Arithmetic for
You is now offered as the
successor of the Child-Life
Arithmetics. The many good features
of the former books have been retained. Revisions have been
made to meet changed social conditions and in the light of what
has been learned from the latest developments of psychology,
from educational experiment, and from the operation of the earlier
series in thousands of classrooms. The following are special
features of the seventh and eighth grade books.
The books are highly socialized. Each arithmetical topic-
grows out of an interesting social situation and is then applied to
others. Use is made of the pupil's growing interest in the activities
of the adult world. The organization is largely social, centering
around topics, such as Using Arithmetic in the Home. This
social organization is important since the purpose is to teach the
pupil to use mathematics in life.
In these books, learning becomes an active processthe pupils
learn by doing. The need for new information arises in connec-
tion with some interesting life situation, and the pupils discover
the needed knowledge inductively and form their own generaliza-
tions. The experimental method is frequently used.
Because of the increased use of algebra and geometry in industry
and many other fields, the more useful concepts, methods, and
facts of these subjects must now be included in seventh and
eighth year arithmetics. In these books this is done in a simple,
concrete way that not only greatly increases the pupils' stock of
mathematical tools but actually makes arithmetic easier and more
interesting.
One of the major objectives of these books is the development
and maintenance of skill in the fundamentals. At the beginning
of each year each process is reviewed, and the common sources of
error are pointed out before starting practice. Practice is con-
centrated where needed by the systematic use of diagnostic
testa and
remedial
practice.
Pupil Lnteresl
is secured by frequent
self-measuremenl
and the
stimulation
of the desire for self-im-
provement.
Review
practice
exercises
are of the mixed type,
whi.h has been shown by
experiment
to be superior, except on a
nrw process.
Accuracy
is developed
by
systematic
checking,
reduction of
score for
errors, and by avoiding
the use of a time
limit so shori as to force many
pupils to sacrifice
accuracy
for
speed.
Finally,
the co-operation
of the
pupils is secured by dis-
cussing with
them, in
simple terms, the
psychology of
effective
practice.
A second
important
objective
of these books is the develop-
ment of the ability to use
arithmetical
tools in the solution of
simple
problems.
Each new
arithmetical
topic
grows out of a
social situation and is immediately
applied to others.
The tool
and the social situations in which it is used are
presented
together
and kept together.
This constant
emphasis on the meaning and
uses of the
arithmetical
fact or process is the
primary secret of
developing
the ability to apply
mathematics in life. Further aid
is given the pupils by a simple
presentation of the steps in problem
solving.
Frequent use is also made of such devices as diagrams,
problems with extra data,
problems
with insufficient
data,
generalized problems, and the making of problems to fit
given
data.
Psychology today is emphasizing
teaching for spread and trans-
fer. Experiments show that much that is learned in connection
with one situation can be and is used in other related situa-
tions, if the first teaching is made
sufficiently
general. Every
effort is made in these books to secure as wide a spread as possible
and to avoid teaching in "watertight
compartments".
The pupils
are encouraged to make their own
generalizations,
and these are
prominently displayed for emphasis and for ease of future refer-
ence
THE AUTHORS.
IV
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
1 Things We Learned Last Year 1
2 Improving Your Work with
Fractions
39
3 Improving Your Work with
Decimals...
59
4 Learning to Work with Per Cents.. 87
5 Using Arithmetic in the Home 127
6 Helps in Problem Solving... 179
7 Practical Measurements 203
8 Picturing Numbers. Graphs... 249
9 Using Geometry
279
Practice Tests
307-340
Score Card 341
tables for reference ...342-343
Index 344
C II A P T E R
/
/
Z
kings We
teamed
Cast
year
IMPROVING
YOUR
WORK WITH
WHOLE
NUMBERS
The
Indians
who lived in North America before the
coming
of the white men, probably used little arithmetic except
simple
counting.
Today,
everyone has to make
considerable use of
this subject.
Many of you, when you are older, expect to work in stores,
offices, or shops; some of you will be aviators, farmers, nurses,
carpenters,
teachers,
bookkeepers,
stenographers,
doctors,
dentists,
lawyers,
mechanics, engineers,
contractors,
or archi-
tects. All of you will be interested in running your own per-
sonal affairs
economically. For many of these types of work
you will need to study more advanced
mathematics, but for
all of them you will need arithmetic and some simple algebra
and geometry.
In this book you will learn how the Cunninghams, a typical
American
family, used mathematics.
You will become ac-
quainted with such subjects as accounts,
budgets, banks,
interest,
formulas, areas, volumes, scale
drawings, statistical
tables, graphs, and many others.
There are four members of the Cunningham
family, Mr. L.
D. Cunningham, Mrs. Cunningham,
Dick, and Agnes.
In this chapter you will find out how
accurately and rapidly
you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide whole numbers;
and will receive many suggestions
that will help you to im-
prove your work. Accuracy and reasonable speed are both
important in all practical
applications of arithmetic.
I.-*"'* '...,..-
25""'rf'
OUR
NATIONAL
PARKS
One summer the
Cunninghams took an automobile trip to
Yellowstone National Park. Before starting, Dick found the
following table in a booklet "Our National Parks."
State
or
Territory
Z,i
z
0, 7 9
Zj/ 4
5"
Reading Large Numbers
The method of writing numbers which we use was perfected
by the Hindus over a thousand years ago. Since it was brought
into Europe by the Arabs, it is often called the Arabic system.
In reading large numbers, you must know the names and
values of each of the different places. The names of the first
ten places, starting at the right, are given on the number
written on the blackboard at the top of the page.
This number is read Two billion, one hundred twenty-eight
million, seven hundred ninety-two thousand, one hundred forty-
five. Notice that you should not use the word "and" between
the different parts of the number.
1. Copy this statement and complete it: "Each place, as
you go to the left, has a value times as great as the pre-
ceding place."
2. Learn the names of the first ten places, in order, starting
from the right. Practice giving them from memory.
3. Read the following. Do not use the word "and" between
the different parts of the numbers.
a. 386 b. 702 c. 500 d. 7,000 e. 28,597
f. 396,085
g. 97,489,107 h. 3,148,307,209
i. 5,891,283,756
4. Read the numbers in the table on page 2.
*^y Ufc*Aft*>*>- v
v /.,>*>--..
RUNNING
THE
100-YARD DASH
When Dick's
school
organized a track team, Dick and
several other boys
decided to try the
hundred-yard
dash. The
first afternoon
the coach
had all of the boys run a hundred
yards while he timed
them. It took Dick just 13
seconds.
After that, Dick
practiced
almost every
afternoon and asked
the coach for
suggestions.
By the end of the year he could run
a hundred yards in 12 seconds.
Next year, by practicing
and
following the
suggestions
of the coach, Dick expects to
improve
this record.
You can improve
your record in
arithmetic in the same way
that Dick improved his record in the
hundred-yard
dash, and
you can have just as much fun as Dick had. In this book you
will find a number of Improvement
Tests. By taking these
tests, you can find out how rapidly and how accurately
you can
work with whole numbers,
fractions, and per cents.
You
will
take each of these tests several times this year. By
keeping
your scores, you can measure the improvement
which you make.
Improvement Tests 5
MEASURING YOUR ACCURACY AND SPEED
The Improvement Tests are intended to help you measure
your increase in both accuracy and speed in the use of mathe-
matical tools. Success in practical life calls for a high degree of
accuracy and a reasonable degree of speed. Speed without
accuracy is worse than useless. For this reason your score on
these tests will be the number of examples you have right less
the number wrong, or omitted. This means that you must take
every precaution to avoid errors. You will make better scores
and more improvement if you follow the suggestions given
below.
Direction for Taking Tests
1. Do not copy the examples unless it is necessary to do so.
Place the top edge of a sheet of paper below the first row and
write the answers, or work the examples, on the paper.
After you finish the first row, fold the paper so the answers
are hidden and place the folded edge below the second row of
examples. Do this for each row.
2. Work the examples in order. Your score is decreased by
one for each example omitted.
3. Do not hurry. Errors lower your score.
4. Work carefully. Carelessness causes errors.
5. Check each step before starting the next.
6. Keep your attention fixed on the example until you
finish it. If your attention wanders, you are liable to make a
mistake.
7. Rest between examples, if necessary.
8. Check each example before starting the next. This is
time well spent, since each example wrong reduces your score
by one.
9. Work as fast as you can with comfort. If you always do
this, you will find that your speed will gradually increase with-
out loss of accuracy.
IMPROVEMENT
TEST
NUMBER
ONE
Graphs
PICTURING
YOUR
PROGRESS
Mary Andrews, a pupil in the
seventh
year of the Roosevelt
Junior High School, made the
picture
shown above to show
her own progress and that of her
class on
Improvement Test
Number One. Such a picture is called a graph.
1. How many times did Mary
and her class take the test?
2. What was Mary's score on the first trial? What was the
class average?
Answer the same
questions for the third trial.
The sixth. The tenth.
3. On which trials was Mary's score below the class average?
Above?
4. On which trials did Mary
make a higher score than on
the previous trial? A lower score?
The same score?
5. Did Mary make more or less
progress than the class as
a whole?
Measuring
Your
Progress
Take Improvement Test
Number One. Copy the Score
Card given on page 341 in a notebook and record your score.
On the next page in your notebook start a graph like Mary's,
showing your own progress and that of your class on
Improve-
ment Test Number One.
Improvement Test Number One 7
THE FOUR PROCESSES WITH WHOLE NUMBERS
Work each example on your paper.
(
'luck i lie addition examples
by adding again in the reverse order. Check the subtraction
examples by addition. Go over each step in the multiplication
and division examples a second time before going on to the next
step. Time, 16 minutes.
1. Copy and
8
How Addition Is Used
1. Ruth saved the money which she earned and deposited
it in a savings bank. She deposited $2.37 on June 1st, 76^ on
July 12th, $1.89 on July 30th, and $2.17 on August 5th. How
much did she deposit altogether?
2. Last summer Joseph went on an automobile trip with
his father. They drove 231 miles the first day, 187 the second,
254 the third, 89 the fourth, and 315 the last day. How far
did they drive on the trip?
3. Louise wrote a short sentence describing the kind of
problems in which addition is used. Study her statement at
the bottom of the page. Is it correct?
4. Make up at least one good problem to be solved by addi-
tion. Then solve it.
The Vocabulary of Addition
If you cannot answer the questions below, look up the mean-
ing of addends, sum, and total in the dictionary.
1. Copy and fill the blanks in the following statements.
a. In the example 8+9
=
17, the addends are and
,
and the sum is .
b. Total is another name for the .
c. The sign + is read
2. Name the addends and the sum in each of the following
examples.
32
7+9
=
16 384 15
598 49
2+5+8
=
15 982 96
Addition is used to find the combined value of two or
more numbers.
Vocabulary: Addends, sum, total.
Avoiding Errors in Addition 9
If you are like most seventh grade pupils, you know how to
add but make too many mistakes. Most errors in addition
occur at the points described below. Study the explanations
carefully. If you master these troublesome points, you should
be able to increase your accuracy and speed.
1. Basic Addition Facts. On page 309 you will find the
100 basic facts needed in addition. See how rapidly you can
give the sums. Note the ones that cause you trouble and give
them extra practice.
2. Higher Decade Facts. In adding more than two
numbers, you must be able to recognize the basic facts when
you meet them in the tens, twenties, etc. In the example
at the left, starting at the top, you must know 5+7,
12+4,
and 16+8. Do you recognize the last two? Al-
though these are not among the 100 basic facts, they are

closely related to them as shown in the examples below.

2
10
\>oidiii Errors in Addition
3.
Thinking Results Only. Agnes Cunningham was slow
in addition. In adding the numbers at the left, she thought
"5
and 7 are
12",
"12
and 4 are
16", and
"16
and 8 are
24".
Her teacher suggested that she save time by looking
at the numbers and thinking
"12,
16,
24".
Can you do
this? Turn to Practice Test Number 3, on page 310,
and
practice. Think results only.
4. Carrying. Three types of errors are common when the
sum of a column is more than nine: (a) Failure to add the
tens of the sum to the next column to the left; (b) adding the
._ wrong figure of the sum to the next column;
'
~
,
(c) carrying when there is nothing to carry.

Explain the error in each of the examples at
61 54 68
the left> Add correcti
y
.
5. Placing the Numbers. Mary wanted to add 324 and
15. She wrote them and added as shown at the left. Is
this correct? Why? State a rule about writing whole
^- numbers in addition. Which column must be kept
474
straight? Why? Copy and add correctly. Turn to
Practice Test Number 4, on page 311, for more practice.
6. Carrying in Adding Columns. Most pupils add down-
ward and check by adding upward. In adding downward, carry
to the top of the next column. In adding upward, carry to the
bottom. Why? The number carried should not be written but
added mentally. Why? Turn to Practice Tests Number 4 or
5,
on page 311, for further practice in carrying.
7. Compound Numbers. Dick added the numbers at the
left. Explain how he changed 5 ft. 15 in. to 6 ft. 3 in. Is his
work correct? Dick decided it was not necessary to write the
3 ft. 7 in. 5 ft. 15 in. He changed the 15 in. to 1 ft. 3 in.
2 ft. 8 in. mentally, wrote the 3 in. and added the 1 ft. to
5 ft. 15 in.
the other feet. Can you do this?
or For further practice, turn to Practice Test
6 ft. 3 in. Number 48a, on page 338.
Safety First. Checking
Addition
LI
Even the most accurate computers
occasionally make mis-
takes, so it is customary in practical
work, where the result must
be right, to check all
computations.
You should form the habit
of checking while you arc in school.
389
756
Dick added the
numbers at the left, starting at
898 the top. To
check his
result he added the numbers
577 a second time, starting at the bottom. Is his resull
635 correct?
3255
1. Add in each of the following
examples, and check.
583
2859
136
756
41
344
6139
89
289
388
206
7581
7
175
285
347
12
Diagnostic Tests in Addition
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Do not
ropy the examples unless directed to do so. (See page 5.)
Add, and
check each example before starting the next. Work as
fast as you
can without hurrying.
mump*
\
14
How
Subtraction Is Used
1.
Henry is treasurer of his class. He collected $13.85 in
dues and paid bills amounting to $8.37. How much was left
in the treasury?
2. Mary took an automobile ride. When she started, the
speedometer read 8154 miles. When she got back, it read
8932 miles. How far did she ride?
3. Helen's little sister is saving coupons from breakfast
food to get a doll. She has saved 37 coupons. How many
more must she save if the doll costs 65 coupons?
4. John wrote the statement at the bottom of the page
describing the three uses of subtraction. Tell which of the
first three problems illustrates each use.
5. Write a problem illustrating each of the three uses of
subtraction. Solve these problems.
The Vocabulary of Subtraction
1. Copy and fill the blanks in each statement:
a. In the example
12-7 =
5 the subtrahend is ,
the
minuend is ,
and the difference is
b. Remainder and balance are other names for the
c. The sign

is read
2. Name the minuend, subtrahend, and difference in each
of these examples
:
15-9
=
6
425 3829
138 153
7 from 9 leaves 2 287 3676
Subtraction is used for three purposes:
a. To find how many are left when a smaller number
is taken from a larger number.
b. To find how much larger, or smaller, one number is
than another.
c. To find how much must be added to a smaller number
to make it equal to a given larger number.
Vocabulary: Minuend, subtrahend, remainder, difference,
balance.
Avoiding Errors
in Subtraction i">
You have probably heard the old saying that "Prevention
is better than cure." It is better to go to the dentist before
you have a bad tooth. The same is true in arithmetic. It is
better to avoid errors than to correct them. You can prevent
errors in subtraction by watching the following troublesome
points.
1. Basic Subtraction Facts. Turn to page 312 and see
how rapidly you can give the answers to the subtraction facts.
Watch the ones that cause you trouble and give them extra
practice.
2. Smaller Minuend Figure. If you know the facts,
subtraction is easy until you come to a figure in the minuend
that is smaller than the figure below it
in the subtrahend. Subtract 25 from 83.
One method is shown in the box. How
Tens
L6
Avoiding
Errors in
Subtraction
6. ( Jompoxjnd Numbers.
r> yd. 1 ft.
2 >d. 2 ft.
2 yd. 2 ft.
1 yd. 1 ft.
2yd. 2 ft.
2 v<l. 2 ft.
Subtract 2 yd. 2 ft. from 5 yd. 1 ft.
Study the
solution in the box. Ex-
plain how you get the 4 ft. in the
minuend.
The 4 yd. Think the
chunges in the box. Do not write
them.
Turn to Practice Test Number
48 b, page 388.
Safety
First. Checking
Subtraction
Ralph had $87.25 in the bank. He wrote a check for $2.50
and subtracted
to find out how much he would have left in the
87.25 bank. As a check he added his result, $85.75, to the
2.50 subtrahend, $2.50, and got $88.25. Was his subtraction
85/75
correct? If not, copy and subtract correctly. Check.
1. Ralph asked if he should write the sum of the subtrahend
and the minuend in checking. His teacher suggested that it would
be better to check mentally. Why?
2. Subtract and check.
1347
Diagnostic Tests
in Subtraction
17
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Do not copy tin* examples unless
directed to do so.
(Sec
page 5.
Subtract, and write the remainders on your paper. Check each
example before starting the next. Work as fasl as you can without
hurrying.
1.
18
Ccnpar.",
Numbers
by
Subtraction
W.en
Dick
Cunning
came
home
tarn
schoo^he
boasted,
"Our
baseball
team
,
made 12
^
1
mns
did
Mrs.
Cunningham
laughed
nd
*
H
^
the
other
team
make?
It is
the
fe
to
An
important
u*
***
a^you
^
w
rrsSKS-

r
compared
*?

*
--
-
-
8
-
Which
team
won?
By
how
many
runs.
v
,
Dick
is
5 ft.
4 in.
tall,
and
his
sister
Agnes
ts
4
ft.
9
m.
lal
,-
how
much
taUet
^
^
3
-
LaS
f^2
871
Their
"otal
expenses
for
the
year
m-
^uchdtd
the
sales
exceed
the
expenses?
SSS^
dt
received
how
many
more
than
Mr.
Willkie?
, ,
,
tones
anu
p
he
increase
.
population
was
138,439,0by.
rin
neoole
lived
in
New
York?
people
live
subtraction,
"
T
tmT
h:
rrs^Vaaiofin^ompanng
number,
^m
wS
of
"hree
uses
of
subtraction,
given
on
page 14,
does
the
name
remainder
come?
T
From
which
of
the
three
uses
of
subtract
does
the
.
-
~~,^V
name
balance
come?
Mysterious
Addition 19
Agnes Cunningham
learned a trick in school and played it
on
her father. She asked Mr. Cunningham to write two
numbers of the same number of figures. He wrote
3 ' 8
?
3789 and 2495. Agnes then wrote 7504 and asked
her father to write another number. He wrote 8726.
'
*
Agnes wrote 1273 and told her father that she could
8
tell him the sum without adding. Mr. Cunningham
12
'
J
added the numbers and Agnes told him the sum was
23787
23,787. Was Agnes right? Check by adding.
Agnes's father tried to guess how she got the sum but finally
gave up. Agnes explained. "The trick is in choosing the num-
bers I wrote. I chose the third number so that the sum of the
second and third numbers is 9999, and the fifth number so the
sum of the fourth and fifth numbers is also 9999. The sum of
the last four numbers is 9999+9999, or 19,998, to be added to
the first number. But 19,998 is just 2 less than 20,000, so
adding 19,998 is the same as adding 20,000 and subtracting 2.
I wrote the sum by writing 2 in front of the first number and
subtracting 2 from the last figure of this number."
1. Do you see how to play this trick? Try it on some of
your friends.
2. Agnes played the trick on her mother. Mrs. Cunningham
wrote two numbers. Then Agnes wrote one. Mrs. Cunning-
ham's first number was 50,761. What was the sum? Explain.
3. Agnes played the trick on her brother, Dick. This time
she had Dick write two numbers; then Agnes
3 5 8 9 2 wrote one. Dick wrote one, Agnes wrote one,
5 12 4 8 Dick wrote one, and Agnes wrote one. The
? ? ? ? ? numbers Dick wrote are shown at the left. Those
3 6 9 18 that Agnes wrote are represented by question
? ? ? ? ? marks. Can you supply the numbers Agnes
7 16 4 3 wrote? How did she find the result? Explain.
? ? ? ? ? Copy and complete. Check by adding.
\N.

'j*""*"''
How
Multiplication Is Used
1. Ruth and George found the cost of 4 pounds of crackers
at 12c
1
a pound. Which solution was shorter?
2. Make a short statement telling how multiplication is used.
3. Write at least one good
multiplication problem. Solve.
The Vocabulary of Multiplication
1. Copy and fill the blanks in the following:
a. In the example 5X7
=
35, the
multiplier is
5,
the
multiplicand is
,
and the product is
b. The sign
X
is read
2. Name the multiplier,
multiplicand, and product in each
of the following examples:
7X9
=
63
84
3
252
Multiplication is used to find the total value of several
equal numbers. It is a short method of adding when the
addends are all equal.
Vocabulary:
Multiplier, multiplicand,
product.
20
Avoiding
Errors in Multiplication
21
Most
pupils can improve
their work in multiplication by
watching
the
following common
sources of trouble.
1. Basic
Multiplication
Facts. Turn to page 315
and see
how rapidly you can give the answers to the multiplication facts.
Watch for the ones that cause you trouble and give them extra
practice.
2. Zeros. John said that 7X0
=
7. Is this correct? Explain.
How much is 0X7?
Explain.
Remember that any number
times zero or zero times any number is zero.
3. Carrying.
Many
mistakes in
multiplication are caused
by
forgetting to add the tens from the preceding
multiplication,
adding the wrong number of tens, or making an error in adding
the tens.
Practice on Practice Test Number 12,
page 316,
will
help you avoid these errors.
4. Placing
Partial Products. Many errors are due to
placing partial products in the wrong place. Such mistakes are
common when there are zeros in the multiplier.
Remember to
always place the right-hand figure of the partial product directly
under the figure by
which you are multiplying. Study the follow-
ing examples and explain. Copy and correct any that are wrong.
Turn to Practice Tests Number 13 and
14,
page 817, for further
practice.
233
320
320
30
322
22
Safety
First.
Checking
Multiplication
First
Method.
There are several methods of check-
837 ing
multiplication.
The three suggested below are
68
probably the most useful. You can increase your ac-
6695
curacy by using them
regularly. One of the best ways
5022
is t0 nnd an error as soon as lt is made
-
Check each
,
6
step by going over it a second time before starting the
next.
There are three steps in the example at the left;
the
multiplication by 8,
then the
multiplication by
6,
and finally
the addition of the partial
products.
Check each step. Is the result
correct?
Multiplication
Check SECOND
METHOD. You know that it
38
27 makes no
difference in the product which
27
38 number is written first when you multiply.
27X38
is the same as 38X27.
In the example at the left the product
is
checked by
interchanging the multi-
1026
1026 plicand and
multiplier. Go over each
multiplication. Is the result correct?
266
216
76
81
Multiplication Check Third Method. If you divide the
328
328 product by the
multiplier, the result
8
8)2624
always equals the multiplicand. Thus
4X7
=
28,
and
28^-4 =
7. Also 5X9
=
2624
45
?
anc[
45-^5
=
9. This principle can
be used to check
multiplication as shown
at the left. Go over both the
multiplication and the division. Is
the result correct?
Go over each step in multiplication a second time before
starting the next. Check the final result by either
a.
Multiplying a second time,
interchanging
the multi-
plier and multiplicand, or
b. Dividing the product by the
multiplier. The result
should equal the multiplicand.
Safety First. Checking
Multiplication
23
1. Agnes said, "You can often find
errors in
multiplication
by going
over each step a
second time, but there IS
always the
chance that, you will make the
same mistake twice. For this
reason you
should use either the second or third method (page 22;
for checking
your final product." Do you agree'.'
2. Multiply and check each step by going over it a second time
before starting the next, Check the final result by
interchanging
the multiplier and multiplicand.
38
49 756
836
597
76 58
395
472
869
3. Check each of the multiplications given 348 46
at the side by
interchanging the multiplier
_7
_34
and multiplicand. Then check each by
divi-
2426 184
sion. Which method of checking is shorter
128
for the first example? For the second?
1464
4. Multiply 756 by 32 and check each step by going over it
a second time. Check the final result by the easier method.
5. Multiply and check each step by
going over it a second
time before starting the next step. Check the final result by the
most convenient method.
38917 49719
306
8
23842 38795
_9
79
39187
87562
7
86
Locating Your Difficulties in Multiplication
On the next page you will find several Diagnostic Tests. Use
these to locate your weaknesses in multiplication.
432
24
Diagnostic Tests in
Multiplication
LOCATING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Do not copy the examples. (See page 5.)
Multiply. Check
each step before starting the next. Note the trouble spots. Work
as fast as you can without hurrying.
9
Saving
Time.
Short Methods in
Multiplication
In the lower grades you learned how to multiply a number
by 10 by
annexing a zero to the number. You also learned how
to multiply a number by 100 by
annexing two zeros.
10X38
=
380
100X38
=
3800 10X472
= ?
One
Way
148
_?5
740
296
3700
3
325
15
6
9_
975
Another
Way
3700
4)14800
325
3
975
Many seventh year pupils use a short
method of multiplying by 25. If they
want to multiply 148 by 25,
instead of
multiplying in the usual way they annex
two zeros to 148 and then divide by 4.
Study the example at the left. Explain
the second way.
Harry wishes to find the cost of 325
sweaters at S3
each. He used the first
method at the left. His father suggested
the second method. Which is shorter?
You can save time by
remembering and using the short
methods given at the bottom of the next page.
25
26 Saving Time. Short Methods in Multiplication
1. Can you explain why annexing a zero to a number mul-
tiplies it by 10?
2. Why does annexing two zeros to a number multiply it
by 100?
3. State a short rule for multiplying a number by 1000.
4. Can you explain the rule for multiplying by 25? What
is the effect of annexing two zeros to the multiplicand? Why
must this result be divided by 4?
5. Can you state a rule for multiplying by
33
J?
By
16f
?
By
12J?
Remember that 33|
=
J
of 100,
that
16j=fc
of 100,
and 12^=|
of 100. If you cannot state these rules, ask your
teacher to help you.
6. 28x9.
Find the result in the shortest way.
7. Find the cost of each of the following:
a. 47 yards of goods
@ 25^
a yard
b. 36 yards of ribbon
@
33
J
^
a yard
c.
17 ft. of braid
@
12
J
^
a foot
8. Find the products for these examples in the easiest way.
How many can you find without using a pencil?
a. 10X278
"
h.
33JX78
o. 25x735
b. 1000X394
i.
16JX126
p. 16fxl52
c. 100X835 j.
25X389 q.
100x83
d. 10X59
k. 33^X85
r. 25x247
e. 763X5
1. 12^X79
s. 10x98
f. 25X76
m.
16fx52
t. 1000x7
g.
12^X84
n. 39X7
u. 12|x48
1. To multiply any whole number by 10,
annex a zero at
the right of the number.
2. To multiply any whole number by 100,
annex two
zeros at the right of the number.
3. To multiply any number by 25,
annex two zeros and
divide the result by 4.
4. Always use the smaller number for the multiplier.
Problems.
Using
Multiplication
27
1.
Frank Owen
belongs to a 4-H Club. Last summer he
sold the
following from his garden. How much did he receive?
22 dozen ears of corn
@
15^
a dozen
41 bushels of tomatoes
@
60^
a bushel
22 bushels of tomatoes
@
40^
a bushel
74 bushels of potatoes
@ 7(ty
a bushel
35 quarts of beans
@ 8<t
a quart
18
quarts of peas
9
a quart
2. Frank's
total expenses for his garden were $27.45.
How
much did he make on his garden project?
3.
Frank's
father owns a dairy farm. Last year he sold an
average
of 127
gallons of milk a day. How many gallons did
he sell
during the year?
4.
Last year Mr. Owen raised 25 acres of wheat that aver-
aged 31
bushels to the acre. How many
bushels did he raise?
5. Mr. Owen put
commercial
fertilizer on 87 acres at a
cost of $4 an acre. How much did the fertilizer cost?
6. Frank's
brother worked for a neighbor and received 50^
an
hour.
During one month he worked 8
hours a day for 18
days, 4 hours a day for 4 days, and 10
hours a day for
2
days.
How
much did he earn?
7. Mr. Owen read in a farm paper that there are 6,812,350
farms in the
United States and that the average size is 155
acres to the farm. How many acres of farm land are there in
the
United
States?
8. The paper stated that the average income for the year
was $1,434
per farm. Find the total farm income for the year.
(Problem 7)
9.
Harriet Owen
works in a dry goods store. She found
the cost of each of the following
without using pencil or paper.
Can you do this?
a.
24 yards of ribbon 12^
a yard
b. 60 yards of goods
@ 33^
a yard
c. 75 yards of goods
@
16f
a yard
28
How Division Is Used
1. John's
father's automobile averages 18 miles on a gallon
of gasoline. How many gallons will it take to run the car 252
miles?
2. John's father drove 156 miles in 4 hours. How far did he
drive in one hour, on the average?
3. Howard wrote a short summary of the two uses of
division. His statement is given at the bottom of the page.
Study it carefully. Which of the first two problems illustrates
each use?
4. One Saturday, John and Howard earned $3.80 by mow-
ing lawns for their neighbors. The boys divided the money
equally. How much did each earn? Which type of division does
this illustrate?
5. Write at least one good problem illustrating each of the
two uses of division. Solve.
The Vocabulary of Division
1. Copy and fill the blanks in these statements:
a. In the example
56
-=-8 =
7, the dividend is ,
the
divisor is ,
and the quotient is .
b. The sign
4-
is read
2. Name the dividend, 32 24
divisor, quotient, and re-
4)128
21)508
mainder, if any, in each 42
of the following examples.
88
84
36-^4=9
~4
Division is used for two purposes:
a. To find how many of one number there are in another
number.
b. To find the part of a number.
Vocabulary: Dividend, divisor, quotient, remainder.
A.voiding
Errors in
Division 29
Many people find division the hardest
of the fundamental
processes. Master the following points and you should have
no more difficulty with this process.
L.
Basic Division Facts. Turn to Practice Test Number
15,
page 318, and practice on the division facts. Watch for
the ones that cause you trouble and give them extra practice.
2. Facts with
Remainders. In performing the division at
the left, you must know that there are eight 7's in
85 59, with a remainder of 3. This is the most difficult
7)595
P
omt m snort division. Turn to Practice Test Number
16,
page 319, lor practice.
3. Placing the Quotient Figures. In the example at the
left, think 4 into 12 is 3. The 12 is really 12 tens so
31 the 3 belongs in tens place or above the 2. Always
4)124
P
lace tne nrst Quotient figure above the last figure
of the dividend which you use in the first division.
Failure to do this causes many errors in dividing decimals.
4. Estimating
Quotient Figures. This is the most dif-
ficult step in long division. In the example at the
3
left, to find how many 21's in 76,
think how many
21)761 2's in 7.
To find how many 39's in 177, in the example at
4 the left, think how many 4's in 17. Why? Is 39
39)1777
nearer 40 or 30? For further practice, turn to Prac-
tice Test Number 17,
page 319.
Place the first quotient figure above the last figure of the
dividend which you use in the first division.
When the second figure of the divisor is 0, 1, 2, 3,
or
4,
use the first figure of the divisor as a trial divisor. When
the second figure of the divisor is 5, 6, 7, 8,
or
9,
use one
more than the first figure of the divisor as a trial divisor.
30
Avoiding Errors in Division
5. Correcting the Quotient Figure. No matter how care-
fully you estimate the quotient figure, your first estimate may
be too large or too small.
Study each of the examples below. In which is the trial quotient
too large? How can you tell? In which is it too small? How can
you tell?
7
1
7
86)5886
34)2385
29)2386
602
34
203
35
You will avoid trouble if you always watch for the two trouble
points given at the bottom of the page. Can you explain each?
6. Zeros in Quotient. Some pupils forget to place zeros in
the quotient when needed. Study the examples below and see
if you know why the zeros are placed in the quotients. Practice
on Practice Test Number 19,
page 320.
4003
209
30
4)16012
21)4389 32)987
42
96
T89
27
189
7. Compound
Numbers. Study the examples below. Explain
each step in the first, In the second why is 6 in. changed to 18 in.?
In the third why is 4 oz. changed to 36 oz.? After you understand
you should think these changes instead of writing. Turn to
Practice Test Number 50a, page
340,
for
practice.
3 yd. 1 ft.
2 ft. 9 in. 2
lb. 12 oz.
Y"
\ 18 \ 36
2/6yd.2ft.
2/5ft. 6 in.
3/81b. 4
oz.
If the product is larger than the number from which it is
to be subtracted, the trial quotient is too large.
If the remainder is as large, or larger, than the divisor,
the trial quotient is too small.
Safety
I irst. Checking
Division
31
97
76)7392
John
worked the example at the Left. He went
684
over each
multiplication a seaond
time and checked
1^52 each
subtraction by
addition. Do you think this
532 is a ^ood plan? Why?
~20
Division Check
27 27 Quotient
In division the
dividend is al-
32)~876~
32 Divisor
ways
equal to the product of the

divisor and
quotient,
plus the

remainder.
This
principle gives a
236
*LL convenient
method of checking
224 864
the gnai result in division, as
12 12 Remainder
shown in the example at the left.
876 Dividend
Is the work correct?
1. Divide. Check each step before starting the next. Check
the final result.
5)185
3)918
9)83756
21)5783
32)6849
2. If you need
further practice on checking
division,
make
more examples like those given above.
You should form the
habit of checking all divisions.
Locating
Your
Difficulties
in
Division
Turn to the Diagnostic Tests on the next page. They will help
you locate your difficulties in division.
Check each step in division before
starting the next. Do
each multiplication twice. Check each
subtraction by addi-
tion. Be sure you place a figure in the quotient each time a
figure is brought down for a new dividend.
That figure may
be a zero.
Check the final result by
multiplying
the quotient by the
divisor, and adding the remainder (if any).
The result
should equal the dividend.
32 Diagnostic Tests in Division
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Do not copy the examples unless directed to do so. (See page
5.) Divide. Check each step before starting the next. Work as
fast as you can without hurrying.
1. Write the quotient.
7)56 9)63 8)72 6)54 8)64
7>49~
9)81
2. Write quotient and remainder.
5)48 7)60
8)67~
6)57 9)79 7)53 8)68
3. Estimate the first quotient figure.
32)928 47)878 84)589 79)686 63)472
4. Mark trial quotient C, S, or L, according as it is correct,
too small, or too large. Carry the work just far enough to make
your decision.
9 7 7 8 7
41)398 58)473 93)637 89)685 68)499
5. Copy and divide.
79)67869 86)26475 49)28457 92)75638 38)19034
324)8679 756)52968 579)98758 859)601586 736)81597
6.
2)8
hr. 18 min.
3)2 yd. 12 in. 10 min. 8 sec.
4-4
OVERCOMING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Read
pages 29 and 30 again, if necessary. Then turn to the Practice
Tests (pages 307 to
340) for further practice, as suggested below.
Test 1

15 Test 3

17, 15 Test 5

19
Test
2
16, 15 Test 4

18 Test 6

50,45a
Finding
Averages
33
In
many
practical
problems it is necessary
to find the aver-
age of
two or more
numbers. Do you know how to do this ?
Dick
Cunningham
found the average
weight
of his high
school football
team.
The eleven
regular
members of the
team
weighed 128
pounds, 119
pounds, 106
pounds, 145
pounds, 122 pounds,
118
pounds, 152
pounds, 112
pounds,
123
pounds, 137
pounds, and 135
pounds.
Dick found the
total weight of the eleven
players was 1397
pounds. He then
divided by 11 and
found the average
weight was 127
pounds.
1. State a rule for finding the
average of two or more num-
bers.
Compare
your rule with the one at the bottom
of the
page.
2. Check
Dick's
addition.
Then
check his division. Was
his work correct?
3. The team
played
four home
games. The
attendance
was 593,
725, 897,
and 1049. Find the average
attendance.
4. The gate
receipts
for the four games
were $186,
$231,
$295,
and $312.
Find the
average
receipts.
5. The team
played 7
games and scored a total of 56
points.
Find the
average
number of points they scored per
game.
Since the total is known, do you have to add?
"
6. Their
opponents
scored 42 points in the 7
games. Find
the average.
7. Dick earned money by
working
after
school and Satur-
days His earnings
for 8 weeks were $4.25, $6.00, $3.80,
$4.60,
$1.50, $5.25,
$4.80,
and $2.90. Find his average
earnings for
a week. How much
would he earn in 36
weeks at the same
rate?
8. Agnes
Cunningham
typed a
manuscript
for her father.
She
counted the words in several lines.
There were
9, 10, 8,
10, 9, 12, 11, 10, 11,
and 10. Find the
average
number of
words in' a line.
About how many
words
were there in the
manuscript if there were 20 lines on a page and 12
pages?
To find the average of two or more
numbers,
add the
numbers and divide the total by the number of addends.
34
Selecting the Process to Use
/y
Many pupils have trouble in solving problems because they
do not know whether to add, subtract, multiply, or divide.
Write the numbers from 1 to 5 on paper. Read the first
problem. If you think it should be solved by addition, write
+
after 1 on your paper. Do the same for the other prob-
lems, using -,
X,
and -i- for subtraction, multiplica
tion, and division respectively. Do not solve
the problems.
1. Louise made doll
dresses for Christmas
presents. How many
inches of goods did
she need to make six
dresses, if each dress
took 8 inches?
2. Mary Adams
weighs herself each
week. On September 1, she weighed 79 pounds. Two weeks
later she weighed 81 pounds. How many pounds had she
gained?
3. Each shelf of Harry's bookcase is to be 3 ft. long. How
many shelves can he make out of a board that is 10 ft. long?
4. John weighs 94 pounds. He learned in school that a boy
of his age and height should weigh 102 pounds. How many
pounds must he gain to reach normal weight?
, 5. On Monday Agnes had $2.17 in her bank. She put in
25 cents on Tuesday, 10 cents on Thursday, and 18 cents on
Saturday. How much did she then have in her bank?
6. Dick helped make badges for the officials of a school
track meet. They needed 18 badges and had 72 inches of
ribbon. How long could they make each badge?
7. Helen works in a store on Saturdays. She sold 9
yards
from a bolt of goods containing 24 yards. How many yards
were left on the bolt?
-
CL
Telling
How
to
Solve
Problems
Two
processes
must be
used
to solve each
problem
on this
page
Write
the
numbers
from 1 to 5
on
paper. If you would
first
subtract
and
then
multiply
in
problem
1,
write - X
after
1 on
your
paper.
Do not
solve
the
problem.
1
When
Mr.
Atkins
left
home,
his
speedometer
read
9864
miles.
After
driving
for three
hours it read 9978
miles.
How
many
miles
did he
average
each
hour?
2. Joe
sold
tickets
for a class
play.
He sold 9
tickets to
children at 15*
each
and one
ticket to his
mother at 25*.
How
much
money
should
he
receive
for these
tickets?
3
Richard
received
a score
of 94 on the first
arithmetic
test, a score
of 89 on the
second,
and a score of
93
on the
third.
What
was his
average
on these
three
tests?
4 Mary
made 6 towels.
How
many
inches
of
material
did
she
need if each
towel was
20 inches long
when
finished
and
she had allowed
3 inches on
each
towel
for
hemming?
5 At
Gordon's
Grocery,
Marguerite
bought
\
lb. of cheese
at 60*
a
pound and 1 lb. of
crackers
at 12*
a
pound.
How
much did they
both cost?
35
36
Problem
Test
1. Mr. Gerard owns a house valued at $12,500
which he
rents for $720 a year.
Repairs are $125 a year, taxes $160
a
year, and insurance $48 a year. What is his income from the
house after all expenses are paid?
2. Last winter a farmer fed 65 head of cattle, using 97
tons of hay and 43 tons of straw.
This winter he proposes
to feed 195 head of cattle. Judging by last year, how much
hay and straw
should he have?
3. A farmer weighed his corn in the fall and found that he
had 85,925
pounds. About how many bushels will he have in
the spring if the corn loses

of its weight through drying?
One
bushel of corn weighs 70
pounds.
4. A man paid $1200 for an
automobile, drove it 24,500
miles, and at the end of four years sold it for $475.
During
this time he spent $331 for gasoline, $98
for oil and grease,
$95
for tires, $129 for repairs, $30 a year for insurance, $6
a year for license, and $4 a month garage rent. How much
per mile did it cost him to run the car?
5.
Last year Mr. Bates had ten acres in tomatoes. His
expenses
were:
planting,
cultivating,
etc., 300
hours man
labor; 250 hours horse labor;
plants, $100;
fertilizer, $20;
picking and hauling crops, $440. He marketed 102 tons of
tomatoes at $14 a ton.
Estimating
the cost of man labor at
40
i
an hour and horse labor at 20^
an hour, find his profit
on the crop. On each acre.
6. A fruit grower
shipped 600 barrels of apples to his com-
mission
merchant,
who sold them at $4
a barrel. The
merchant
deducted $44
freight charges, $28
cartage, I2i
a
barrel for cold storage,
and 15

a barrel
commission. Find
the
amount the commission
merchant
paid the
grower.
7. A
commission
merchant
received a shipment of 50
doz.
eggs and 250 lb. butter. He sold the eggs at 32^
a dozen and
the butter at 28^ a pound. How much did he pay the dairy-
man if his
commission was 2^
a pound on the butter and
3^
a dozen on the eggs?
Chapter Test
37
Write the aumbers
from I
bo 25 on a papei\ After these numbers
write the
words, or numbers, which belong
in the corresponding
blanks below.
1. In 7,350,
the 7 is in
place, the 3 in .

place, the
(1)
(2)
5 in
place, and the 6 in place.
(3)
C)
2. In the example 5+8
=
13, 5 and 8 axe called
the .
13 is called the or
(6) (7)
3. In the example
9-3 =
6,
9 is called
the
,
and
3
is
called the 6 is the or
(9)
(10) (ID
4. In the
example 7X9
=
63,
7 is called the ___ and
9
is
called the 63 is the
2
(13)
(14)
5. In the example at the right, 35 is called the 35)78
, 78 is called the ,
2 is called the
,
and 8 70
(15)
(16)
(17)

is called the

(18)
6. When we want to find how much larger one number
is than another, we
(19)
7. When we want to find the combined value of several
unequal numbers, we
(20)
8. When we want to find the
combined value of several
equal numbers, we
(21)
9. When we want to find how many times one number is
contained in another, we
(22)
10. To find how many must be added to a smaller number
to make it equal to a larger number, we
(23)
11. To divids a number into a number of equal parts, and
find the size of one of these parts, we
(24)
12. When we want to find how many are left, when a smaller
number is taken from a larger, we
(25)
Measuring
Your Progress
Take
Improvement Test Number One and record your score
on your Score Card. Did you improve? Find the class average
and bring your graph up to date.
L
CHA
I'T E
R
2
Improving
your
Work
with
fractions
Fractions
have been used and have caused people trouble
from the earliest
times. The oldest book on arithmetic which
has come down to us is that written by Ahmes who lived
in Egypt
about 1550 B.C. His work was written on papyrus,
which is a crude form of paper made from the
papyrus reed
which grew along the banks of the Nile. Ahmes had so much
trouble with
fractions
that he worked only with simple ones
like
J,
\, \, i
and
^.
Our method of writing a fraction with the numerator over
the
denominator
comes from the Arabs. In early American
arithmetics
fractions
were also called
"broken numbers."
Do you see why?
Fractions
like
\
and

are often called
"common
fractions"
since they were in common use long
before the
introduction
of decimal fractions like .7
and .32.
In this chapter
you will review the work with fractions
and receive
help in overcoming
your difficulties. Study care-
fully and you should no longer agree with the old rhyme:
Multiplication
is vexation
Division is as bad;
The Rule of Three
perplexes me,
And
Fractions drive me mad.
The Rule of
Three was an old name for proportion, which
you will study next year.
39
Two
Meanings of a Fraction
Some pupils have trouble with fractions because they do
not clearly
understand what fractions mean. A fraction means
a part
of
a whole thing. If you have
f
of a whole or unit, it
means that the unit has been divided into four equal parts
and that you have three of those parts.
The picture above shows a second meaning of fraction.
It shows that

=
2. But
6^-3 is also equal to 2, so we see
that
f
= 6^-3. A fraction
indicates division.
1. Name the numerator and denominator of each fraction.
2. Which fractions in problem 1 are proper fractions?
Which are improper fractions?
3. Define a proper fraction. An improper fraction.
4. Draw a picture to illustrate
J
of a cake.
5. Draw a picture which illustrates
f
of 18.
6. Draw a picture to show that
\
equals 7^-2, or 3
\.
7. Copy the following and fill the blanks.
a.
f
of 9=_
b. of 25
=
c. of 72
=
a
*
3
e.
f.
9 _
A
6
40
\ Third
Fraction
Meaning
41
RATIO
In many
practical
problems
il is necessary
to
compare
one
number
or
quantity
with
another.
Suppose
Mary has
$6
and John
has $3.
How
does the
amount of money Mary
has
compare
with
the
amount John
has?
Arithmetic
gives
us two ways
of
comparing
numbers.
You
have
learned
how to
compare by
subtraction.
Since
6
_
3=3 we can say
that Mary has $3
more than John,
or
that John
has $3
less than
Mary.
When we
compare two
numbers by
subtraction,
the
result is called
the difference.
We
can
also
compare
numbers by
division.
Since
6^3
=
6
=
2 we say that Mary has two times as much money
as'
John.
Since
3-6
=
|
=
i
we say
that John
has one
half
as much money
as Mary.
When we
compare
two
numbers
by
division, the
result is
called the ratio and is written in the
form of a
common
fraction.
1. Copy
the
following
statements
and fill the
blanks.
a. 8 is __
of 16 c. 15 is
times 5
e.
8
is
_
of 12
b. 5 is _
of 9
d. 9 is _
of 5
f.
6
is
__
of 9
2 Write the ratio of the first
number to the second.
5,7
5,10
2,8
4,8
4,9
2,12
3,
4 3, 9
5, 8 6,
2 12,
3 3,
5
3. In example
2 write the
ratio of the second
number to
the first.
4. The seventh
grade of
Washington
School
sold 60
tickets
for a school
entertainment.
John
and
Robert
each sold 1
ticket Julia 2,
Louise 3,
Joe 5,
Mary 6,
Agnes 10,
Tom 12,
and the teacher sold the rest.
What
part of the whole
number
of tickets sold did each one sell?
Numbers may be compared in two ways:
a. By
subtraction.
The result is called the
difference.
b. By
division. The result is called
the ratio and is
written as a common
fraction.
Comparing Numbers in Two Ways
1. The Bloomdale basketball team won 8 games last year
and lost 4. Copy and fill the blanks in these statements.
They won more games than they lost.
They won times as many games as they lost.
They lost less games than they won.
They lost as many games as they won.
They won of the games played.
They lost of the games played.
2. Julia practiced on the piano 30 minutes in the morning
and 15 minutes in the afternoon. How many minutes did
she practice altogether? What part of an hour?
-g-f
=
f
of an hour
3. Agnes has $8 and Jane has $6. Compare in two ways
the amount Agnes has with the amount Jane has. Compare
in two ways the amount Jane has with the amount Agnes has.
4. On an arithmetic test containing 20 problems, Alice had
15 problems right, and Harry had 10. Copy and complete
the following statements.
Alice had of the problems right.
Harry had of the problems right.
Harry had as many problems right as Alice had.
Alice had as many problems right as Harry had.
Alice had more problems right than Harry had.
Harry had less problems right than Alice had.
Harry missed as many problems as Alice did.
42
Six Principles of Fractions L3
Agnes discovered six important principles about fractions
by
examining the fractional parts of an inch on her ruler. See
if you can find the answer to the following questions from your
ruler.
1. Write
|.
Without using a pencil, multiply both the
numerator and denominator by 2, and write the result. Find
|- of an inch on your ruler. Find
|
of an inch. What effect
does multiplying both terms by the same number have on the
value of the fraction?
2. Write -|. Divide both the numerator and denominator
by 2 and write the result. W
T
hat effect does dividing both
terms by the same number have on the value of the fraction?
3. Write -. Multiply the numerator by 3 but leave the
denominator unchanged. What effect does multiplying the
numerator by 3 have on the value of the fraction?
4. Write
f.
Divide the numerator by 4 but leave the
denominator unchanged. What effect does dividing the
numerator by 4 have on the value of the fraction?
5. Write
^.
Multiply the denominator by 2 but leave the
numerator unchanged. What effect does multiplying the
denominator by 2 have on the value of the fraction?
6. Write
f.
Divide the denominator by 2 but leave the
numerator unchanged. What effect does dividing the denomi-
nator by 2 have on the value of the fraction?
7. State six general principles covering what you have
discovered in problems 1 to 6.
8. Which principle is used in each of the following?
a.
Y8"
=
"3 " ^X^
=
3"
g. 3Xg-=-g-
"520
e
*
9
* ^
9
n. OA
9

3
u ^
A 8~
4
l
'
9

^~
18
l
'
7
->
7
9. Find each of the following in the easiest way.
b.

+4 d.
3xf
f.
4xf
44 Safety First.
Checking
Work with Fractions
The errors
you make in working with common fractions are
probably due to two different
causes. You may get the wrong
answer
because you do not understand
the method to be used,
or because you have not had sufficient
practice.
Many of your errors, however,
are probably not due to
lack of understanding
or lack of practice, but to carelessness.
You can do two things to reduce the numer of errors made
through
carelessness:
1. Be careful not to let your attention
wander in the middle
of a step.
2. Check each step as soon as you have done it, by going
over it a second time.
In working with whole
numbers, you have already learned
the value of checking
each step before going on to the next
step.
This habit is even more useful in working with frac-
tions. If you reduce
^
to lowest terms and get
f
as a result,
check
immediately by again
dividing both the
numerator and
denominator by 3 to see if you get the same result as before.
If you change
|
to
f-f
,
stop and again multiply the numerator
and denominator by 4.
Go over each step in the examples
given below.
If you
find any errors, copy. the example and work it correctly.
AH*
ft-+
t+W
Measuring
Your
Progress
Take
Improvement
Test
Number
Two. Copy the Score
Card on page 341. Record
your score in your notebook.
Find
the class average and start a graph like the one on page 6.
In working
with fractions,
always check each step before
starting the next.
Improvement Test Number
Two 15
COMMON FRACTIONS
Work these examples. Check each step by going over
it
a
second time. Time, 10 minutes.
1.
46
Avoiding
Errors
in
Adding
and
Subtracting
Fractions
Watch
for the
following
trouble
spots in
adding
and sub-
tracting
fractions.
1
Finding
the
L.C.D.
Fractions
must be
changed to JO*
fractions,
or to the same
denominators
before
they
can be added
or
subtracted.
The
new
denominator
is the
smallest
number
which
can be evenly
divided by
each
denominator.
It is called the
Least
Common
Denominator,
or L. C. D.
To find
the
L.C.D.,
use the
plan
Dick
used in the
problem
below.
Add
-ft,
A>
and
-T5-
mat iS thC L' C' D' ?
Dick
started
with 20,
the
largest
of these
denominators.
Can
20 be
divided
evenly
by
12 and by
15?
Can 2X20 (40)
be
divided
evenly by
12 and by
15? Can 3X20
(60)?
The
L.C.D.
is 60.
Turn to
Practice
Test
Number 21,
page 321.
2.
Changing
to
L.C.D.
Dick
wrote the
example
given above
in two
ways.
Explain
each step:
5
12

Avoiding Errors in Adding and
Subtracting Mixed Numbers
17
Watch for the following trouble
spots in adding and sub-
tracting
mixed numbers.
%2
=
^g"
L Adding. Study the
example at the
left carefully. Explain each step.
'6
a
3
~ J
6
45j
=
45f
=
44
i3j=
m=m
31|
2. Subtracting. Subtracting mixed num-
bers is no harder than adding them if you
know what to do when the fraction in the
minuend is smaller than the fraction in the
subtrahend. One method is shown at the left. Explain each step.
Saving Time by Using a Short Form
George shortened the work for the examples given above as
shown below. Explain to the class where he got each number
in the first example and what he thought. In the second example,
George thought,
"4
from 9
=
5, 3 from 4=1, 1 from 4
= 3."
Ex-
plain each step. You can save time by using this form, but it
is better to use the long form than to make mistakes.
48
Avoiding
Errors in
Multiplying
and
Dividing
Fractions
You can increase your
accuracy and speed in
multiplying
and
dividing
fractions by
mastering
the following
points.
1.
Cancellation.
Use
cancellation as much as
possible
3
X
*
=T
-
=
J-
to
shorten
your work in
multiplying
and
dividing,
i
Compare
the two
solutions at the left.

x
^
=
__
Which is shorter?
What
principle do you
Is use
when you cancel?
Turn to Practice Test
Number 27,
page 325.
2. Changing a Mixed
Number to an
Improper
Fraction.
In
multiplying and dividing
mixed
numbers it is often
necessary
to change them to improper
fractions.
How can you
change
8|
to an
improper
fraction? 7|?
Turn to Practice Test
Number 28,
page 325.
3.
Multiplication
of Mixed
Numbers.
Always
choose the
shortest
method in multiplying
mixed
numbers.
Study the three
examples
below
carefully and
explain each step.
You will find all
three
methods useful.
In what kind of
examples
would
you use
each of these methods?
27|
85
8 1\
5
7-
T
-1...1 I^w 13_ 65_ qoj.
216
595
x
22l
637|
Turn to Practice Test
Number 29,
page 326.
4 Dividing
Mixed
Numbers.
Study
the
example
given
below.
Explain each step.
Turn to
Practice
Test
Number 30,
page 326.
m a
_,
,
Locating
Your
Difficulties.
Diagnostic
Tests
The
Diagnostic
Tests on the following
pages will help you find
your weak
points in working
with
fractions.
Diagnostic Tests
in
Common Fractions r>
LOCATING yOUB DIFFICULTIES
Do not copy the examples unless directed to
iId so. Write
the answers on
your paper, ('heck each step. Work as t'.i-t
as
you can without hurrying.
1. The numbers given in each group are the denominators
of fractions to be added or subtracted. Write the L.C.D. in each
case.
I
2, 4 3, 6 8, 6 5,
10 10, 4
4,
14
2,
8 6,
4 10, 8 9,
15
9, 6 12, 15
6, 12,
3 4, 2, 3 4, 12, 8 2, 4, 6 6, 5, 2 9, 15, 3
2. Write the numbers that belong in the blanks.
2 __
3

9
A
_
5

15
12
12
18
3~2
16
24
1 _
2

8
1
2

18
7__
8
~32
36
3. Reduce to lowest term.
1 e
32
16
1 2
15
15.
25
27
36
8
32
1 2
18
9
12
1 4
35
20
36
42
1 2
16
35
42
1 8
24
35
40
32
36
135
243
4. Change to mixed or whole numbers.
7
3
1 2
5
1 8
6
9.
4
2 3
8
1 3
1 9
2
25
24
37
10
1 7
3
1
3
21
4
20
9
5. Change to improper fractions.
3i
Z
5
5*
8}
Z
4
Z
8
3
13^-
!
4
y
5
4f
8f
OVERCOMING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Read
pages 46, 47, and 48 again, if necessary. Then turn to the Practice
Tests (pages 307 to
340) for further practice, as suggested below.
Test
121 Test Z

23 Test 5

2S
Test 2

22 Test 4

24
ty
Diagnostic
Tests in Common
Fractions
LOCATING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Copy the examples and add,
subtract,
multiply, or divide, as
directed. If the result is an
improper
fraction,
change it to a
mixed number.
Leave all results in lowest terms.
Check each
step. Work as fast as you can without
hurrying.
1. Add.
1
8
7 7
8
12
3 5.
4 .6_

Using Fractions in Problems

1. On Saturday morning Betty made oatmeal cookies.
The recipe that she followed would make 48 cookies. Besides
other things it called for 1 cup sugar, -|- cup sweet milk,
\
teaspoon soda, and 2 cups flour. Betty made only half of the
recipe. Can you write the amount of each of these articles
she used? How much should she use for making 96 cookies?
2. John walked
2\
miles to town. On his way home he
rode
f
of a mile with a neighbor and walked the remainder
of the distance. How far did he walk altogether?
3. Tom lives on a farm. Last summer his father gave him
a field to raise potatoes and promised him half of all he raised.
What was Tom's share if he raised
65f
bushels?
4. Mary had
1\
yards of cloth in one piece. From this she
cut 1^- yards for an apron and
2-f
yards for a dress. How much
did she have left?
5. On a certain automobile map one inch represents ten
miles. How far apart are two towns if the distance between
them on the map is
6f
inches?
6. A transcontinental passenger airplane averages 150 miles
an hour. How far will it go in
3^
hours?
51
-V
Using
Fractions
in Problems
HOW
MANY OF THESE
PROBLEMS CAN YOU SOLVE?
1.
Louis
measured
100 feet along a level path and then
counted
'the
number of steps he took in walking from one
end to the other.
What was the average length of his step
if he took
40 steps?
The next day Louis went on a hike with
another
boy scout and counted his steps. How far did they
go if Louis took
1584 steps,
assuming that his steps were the
same
length as the day before? How many miles was this?
2. Julia
made a gelatin
dessert. The directions called for
2 cups of liquid for a
tablespoon
of gelatin. Julia
measured
a
tablespoon
of gelatin and dissolved it in
J
cup of hot water.
She then
added
f
cup of lemon juice. How much water did
she need to add to make the proper amount of liquid?
3. Bill and Harry got into an argument one day. Bill said
that
multiplying
a number by
anything
always made the
number
larger. Harry
did not think that this was true. Which
was
right?
4. Bill also
thought that
dividing a number by anything
always
gives a
quotient
smaller
than the number divided.
Was he right?
5. In six months
Mary's
weight
increased
from 58o
lb.
to
62J
lb.
What was the average
increase
per month?
6. Last
Sunday
Ruth
Raymond's
father
drove his auto-
mobile 75 miles in 2\
hours. On the average,
how far did he
drive in one hour? At the same rate how far could he drive
in 1 hour and 20 minutes?
7.
During the second
World War Dick studied a large map
of the
Pacific. One inch on this map
represented 276|
miles.
When the
Americans
captured
Saipan, in the
Marianas
Islands,
Dick
measured the distance
of this
island from
Tokyo. It
was
5J
inches on the map. How many miles is
Saipan
from
Tokyo?
8. No scale is given on an
automobile
map, but two
cities,
which are known to be 70 miles apart, are
If
inches
apart on
the map.
What is the
distance
between two
cities
that are
3^
inches
apart on the map?
Saving Time by Cancellation
Harry Wright drove his father to a neighboring town. Mr.
Wright cautioned Harry to drive more slowly when he was
approaching a crossroad. When they returned home, Mr.
Wright asked Harry if he knew how far a car, going 50 miles
an hour, would go in one minute. Harry figured it out as
shown below. Mr. Wright then showed Harry a shorter way
of working this problem. Study both solutions.
Harry's Solution
5280 4400
50
60)264000
264000 240
240
240
Mr. Wright's Solution
5 880
#3X5280
= 4400
m
1. Why did Harry multiply 5280 by 50? Why did he
divide the result by 60?
2. An automobile is going 45 miles an hour. How far will
it go in one second? Work this problem both the long and the
short way.
3. How many feet will an automobile go in 10 seconds, if it
is going 60 miles an hour? Work the short way.
4. In 1932, at the Indianapolis race track Frederick Frame
drove 500 miles in 288 minutes. How many feet a second did
he average?
5. The Empire State Express makes the run from New
York City to Buffalo, a distance of 436 miles, in 510 minutes.
This is at the rate of how many feet a second?
If the solution of a problem involves only multiplications
and divisions, you can often save time and work by indi-
cating the operations and cancelling.
53
54
Problem Test
1. If you knew the cost of a dozen oranges, how would
you find the cost of eight?
2. If you knew the number of boys and the number of girls
in a class, how would you find what part of the total number
in the class are boys? What part are girls?
3. If you knew how many hours an automobile took to run
a given number of miles, how would you find the average
speed per hour?
4. If you knew the weight of each member of a football
squad, how
would you find their average weight?
5. A
farmer sold a crate of chickens to a poultry buyer.
The
chickens were
weighed in the crate.
What else would
you have to know in order to find the average
weight of the
chickens?
How
would you find the average
weight?
6. Eugene
counted the number of steps he took in walking
from the house to the garage. What else did he have to know
in order to find this distance in feet? How could he then
find this
distance?
7.
What
would you have to know to find out how many
doll dresses
you could make from a given piece of goods?
How
would you then find the number?
8.
Lawrence has been gaining in weight. What
would you
have to
know to find his average
gain each
month? How
would
you then find the average gain?
9.
What
would you have to know in order to find the dis-
tance
between
two towns on an
automobile map, if the dis-
tance
was not given? How would you find the
distance?
10. Thomas
climbed
the stairs to
the top of an
observation
tower. He
measured
the height
of one step.
What else did he have to find out in
order to find the
height
of the
tower?
How did he then find
the height?
Diagnostic Tests in Whole Numbers 55
LOCATING YOUB DIFFICULTIES
Work each example. Check the
addition examples by adding
again ill the
reverse order. Check
the subtraction
examples
by
addition. Go
over each step in the multiplication and division
examples a second time. Work as fast as you can without hurrying.
I. a. Copy and b. Subtract: c. Multiply: d. Copy and
add:
84,
56
Diagnostic
Tests in
Common
Fractions
LOCATING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Work
these
examples
and
check by
going over each step a
second time.
Work
as fast
as you can without
hurrying.
1. a. I
b.
3JX22|
c.
2*+A
<*
J
e. 15-4^
2
5.
+1
f-
fXA
g- n
h.
8|
i.
f+f
J-
*Xf
+9f
^71
2. a. 4j+8|
b.
8XH
c
-
28

d
'
87X6
*
e
*+
9
+36|
r 19
8
Vi
-*- i. J.
2^X21-
f.
g.
1-6
-9
n.
10
i.
J 3' 5
7 4 Q_3_
OVERCOMING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study
your errors
carefully and note the trouble spots.
T/ien
turn to the Practice
Tests {pages 307 to
840)
for
further
practice as
suggested
below.
la
_
25, 21, 22,
24 lh- 26, 21,
22 2d
*0,
24
lb
-
29, 27,
28
li
-
30, 24,
27 2e
-
30, 24,
27
lc
-
30, 24, 27,
28 lj
-
29,
27
2f -
&?, 21,
22
Id
-
*0, 21,
22
2a
-
SO, 24, 27,
28 2g
-
30, 24,
27
le
-_
30, 24, 27,
28 2b- 29, 24,
27
2h- 25, 21, 22,
24
If

29 27
2c

25, 21, 22,

24 2i
00, 21,
22
lg-^21,22,24
2j- 02, 24, 27,
28
MEASURING
YOUR
PROGRESS
Take
Improvement
Test Number Two and record
your score
on your Score Card. Did you improve?
Find the class average
and bring your graph up to date.
( Ikapter Test
57
Write the numbers from 1 to 17 on a piece of paper.
After
each
number, write the words or numbers which belong in the
corresponding blanks below.
1. The numerator of the fraction i is
(i)
2. The denominator of the fraction 4 is .
y
(2)
3. A proper fraction is one whose numerator is than
its denominator.
(3)
4. To reduce an improper fraction to a mixed number
the numerator by the
(5)
5.
k.
;
.V
;
Improving
\four Work
with 'Decimals
When people first began to count, they used counters such
as pebbles or the fingers. Our word "calculate" comes from
the Latin calculus meaning pebble. Because of their con-
venience,
the fingers were the commonest counters. You
have probably heard the word "digit" used, meaning one of
the figures used in writing a number, as the digits of 37 are
3 and 7. Digit also means finger.
A shepherd, in counting his sheep, turned down a finger for
each sheep, until he had used all his fingers. Then he made a
mark in the ground and started over again. How many sheep
did he have, if he had two marks on the ground and 7 fingers
turned down when he was through? How many, if he had 5
marks and 3 fingers down? How many sheep does each mark
represent? Each finger?
When the Hindus invented our method of writing numbers,
they used the same system and wrote numbers up to ten
(units) in the first place to the right, and tens in the next
place. Where did they write ten tens (hundreds)?
Since our number system is based on ten it is called a
decimal system, from the Latin word decern meaning ten.
Some early people, who did not wear shoes, counted to
twenty before starting over again. Do you see why? We
still sometimes count by twenties, or "scores." What does
one score mean? Two score? Three score and ten?
59
^r" *<r-
f
Decimal
Fractions
Although the decimal system of writing whole numbers was
introduced into Europe as early as the twelfth century, it was
a good many years before anyone
discovered
that the same
method can be used in writing
fractions such as ^-,
j
3
^,
183
t
etc> The first
complete
discussion of this new method
of writing
fractions was given by
Simon Stevin in a book
first
published in Belgium in 1585.
As you know, each place in a whole
number, as you go
to the left, has a value ten times as great as that of the pre-
ceding
place. If you go to the right, each place has a value
just one tenth as great as that of the
preceding
place. For
example, the next place to the right of
hundreds is tens and
^
of
100
=
10. The next place to the right of units is tenths,
since
^
of 1
=to-
1. What is the next place to the
right of tenths?
Why?
To the right of
hundredths?
2. Learn the names of the first four places to the right of
units' place.
3. Why is a decimal
point placed after
units'
place, or
before tenths'
place? What does .2 mean?
How
would you
read it if the decimal
point were
omitted?
60
Reading
Decimals
61
By using
the places to the right of
units' place, we
can write
fractions like
,
:i
,
1
'
U
7
U
,
and
I
,

s
u
:,

in an easier way:
_a
= 3
-1-7-
=
.17
'"'=.183
1 o
-
1
I ooo
Fractions written in this way are called
decimal fractions
or decimals. Usually it is easier to work with decimals than
with common
fractions because
decimals are written in the
same way as whole numbers.
For this reason, they are being
used more and more in practical work.
1.
Study the first four
examples below
carefully and then
read the other decimals.
Notice that in reading a mixed
decimal (a whole number
followed by a decimal fraction),
you use the word "and" between the whole number and frac-
tion. The "and" shows the location of the decimal
point.
a. .07 is read seven
hundredths.
b. .38 is read thirty-eight
hundredths.
c. .247 is read two hundred forty-seven
thousandths.
d.
32.41 is read thirty-two and forty-one
hundredths.
e. .7 .04 .009
.0005 .97 2.7 3.84
2. Herbert read .217 as "two hundred and seventeen
thousandths." He then read 200.017 in exactly the same way.
Did Herbert read .217 correctly?
3. Read these. Say "and" only at the decimal point in a
mixed decimal.
.537
2.8 .756
.07875
208.007
500.037
47.86
.0387
.378916
7159.2148
202
85.792
.5024
.005197
5100.72
200.002 379.71
.7381 .20603
859.0038
4. Read the number at the top of page 60.
5. A decimal fraction such as 32.896 is sometimes read
"three, two, point, eight, nine, six." Read the decimals in
problem 3 in this way. Read the one at the top of page 60.
IN AN AIRPLANE
FACTORY
1. The parts of an airplane engine must be measured very
accurately. Some parts are measured to one ten-thousandth
of an inch. Can you write this number in figures?
2. Write the following in figures.
a.
Three hundred
b. Three hundredths
c.
Twenty-seven and eight tenths
d. Two hundred forty-six and one hundred six thousandths
e.
Two hundred and eight
thousandths
f
.
Two hundred eight thousandths
g
.
Seven thousand two hundred thirteen and five hundred
thirty-one
thousandths
3. Your teacher will dictate other decimals for you to write.
Ask her to read some of them as in problem 1
and some as
in problem 5 on page 61.
4. Cents are often written as decimal
fractional parts of
a dollar. Thus, 25*
can be written $.25.
Write the following
as decimals.
80*
12* 7* 5*
132*
289*
62
Problems
about Automobile Trips 63
1. The table at the right is taken
from an automobile route book. If you
lived in Sandusky and wanted to drive
to Cleveland, could you find the dis-
tance? How far is it from Sandusky
to
Lorain? From Clyde to Huron? Cas-
talia to Vermillion? Lorain to Clyde?
2. Agnes took an auto-
mobile trip with her father
last summer and made a
record of the speedometer
reading every morning. How
far did they drive each day?
On the entire trip? Can
you find the total mileage
in two different ways?
READING
9,876.8
10,108.5
10,297.7
10,547.3
Mil. MS
0.0
40.5
51.4
57.5
67.9
77.8
5.5
116.3
TOWN
Toledo
Clyde
Castalia
Sandusky
Huron
Vermillion
Lorain
Cleveland
TIME
Monday A.M.
Tuesday A.M.
Wednesday A.M.
Thursday A.M.
Friday A.M.
Saturday A.M.
Saturday P.M.
10,809.2
11,071.5
11,385.3
3. Mr. Arnold was driving his automobile from Albany,
N. Y., to Rochester, N. Y., a distance of 223 miles. When he
stopped for lunch, he found that he had driven 121.7 miles.
How many miles remained for him to drive after lunch?
MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS
Take Improvement Test Number Three. Record your
score on a Score Card in your notebook. Find the class aver-
age and start a graph like the one on page 6.
Check the location of the decimal point by making a rough
estimate of the result.
64
Improvement
Test Number Three
DECIMAL
FRACTIONS
Work each example. Check the addition examples by adding
again in the reverse order. Check the subtraction examples by
addition. Go over each step in the multiplication and division
examples a second time. Check the location of the decimal
point by
estimating the answer. Time, 16 minutes.
1. Subtract
2. 9)
.288
3. 4. Copy and
8.397 from
add:
32.7.
.38 7.8; 45;
X.07
38.9; 5.98.
5. Give result
to
nearest
cent:
$28.72-^100
9. 28.7X2.79
6. Change to
decimals
and multi-
ply-
7t>
X23^
10. To nearest
thousandth:
87.2)124
7. Write as a
common
fractional
part of a
dollar
$.12^.
11. 32XS.25
8. To nearest
hundredth
:
13. To
nearest
tenth
:
.287)17
17. Change
ff-
to
decimal,
to nearest
hundredth.
14. 10
X
$2.87 15.
18.
19.
9.87
X3.05
Subtract
79.8 from
252.39.
Copy and
add:
389.7; 8.35;
39.87;.976;
158.06
.72)38.2
12. Copy and
add: 89.76;
387; 829.5;
7.588;
28.49.
16. To nearest
cent:
7.8X$19.35
20. Change^
to decimal,
to nearest
tenth.
21.
32.076
-27.296
22. To nearest 23.
thousandth
:
3.9).0688
You wall take this test again in a
practice as suggested, you should be
24. To nearest
8.39
cent:
X73.5
50 X$.33
J
If you study and
few days
able to improve your score
Avoiding
Errors in Adding
and 65
Subtracting
Decimals
In the addition and subtraction of decimals watch the follow-
ing
points which sometimes
cause trouble.
1. Lo<
vn\<; the Decimal Point.
Write the numbers to
be
added or subtracted with
decimal point
directly
3-13
imcler decimal point. Why?
Place the decimal point
.2 4
i n the
result directly under the decimal points in the
3.3 7 original numbers. Why?
2. Zeros
Understood. If there are more places to the right
of the decimal point in one
decimal than in the others, zero is
understood in each vacant place. You may write these zeros if
you wish. Turn to Practice Test Number 31 and
32,
page 327.
3.2(0) (0)
7.5(0) (0)
.3 8 4
.0 2 8
3.5 8 4
7.4 7 2
Avoiding
Errors in
Multiplying
Decimals
We multiply decimals in the same way that we multiply whole
numbers. The only new difficulty is locating the decimal point.
1. Locating the Decimal Point. Dick forgot how to mul-
tiply decimals so he worked the
.5 X .7
=
-j% X
to
=
^^
= - 35 first exam
P
le at the lef
*
and formed
the rule given at the bottom of the
.31
page. Do you see how he got the
.8
rule? Dick used his rule to work
248
the second example at the left. Is
his work correct?
2. Supplying Zeros. In this example there are four decimal
places in the multiplier and multiplicand combined,
2 7
go a zero must be supplied between the decimal point
.0 8
aild the 2 in the product. Turn to Practice Test Number
.0216
33,
page 328.
Multiply decimals just as you multiply whole numbers and
point off as many decimal places in the product as there are
in the multiplier and multiplicand combined.
66 Avoiding Errors in Dividing Decimals
Study the suggestions below and learn to avoid errors in locat-
ing the decimal point when you divide with decimals.
1. Dividing a Decimal by a Whole Number. Dick's teacher
told him to watch two things in dividing a decimal by a whole
number.
a. Place the decimal point in the quotient di-
4 1.2 rectly above the point in the dividend.
b. Divide. Place each figure of the quotient
directly above the last figure of the dividerd used
in that division.
2. Dividing a Decimal by a Decimal. Dick's teacher sug-
gested the following method in dividing a decimal
4.2 by a decimal. Watch these four steps carefully
3.2 )l 3.4
4
and you will avoid errors in locating the decimal
point.
a. Make the divisor a whole number, if necessary, by moving
decimal point to the right of the last digit. Use a caret to
show the new position of the point.
b. Move decimal point in the dividend to the right as many
places as you moved the point in the divisor. Mark the
new location of the point with a caret.
c. Place decimal point in the quotient directly above the
caret in the dividend.
d. Divide. Place each figure of the quotient directly above
the last figure of the dividend which you used in the division.
3. Supplying Zeros. Sometimes, in dividing decimals, it is
necessary to fill empty places with zeros. Study the examples
below. Notice the zeros in heavy type. Turn to Practice Test
Number
34,
page 328.
.027 15 68.
32 00.
8)
.216 .05
A
)78.40
A
.02
A
)64.00
A
Safety
First.
Checking
Work with Decimals 07
1 8.7
3.2
374
56 1
5 9 8.4
The work with decimals
should be
checked by the same methods
that you used with
whole numbers.
These do not give a check
on the location of the decimal point, however, as Dick discovered.
Dick multiplied 18.7 by 3.2, as shown at the left,
and placed the decimal point in the product directly
below the decimal points in the multiplier and multi-
plicand. He then multiplied 3.2 by 18.7 in the same
way, as a check, and obtained the same result. He
decided his result was correct. Was it?
The best way to detect such errors as Dick made is to make a
rough estimate
of
the result. If Dick had stopped to think that
18.7 is approximately 19, and that 3.2 is approximately
3,
he
would have known that the product is about 57,
and not 598.
1. What is the correct answer to Dick's problem? State a
rule for multiplying decimals.
2. Study the examples below, then find the exact answers.
Be sure you place the decimal points correctly.
Example
68
Diagnostic
Tests in
Decimals
LOCATING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Add, subtract, multiply, or divide as directed.
Check. Work
as fast as you can without
hurrying.
1. Copy and add.
a. 3.27; .389;
84.2
b. 82.2; 75.86;
9.7
c. .8; .09; .057
d. 386.7; 18.39;
72.08
e. .375; .89; .75; .09
f. .3756; .75;
.814
2, Subtract the first number from the second.
a. .45; .91
Saving Time. Short Methods in 69
Multiplying
and Dividing
BY 10, 100,
AND 1000
You can save time by using the short methods of multiplying
and dividing decimals by 10, 100, and 1000. Study the examples
given below:
10X.23
=
10X^
=
H
=
2^
=
2.3
5.7
4-
10
=
5yo
4-
10
=
yq
X
yo
=
uTo
=
-
'
How could you get the result in the first example without using
common fractions? Does multiplying .23 by 10 change the
figures? Does it change the location of the decimal point? How
could you get the result in the second example without using a
common fraction? State a rule for multiplying a decimal by 10.
For dividing by 10.
1. Find each answer by moving the decimal point
:
a. 10
X.384 d. 23.54-10
g.
845.2-f- 10
b.
10X.7
e. .74-10 h. .75 -4-10
c.
10X23.876
f. .0184-10 i.
10X3.265
2. Can you make a rule for multiplying a decimal by 100?
By 1000? Kemember,
100=10X10,
and 1000=10X10X10.
3. State a rule for dividing a decimal by 100. By 1000.
4. Find each answer by moving the decimal point:
a.
100X.37
d. .74-100
g. 1000X5.2
b. 23.34-100 e.
1000X8.17
h. 7.54-1000
c.
1000X.27
f.
100X8.639
i. 576.74-1000
5. For further practice on these short methods turn to Practice
Test 85a, page 829.
6. The method of dividing decimals given on page 66 is based
on the principle that multiplying both the dividend and divisor
by the same number does not change the quotient. 84-2 =
?
804-20 =
? Can you explain the method of dividing decimals?
To multiply a decimal by 10, move the decimal point one
place to the right. To divide a decimal by 10, move the
decimal point one place to the left.
b. .12j
= ^
=
70 Changing Decimals
to Common Fractions
SAVING TIME
Mary
works in a dry goods store on Saturday. Mrs. Flagg
bought 12
yards of ribbon at 25^ a yard. Mary remembered
that
2H
is the same
as
$.25,
or
\
of a dollar. She multiplied
12 X
J
and charged Mrs. Flagg $3 for the ribbon. Was she right?
How else might she have found the total cost of the ribbon?
Which
way is the easier?
Mary's
experience shows that you can sometimes save time
by
changing
decimals to common fractions. Study the examples
below. Is the rule at the bottom of the page correct?
a
75-
7 5 _.15_3
a. .io
100 20 4
,i
12^-
=
2X12^
_
25
_
5 1
100
~~
2X100
200 40 8
1. Change these decimals to common fractions.
5. .66 .16
.75 .12j
.2
.33j
.50
.25
.20 .08$
.125
2. Express each of the following as parts of a dollar.
50^
20^
75j6 12^ 33^
3. Find the cost of each. Do not use pencil and paper.
a. Eight yards of muslin at 12^
a yard.
b. A dozen caps at 25^
each.
c. Nine pounds of butter at
33j^
a pound.
d. Eight golf balls at 75yf each.
4. Change the following decimals to common fractions. Sim-
plify and reduce to lowest terms.
.01
.4 .65 .021 .8$
.62j
.07 .5
.025 .075 .6j
.87|
5. For further practice turn to Practice Test 35c, page 329.
To change a decimal to a common fraction, drop the decimal
point and write the denominator. Simplify the result and
reduce to lowest terms.
Changing
Common
Fractions to
Decimals
71
SAVING TIME
Several
seventh grade pupils multiplied l\ l)V
$$
Most of
them did the work as shown in the first solution below. George
changed l\ and
3^
to decimal fractions and multiplied as shown
in the second
solution. Which method do you prefer?
3.5
7.5
7iX3i
=
^X!
=
H
JL
=
26j
175
245
2 6.2 5
It is often easier to work with decimal fractions, so you should
know how to change common fractions into decimals.
.75
Since

=
3-f-4, we can proceed as shown in the
4)3.00
first example, and find that
%
= .75.
The work of changing

to a decimal is shown in
1.8 the next example. #=1.8.
5)9.0
These examples illustrate the rule at the bottom
of the page.
1. Change the following common fractions to equivalent
decimals. Carry out the division to hundredths' place.
3 3 7 _i_
IS. 5. -UL
8" 5"
T2 16 12 8 12
5 5 5 _9_ 2_3 1. 11
2"
4 T 16 11 7 15
2. Use decimal fractions in working these problems:
a. Margaret made three aprons in 8 hours and 15 minutes.
How long did it take her to make one apron?
b. Mary had 13 ft. 6 in. of ribbon. How many rosettes
could she make if each rosette required 1 ft. 6 in.?
3. For further practice turn to Practice Test Number Sod, page
829.
To change a common fraction to a decimal, divide the
numerator by the denominator.
"a
.50
r
.25=

.2 =
^
.20 c 4
/6irl
./1 4
=
4r
^^^^^
Common
and
Decimal
Fraction
Equivalents
1. The decimal
equivalents of the simple common fractions,
such as
5, J,
etc., are used so often that they should be memorized.
Memorize the table at the top of this page.
2. Can you give the common
fraction equivalents of the
decimals below,
without
referring to the table above? If you
miss any, look it up in the table and practice on it.
.33j
.2 .16 .66}
.5 .50
.25
.75 .12
-08j .06j
.20
3. Give the decimal
equivalents of the following common
fractions.
Look up those you miss, for extra practice.
3
4
1
16
1
12
1
2
1,
5.
Find the cost of each, without using pencil:
a. Five books at 50< each.
b. Nine baseball gloves at
66^
each.
c. Two dozen cans of tomatoes at
8j^
a can.
Use decimal fractions to solve these problems:
a. On their hike, Mr. Smith and four boys each carried a
pack weighing 3 lb. 8 oz. After walking several hours,
Mr. Smith offered to carry the boys' packs as well as
his own. How much did all the packs weigh?
b. Herbert wanted to paint a porch floor. In order to
find how much paint he would need, he had to find the
area of the floor. He measured and found the floor was
10 ft. 6 in. by 5 ft. 3 in. What was the area?
72
Finding
Approximate Results
73
6.2 5 Mr. Etueger's coalbin was filled with coal costing
~V7 $6.25 a ton. It took 5100 pounds (2.7
tons) to fill
137
5
the bin. How much did the
coal cost? The exact
1250* ** of the coal was $16,875, or $16.87^.
As we
i
()
o
-
5
do not have a half-cent coin, the dealer charged
Mr. Rueger $16.88.
We often get more decimal
places in a result than we need.
In such cases we drop the figures that are not wanted.
//
the first
figure dropped is 5 or greater, the last figure
saved should be increased
'by 1. Why is this done? Is $7,848 nearer $7.84 or $7.85? Is
$3,283 nearer $3.28 or $3.29? Is $6,735 nearer $6.73 or $6.74?
Mr. Marshall receives $725 a year, paid monthly, for part-time
work. How much does he receive each month?
6 - *
*
In the last division you have one 12 in 20,
12)725.00
^th a remainder of 8. The last figure in the
7 2
_
quotient is between a 1 and a 2,
but is nearer
5 a 2,
as the remainder 8 is more than half of
48 the divisor 12.
~~20
1 2
Mr. Marshall received $60.42 a month for
"~^
his part-time work.
1. Write the value of each to the nearest cent.
$5,872 $3,598
$23,745 $8,794 $15,008
2. Write the value of each to the nearest tenth.
3.78 5.82 7.994 2.518 18.25
3. Write the value of each to the nearest thousandth.
.7861 1.5976 .00624 3.8975 7.0008
4. Find each of the following to the nearest hundredth.
3.4X6.29
$3.87-2
87-5-6 1h-7 .32x7.1
5. Find each of the following to the nearest tenth.
1.6X27.9 8X3.27
5.7-^.9
8-3
9.5X.38
When you get more decimal places in the result than you
need, drop the figures not wanted. If the first figure dropped
is 5 or greater, the last figure saved should be increased by 1.
74 Who Won the Pennant?
1. The Oakwood High School belongs to the Big Six League.
Last year they played seven
school won lost standing
games, winning four and losing
Oakwood 4 3
three. What part of the games
Winston
4 4 played did they win? Express
Marion 3 4 the result as a decimal fraction
Woodside
5 3
to the nearest thousandth. Find
Carville 3 3
the standing of each of the other
Trenton 3 5
teams. Who won the pennant?
2. The number of games won and lost by each team in the
American Baseball League during the 1943 season is given below.
New York won 98 games and lost 56. They won -j^- or .636 of
the games they played. Find the standing of each team to the
nearest thousandth.
Copy and complete. Arrange in order.
TEAM
New
York
Washington
Cleveland
Chicago
Detroit
St. Louis
Boston
Philadelphia
3. The table below gives the number of games won and lost
by
each team in the National League in 1943. Find the standing
of each team to the nearest thousandth. Copy and complete,
arranging the teams in order.
TEAM
St. Louis
Cincinnati
Brooklyn
Pittsburgh
Chicago
Boston
Philadelphia
New York
WON
Finding
Batting Averages 75
I. Harold Brown played
on the high school
baseball team,
He
was at bat 21 times last season and made
9 safe bits. He
hit safely
-y,
or .429, of the number of times at bat. Can you
complete the following table for the other members of the team
and arrange them in order? Figure the standings to the nearest
thousandth. Who was the best batter? The poorest?
429
Player
70
Finding
Parts and Ratios
TWO
TYPES OF
FRACTION
PROBLEMS
Problem: Mrs.
Anderson received two thirds of her hus-
band's estate when he died. What was the value of her share
if the total estate was valued at $8700?
Solution:
2900

of $8700
=j>x$870(r=$58OO
Problem: Mr. James owned 87.4 acres of land, of uniform
value. He sold 25.5 acres to Mr. Smith, who agreed to pay
the taxes for that year on his part of the land.
What part of
the taxes on the whole tract should Mr. Smith pay?
Solution:
The ratio of the part Mr. Smith bought to the
whole was
ffff
, or
25.5-87.4. This equals .29,
to the nearest
hundredth. Since Mr. Smith bought .29 of the land, he should
pay .29 of the taxes. Find his share.
1. Find the following:
J
of 32 fof32
fof9
|
of 96 |
of 57
|
of 12
2. Find the following to the nearest
hundredth.
.2 of 3.7
.32 of 21.2
.372
of 146
3. Find the ratio of the first number to the second.
Express
the result as a decimal to the nearest tenth.
3.2, 8.7
17, 49
17.4,
40.9
4. Alice
Cummings
teaches school. Her salary of $1100
for tne school year is paid in 9 equal
installments.
Find the
amount of each installment to the nearest cent.
5. The school board offered to pay Alice's salary
(problem
4)
in 12 equal installments, if she
preferred.
How
much would
each
installment be, to the nearest cent?
To find a
fractional part of any number,
multiply the
number by the fraction,
common
or decimal.
To find the ratio of one
number to another,
divide the
first by the second. The result may be
expressed
either
as a common fraction or a decimal.
Finding the Whole when a Par! Is Known 77
A THIRD TYPE OF FRACTION PROBLEM
Mr. Adams, a farmer, was filling a bin with wheat. After
he had put in 24 bushels, he estimated that the bin was
|
full. How many bushels would the whole bin hold if the
estimate was accurate?
Solution: As

of the whole, or
f
times the whole, equals
24 bushels, the problem is to find what number multiplied
by
|
equals 24. That is, we know the product of two factors
(24),
and one of the factors
(),
and we want to find the other
factor. We must divide the product by the known factor in
order to find the unknown factor. Why?
24n-f=24xf
=
36.
The bin holds 36 bushels.
1. Find the value of the whole number. Notice the form
of solution used for the first two examples.
a. fxa
number
=
21; the number
=21-j-=21x|-=28
b. .32
xa number
=
$2.17; the number
=
$2.17 ^-.32 =
$6.78
c.
of a number
=
42 d.
f
of a number
=
12^
2. Julia's older sister used "N" as an abbreviation for
"a number." Study both solutions. Which is shorter?
Julia's Solution Her Sister's Solution
fxa
number
=
$9
f
xA/
=
$9
The number
= $9-h|
=$9
X|
=
$12 A^
=
$9-f =$9xf
=
$12
3. Find the value of the whole number to the nearest cent,
in each of the following.
a. .32xA
r
=
$8.17 c. xA
r
= $25.10 e. .07xA/
=
$0.32
b. .7 X
AT
=
$5.23 d. . 189 XN
=
$2.09 f. .79 XN
=
$17.91
To find a number when some fractional part of it is known,
divide the known part by the fraction it is of the whole.
fXJV=$9 iV=$9-f
=
$9X;f
=
$12
78 The Three Types of Fraction Problems
#:
W49
L'-<f
"*'**&**
1. Mary picked strawberries
for her father. There were 12
equal rows in the patch. By
noon she had picked 8 rows
and had 45 quarts. How many
quarts should she get from the
whole patch at that rate? How
many different ways can you
find to work this problem?
2. On a test in arithmetic, Alice worked 17 problems cor-
rectly out of a total of 20. What part of the problems did
she work correctly? What part did she miss? Express the
results as decimal fractions.
3. The A. B. C. Furniture Company advertised the follow-
ing articles during a sale. Find the sale price of each to the
nearest cent.
a. Desk. Regularly $87.25.
J
off.
b. Table. Regularly $39.50.
off.
c. Rug. Regularly $115.00.
\
off.
4. In 1930, the population of Bettsville was 8756. In 1940,
it was 9182. The increase was what fractional part of the
population in 1930? Express your result as a decimal to the
nearest thousandth.
5. In 1930, the population of Mason was 12,091. In 1940,
it was 8756. The decrease was what part of the
population
in 1930? Express your result to the nearest thousandth.
6. Mr. Thompson was driving his car from Cincinnati to
Columbus. He looked at his speedometer when he reached
South Charleston and found that he had driven 73.4 miles.
He estimated from the map that South Charleston was about
|
of the distance from Cincinnati to Columbus. From this
he found the approximate total distance from Cincinnati to
Columbus. What was the approximate
distance?
1A
"I
Using Decimals in Problems
1. Twelve boys had a steak roast and shared the expenses
equally. John bought the meat, which cost $2.75; Harry
bought the buns, at 75^; Morris bought the baked beans, at
70^;
and Robert bought the ice cream, at $1.25. John acted
as treasurer. What was each boy's share of the expenses?
How much did John collect from each of the boys who did not
buy any of the food? How much did he pay each of the other
boys who bought food? How much did he pay himself?
2. Roger Owen earned $2.75 last week. He spent $1.50
for a sweater, 35^ for a moving picture show, 15^ for candy,
and saved the rest. What part of his earnings did he save?
Express the result as a decimal to the nearest hundredth.
3. The Jones family try to save at least .15 of their income.
Their income is $250 a month. How much should they save
each month?
4. Last year the Jones family saved .23 of their income.
This is how many times (nearest hundredth) the least amount
they try to save? (See problem 3.)
Can you work this prob-
lem without finding how much they saved last year?
79
80 Avoiding Errors with Compound
Numbers
In many problems like those on the next page it is necessary
to work with
denominate numbers expressed in more than one
unit, as 2 ft. 3 in., or 3 weeks 4 days. Such numbers are called
compound numbers. Study the points given below and you will
avoid errors.
1. Tables. Tables of denominate numbers are given on pages
342 to 344. You should memorize those used most
commonly
and know where to find the others.
2. Changing to Smaller Units. Change 5
hours to minutes.
5 hrs.
=
5X60
min.
=
300 min. For practice turn to Practice Test
45a, page 836.
3. Changing to Larger Units. Change 17
inches to feet.
17 in.
=
^
ft.
=
l-& ft.
=
1.4 ft. (nearest tenth). For practice turn
to Practice Test 45
b, page 836.
4. Changing from One Unit to Two.
Change 31
days to
weeks and days. Divide 31 by 7. Why? What is the quotient?
The remainder? 31 days
=
4 weeks 3 days. Why?
For practice
turn to Practice Test
46,
page 336.
5. Changing from Tw
r
o Units to One.
a.
Change 2 lb. 4 oz. to ounces. 2 lb. 4 oz. = 2Xl6
oz.+
4 oz.
=
36 oz.
b. Change 2 lb. 4 oz. to
pounds. 2 lb. 4 oz.^2^- lb.=
2-L
lb.
=
2.25 lb.
For practice turn to Practice Test
47,
page 837.
6. Adding. See page 10. For practice turn to Practice Test 48a,
page 838.
7. Subtracting. See page 16. For practice turn to Practice
Test 48
b, page 338.
8. Multiplying.
a. Multiply 3 qt. 1 pt. by 3. Explain the three methods shown
at the top of page 81. Are the results equal?
Avoiding Errors with Compound Numbers 81
3qt, 1 |>t. 3 qt.
I
3
=
7
pi-
s-J
Problems
Using
Compound
Numbers
1. Last summer Dick
worked in a grocery store. One week
he
worked 2 hr. 20 min. on
Monday, 1
hr. 25
min. on
Tuesday,
3 hr. on
Wednesday,
2 hr. 10 min. on
Thursday,
1 hr. 50 min. on Friday,
and 9 hr. 30
min. on Saturday.
He
was
paid 20^
an hour. How long did he work
altogether
that week? How much did he earn?
2. Josephine
had 5 yd. 9 in. of braid. She used 23
inches
to trim a dress. How much did she have left?
3. Lucille
made doll dresses to sell for Christmas.
She had
2 yards and 1 foot of material and used 8
inches for each
dress. She paid 30^
a yard for the
material and sold each
dress at 25^.
How many dresses
could she make? How
much
was her gain on all of them?
4. Jane
worked 8 addition
examples in 3
minutes and 20
seconds.
What was the
average time it took her to work one
example?
At the same rate, how long
would it take her to
work 12 examples?
5. How many square feet are in the area of each of the
following
rectangles?
Work
each problem in two ways.
a.
12 ft. 9 in. by 8 ft. 6
in.
b.
2 ft. 8 in. by 9 in.
c.
15 ft. 3 in. by 12 ft. 4 in.
6. How many boxes, each
holding 20 oz., can be filled from
8 lb. 12 oz. of candy?
Work this problem in two ways?
7. The pages of June's
scrapbook
at 11 in. by 1
ft.
3
in.
How many square inches are there on each page?
8. John's
Scout Troop were
making up 24
bags of candy
for a
Christmas tree. They
wanted 12
ounces of candy in
each bag. How many
pounds of candy will they need to buy?
9. Mr. Adams
ordered the A. B. Jones
Coal Co. to fill his
coalbin with coal costing
$7.50 a ton. It took
three loads.
The first load
weighed 2350
pounds, the second 2615
pounds,
and the third 2187
pounds.
How many
tons was this alto-
gether? Find the cost to the
nearest cent.
Problem Test 83
1 . The school system in which Jane teaches pays its
teachers every two weeks. Find the amount of Jane's check
if she receives 16 equal installments and her yearly salary
is $950.
2. Last spring Harold Simmons wanted to reseed the
back yard. His garden book recommended the use of .002 lb.
of seed for each square foot of lawn. He measured the back
yard and found it was 50 ft. 9 in. by 42 ft. 3 in. How much
grass seed did he need?
3. After the grass had been up about three weeks, Harold
decided to apply some fertilizer. His book recommended the
use of .03 lb. for each square foot. (See problem 2.) How
much fertilizer did Harold need?
4. John's father wants to build a barbed wire fence around
the barn lot. How much wire will it take to run one strand
around the lot if it is square and measures 42 yd. 2 ft. on
each side? How much will it take for 3 strands? How much
will 3 strands cost at 3j a yard?
5. Find the cost of each of the following:
a. 7582 pounds of coal at $8.25 a ton.
b. 873 pounds of hogs at $8.40 a hundred pounds.
c. 2385 feet of lumber at $65.50 a thousand feet.
d. 758 pounds of potatoes at $1.19 a hundred pounds.
e. 6 yards 9 inches of cloth at $2.50 a yard.
6. Dick made a model airplane which flew
|
mile in 3
minutes 15 seconds. This was at the rate of how many feet
in a minute to the nearest foot?
7. A submarine is 100 feet under water. How many cubic
feet of water are there above each square foot of its top sur-
face? Find the total weight of the water in each square foot
of top surface. One cubic foot of sea water weighs approxi-
mately 64.3 lb.
8. The heights of the five regular members of the Harrison
High basketball team are 5 feet 8 inches, 5 feet 10 inches,
6 feet, 5 feet 6 inches, and 5 feet 9 inches. Find the average
height.
84
Diagnostic
Tests in
Fundamental
Processes
LOCATING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Work these
examples and check.
Work as fast as you can with-
out
hurrying.
1.
a.
Subtract
37.85
from
186.
e.
38i
758f
+57
b.
73.2X100
f.
c.
8+2f
^-
r
-
2. a.
756
X89
e.
Subtract
89.5 from
327.46.
786f
-89f
752^
-87*
2**4
87.56
X
90.7
6.41)82.7
c.
84.78
96.56
59.35
+83.94
d.
Add: 71.91, 8.79,
598.39, 861.76,
37.85,
797.38
h.
Give result to near-
est
thousandth.
d.
2^X2^
Change
ff^
to a
decimal.
(Nearest
thousandth)
h.
7_3_
'
10
15
+9f
OVERCOMING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study
your errors
carefully
and note the trouble spots. Then
turn to the
Practice Tests
(pages 807 to
340)
for
further
practice as
suggested
below.
If

26, 21,
22
2d

34b, 17, 18,

36
lg

33, 11, 12,

13 2e

32, 6,
7
lh

34,
17, 18, 36
2f

30,
28
2a

S0,24
2g- 29, 24, 27,
28
2b

26, 21,
22
2h 25, 21, 22,
24
2c

31, 1,2
MEASURING
YOUR
PROGRESS
Take
Improvement
Tests
Numbers
One, Two,
and Three.
Record
your
scores on
your Score
Cards. Did you
improve?
Find the class
averages
and bring your
graphs up to date.
la

32, 6, 7,
8
lb 35
lc SO, 24, 27,
28
Id Si, 1,2
le 25, 21, 22,
24
Chapter Tesl
85
Write the numbers
from 1 to
2(1 on a piece
of paper.
After
each number
write the
words or numbers which belong
in the
corresponding blanks below.
1. In the number 532.78, the 5 is in place, the 3
in
0)
place, the 2 in place, the 7 in place, and the 8
in
(2) (3)
()
place.
(5)
2. The number .469 is read "Four hundred sixty-nine
"
(6)
3. Two hundred and seven thousandths is written
(7)
4. Two hundred seven thousandths is written
(8)
5. The number of decimal places in the product is equal to
the number of decimal places in the multiplier the number
(9)
in the multiplicand.
6. Of the numbers .29, 2.9, and 29, the answer to the example
95.124-32.8 is nearest to
(10)
7. 7.2^100
=
on
8. The common fraction equivalent of .663 is
(12)
9. The decimal equivalent of

is
*
(13)
10. To the nearest thousandth the decimal 2.78682 is equal
to
(14)
11. To the nearest cent, $17,725 is usually called
(15)
12. To the nearest tenth, 5.987 is
(16)
13. To find .39 of $7.25 you $7.25 by .39.
(17)
14. If .71 of a number equals 9.2, in order to find the whole
number you divide by
(18) (19)
15. To find the ratio of 9.35 to 12.82,
you divide by
(20) (21)
16. 4 ft. 8in.
=
in.
(22)
17. 4 ft. 8in.
=
ft.
(23)
18. Subtract 1 yd. 2 ft. from 3 yd. The remainder is
J J
(24)
19. Multiplv 3 yards 2 feet by 2. The answer is feet, or
yards.
*
(25)
CHAT T I! R
h\
teaming to Work with
|U
Per Cents
After the decimal system of writing numbers was
introduced into Europe, it became the common prac-
tice for merchants and others to use one hundred as
a base. For example, a man's tax might be $7 for every $100
of his property, or 7 hundredths of the value of his property.
In Latin, 7 hundredths was written 7 per centum, or 7 per cent.
The
%
sign was introduced in the fifteenth century as an
abbreviation for per cent.
Dick saw the advertisement on the opposite page in a news-
paper. You have probably seen many statements like the
one in the paper. Can you explain its meaning? Remember,
per cent is simply another name for hundredths. Thus, 25%
means 25 hundredths; 17% means 17 hundredths;
\%
means
\
of a hundredth.
b.
f.
1. Copy the following and fill the blanks
71 hundredths
=
%
3 hundredths
=
%
2\
hundredths
=
%
900 hundredths
=
%
|
hundredths
=
%
7.8 hundredths
=
%
g.
88
Three
Ways
of
Writing
Hundredths
You
should
be
able to
write any
number of
hundredths
in
three
different
waysas a
common
fraction, as a
decimal
fraction,
and as a per cent.
You will
find
that all three of these
methods
are
useful.
1 Study
the
first three
examples
carefully.
If you do not
understand
them, ask
your
teacher for help.
Then copy the
remaining
examples
and fill the
blanks.
_ 367
7%=T*T=
07

I'

39%=t^=-39
189%=

:;r
214%
=
tU
=
2- 14
-
9%=_=
79%
r~zr~
=
=.45

To~o

_ 81 -
=
=1-15

100
2. Write
each of the
following
in three ways.
Fifty-nine
hundredths
Five
hundredths
Forty-six
hundredths
One
hundred
eight
hundredths
Six
hundred
seventy-five
hundredths
One
hundred
hundredths
One
hundredth
Nineteen
hundredths
3.
Write the
following
per cents as decimal
fractions.
17%
85%
23%
5%
65%
2%
3%
49% li%
90%
31%
f%
4.
Write the following
per cents as
common
fractions or
mixed
numbers.
3%
9%
13%
27% 1%
i%
93% 125% 210%
5. Write
each of the
following in two
other
ways.
8%
M
- 17
^
125
%
-7
6 Do you know
the
difference
between 2
hundreds
and
2
hwidredths?
Write each as a
decimal.
As a
common
fraction.
Finding Per Cents ofNumbers Using Decimals 89
Henry boughl a
suit of clothes a1 a Bale. The suit was marked
$18 but during the sale this
price
was reduced by 1.5%. How
much did Henry have to pay for the suit?
18 Original price =$18
.1 5 Reduction =15% of $18
=
.15X$18
=
$2.70
9~o
Sale price =$18
-$2.70
=
$15.30
18
2.7
Henry's solution is shown above. It shows you how to work
a very important type of problem in percentage, that is, finding
a per cent of a number. Henry wrote the rule at the bottom
of the page. Is it correct?
1. Find the following.
a. 35% of 95 c. 65% of 18 e. 2% of 320
b.
8%
of 25 d. 74% of 56 f. 95% of 132
2. Find the following to the nearest cent.
a. 12% of $18 c. 25% of $12.65 e. 1% of $7.25
b. 80% of $7.32 d.
6%
of $25.50 f. 97% of $25
3. Mrs. Baird's gas bill for December was $5.19. The com-
pany gives a discount of
3%
if the bill is paid by January 10.
How much did Mrs. Baird save by paying before that date?
How much did she have to pay the company?
4. Find the sale price of each of the following.
Article Former Price Per Cent of Discount
Overcoat $18.50 20%
Suit $22.50
15%
Hat $ 4.50
25%
To find any per cent of a number, write the per cent as a
decimal fraction and multiply.
Sh%
~
7x
25 %
=
-2f
3o7o
=
To
3 3
5
%
=
3
6o%
*
j
Memorizing
Per
Cents
as
Common
Fractions
\lbert
Carter
works in his
father's
furniture
store
during
$12
vacations.
Last
summer
they held a sale and
.2 5 $12
gave
"25% off" on all marked
prices.
Albert
6 __3
Sokl a table
marked $12 for $9. Was this
correct?
2 4
$ 9
His
solution
is shown at the left.
$3.0
Albert's
father
showed
him
another
way,
making
use of the
fact
that
25%
=
tW
=
i-
His
solution is given
below.
25%
of
$12
=
\
of $12
=
$3
$12
-
$3
= $9
Mr
Carter
suggested
that Albert
would be able to "do the
work in his head" if he
memorized
the common
fraction
equivalents
of the
per cents
commonly
used in
business.
1 Study
the first
column in the table at the top of the
page.
When
you
think you know it,
cover the
common
fractions
with
a
paper and say them
from
memory.
Then cover
the per cents
and
give them
from
memory.
Study
each of the other
columns
in the
same way.
Put
extra time on any that give you
trouble.
2. Give
the
common
fractions
that are equal to each"
12j%
25%
50% 10% 30% 62j%
33l%
90%
80% 87j% 20% 37j%
3. Give
the per cents that are equal to each:
75%
16f%
66|%
40%
70
5
6
1
10
1
12
1
4
3
10
1
8
4. Give the
common
fraction or per cent
equal to each:
n _ . ^w 9
25%
5
30%
12j%
16%
1
2
1
10
66f%
80%
90%
5.
8
40%
87i%
1
6
50%
33^%
75%
2.
5
20%
1
3
10%
r

62j%
37%
90
Finding Per
(!<-nis
of Numbers
91
Using Common Fractions
You have Learned to find per cents of numbers by firsl writing
the per cent as a decimal fraction and then multiplying. You
have also found that ill sonic cases it is easier to write I lie per
cent
as a common fraction. Always use the easier method. A^nes
worked the examples below. Did she use the easier way?
66%
of $18
=
f
X$18
=
$12
65%
of $23
=
.65 X
23
=
$14.95
1. Find the following without using a pencil. Change the
per cents to common fractions.
a.
33j%
of 24 d. 25% of 120
g. 66
% of 21
b.
16f%
of 72 e. 10% of 95 h.
37^%
of 32
c.
12j%
of 64 f. 75% of 12 i.
87j% of 16
2. Find the following. Change the per cents to decimals.
a. 17% of 84 b. 32% of 125
3. Find the following in the easiest way. If the answer is in
dollars and cents, express it to the nearest cent.
a. 82% of $8.25 d. 50% of $17.30
g. 97% of $3.20
b. 25% of $37 e. 75% of 84 h.
62j%
of 16
c. 8j%of$144 f. 81% of 7 i. 67% of $61.17
4. Mr. Allen receives a salary of $2400 a year. He plans to
spend 30%, of this for food, 25% for rent, 10% for clothing,
25%
for miscellaneous expenses, and to save 10%. How much does
he plan to spend for each item? How much does he plan to save?
Check your results.
5. During a sale, one music store advertised a saxophone for
$12, with a discount of
16%.
Another store advertised a similar
saxophone for $15, with a discount of
33^%. Which is cheaper?
6. Which is cheaper, $24 with a discount of
25%, or $27 with
a discount of
33j%?
To find a per cent of a number, write the per cent as a
common fraction or decimal, and multiply.
-J
The
Meaning
of Per Cent
You have
probably
seen many statements such as the following.
Read them
carefully and explain what each means.
1. We pay 2%
on all savings
deposits. (From a bank adver-
tisement.)
2. All suits marked down 25% to 33j%.
(From the adver-
tisement of a clothing sale.)
3#
99_4_4_<v
pure. (From a soap
advertisement.)
4. In 1930
approximately
13.1 per cent of the wheat grown
in the United States was
exported to foreign countries. (From
a magazine
article.)
5. Sale.
Discounts up to 50%.
(From a jewelry store adver-
tisement.)
6. Canned Milk Price Is Up 20 Per Cent,
(Headline in
newspaper.)
7. Contains 80%
wool. (From the advertisement of a wool
and cotton
blanket.)
8. It's real coffee
with 97%
of the caffein removed. (From
a coffee
advertisement.)
9. 100%
Pure Cane Sugar. (From label on box of sugar.)
10. 98%
Camel's Hair Sport Coats.
(From the advertisement
of a coat sale.)
11. With 3 per cent starch added to prevent caking.
(From
label on box of sugar.)
12. LOANS up to $300,
Charges
2^%
on unpaid
monthly
balance.
(Advertisement
in newspaper.)
13. Alcohol 5%.
(Label on bottle of vanilla.)
14. See how many similar statements you can find and report
them to your class.
92
Selling
on Commission <J3
Jim
Ryerson sold paper
products during his vaca-
tion last summer. He re-
ceived a commission of 12%
on the amount sold. One
week Jim's sales amounted
to $85. He found his com-
mission as shown below.
Commission
=
12%
of $85
=
.12
X$85
=
$10.20
When one person sells
goods for another and is
paid according to the amount
sold, the amount received
for selling the goods is called the commission
figured as a per cent of the selling price.
1. Find the commission on each of the following
(
It is usually
Rate of
Commission Sales Commission
Sales
$3000 16|%
$4800
$150 25%
$70
$375 15%
$925
2. Mr. Phillips travels for a large grocery firm,
Rate of
Commission
8|%
12J%
3%
He receives
a commission of 12
J
%
on the amount he sells. Last year his
sales totaled $17,250. What was the amount of his com-
missions for the year?
3. Mr. Reeves sells farm machinery on commission and
receives 8%
of his sales. How much would his commission be
on a tractor which he sold for $850?
4. Hazel Strong works in a ladies' clothing store. She
receives $12 a week and a commission of
3%
on all she sells.
What would be the total amount of her earnings for a week
during which she sold $350 worth of clothing?
5. The sales for Jim Ryerson's best week amounted to
$107.38. How much was his commission for that week?
IVr Cents on Tests and in Games
.:,
1.
On an addition test Marion finished 12 examples and
had 10 right. What per cent of the total number worked did
she have right?
2. On the same test James finished 10 examples and had
9 right. What per cent of the total number worked did he
have right?
3. If the time spent was the same, did Marion or James
add more rapidly? Which was more accurate?
4. Marion took the same test a second time. She worked
14 right out of 16 attempted. Did she improve in speed?
In accuracy?
5. On his next attempt James had 12 right out of 12 at-
tempted. Did he improve in accuracy? In speed?
6. Alice Henderson plays on the
girls' basketball team. Every day
she practices free throws. One day
she threw 15 out of 25 attempts.
What per cent did she throw? The
next day she threw 20 out of 32 at-
tempts. What per cent did she make?
Did she improve her record?
7. Last year Alice's team played
12 games and won 8. What per cent
of the games did they win? The year
before they played 10 games and
won 7. What per cent did they win
that year? Which record was better?
4^ ^
8. Work these examples without pencil. First think of the
ratio; then simplify and change to a per cent. The correct
answer to the first one is
"6
is -|,
or
f
, or 75%
of
8."
a. 6 is what
9c
of 8?
b. 9 is what
%
of 18?
c. 7 is what
%
of 42?
d. 8 is what
%
of 12?
e. 3 is what
%
of 30?
f
.
5 is what
%
of 40?
g
Mi Per Cent of Increase and Decrease
The population of Owensburg, where George Simmons lives,
was 6000 in 1930. In 1940, it was 8000. In order to find how
rapidly the town had grown in ten years, George figured the
per cent
of
increase as shown here.
Increase
=
8000
-
6000
= 2000
2000 is what per cent of 6000?
Per cent of increase =
f{HHf
=
3
=
33
3%-
Owensburg
increased
33j%
in population.
George's cousin Tom lives in Unionville. In 1930, the popu-
lation of Unionville was 10,000. In 1940, it was only 9000.
George found the per cent
of
decrease.
Decrease
= 10,000-9,000
=
1,000
1,000 is what per cent of 10,000?
Per cent of decrease =
1
1
<&$r
=
To
= 10
%
Unionville decreased 10%
in population.
1. State a rule for finding per cent of increase; per cent
of decrease. Compare your rules with those given below.
2. A year ago Robert weighed 90 pounds and James
weighed 64 pounds. Robert now weighs 99 pounds and James
72 pounds. Find the per cent of increase in weight for each.
3. Did Robert or James
(problem 2)
increase his weight
by the larger amount? Which increased more rapidly, or at
the greater rate?
4. What does the per cent of increase show you that is
not shown by the amount of increase?
5. Tom grew from 5 feet to 5 feet 5 inches, while his sister
Mary grew from 4 feet 2 inches to 4 feet 7 inches. Find the
per cent of increase of each. Which grew more rapidly?
To find the per cent of increase or decrease, first find
the amount of the increase or decrease by
subtracting.
Then find what per cent this increase or decrease is of
the original value.
Problems. PerCenl of Increase and Decrease 91
1. Find the per cent of increase or decrease' <>! each of the
owing.
Working with Large Per Cents
Month
January
February
March
Number of
Subscriptions
16
12
Per Cent of January
Subscriptions
100%
200%
150%
In
comparing
numbers by division, the ratio is often a
whole or a mixed number.
Mrs.
Sheridan started taking magazine subscriptions last
January.
The first month she secured eight subscriptions. In
order to know how rapidly her business was growing, she
compared the number of subscriptions she secured each month
with the number she obtained in January.
In filling out the last column in her summary at the top
of the page, Mrs. Sheridan thought as follows:
8 is*,
orl times 8. 8 is 100%
of 8. (1
=100.
=
100%)
16 is
-^,
or 2 times 8. 16 is 200%
of 8. (2
=
fj$=200%)
12 is
3f,
or lj
times 8. 12 is 150%
of 8. (lj
=^_o
=
150%)
1.
Explain how Mrs. Sheridan got the 100%,.
The 200%.
The 150%.
2. Copy Mrs. Sheridan's summary and make your state-
ment cover the remainder of the year, as given below.
April, 10 subscriptions; May, 18; June, 22;
July, 14;
August, 20;
September, 19;
October, 23;
November, 21; December, 24.
3. Copy and complete.
300%
=3 d.
%=3J
e. %=4
f. 1000%=
98
a.
b. 125%
c. 750%=
li
g.
175%=
h. 100%=
1. 70^8
Working with Large Per Cents 99 i
e
L.
Read the following comparisons in terms of per cents.
The correct answer to the first one is
"12
is 300% of
4."
a.
12 is 3 times 4 d. 30 is 3
J
limes 9
1). 28 is 4 times 7 e. 9 is
2\
times 4
c. 20 is
2\
times 8 f. 14 is 7 times 2
2. Read these comparisons in terms of whole or mixed
numbers. The correct answer to "a." is
"7
is
3|
times
2."
a. 7 is 350%
of 2 d. 14 is 175%
of 8
b. 9 is 100%,
of 9 e. 40 is 1000%,
of 4
c. 15 is 500%,
of 3 f. 20 is
166|%
of 12
3. Find the following without using pencil and paper.
a. 21 is what
%
of 7? d. What
%
is 4 of 3?
b. 15 is what
%
of 20? e. What
%
is 44 of 8?
c. 5 is what
%
of 5? f. What
%
is 15 of 2?
4. Find the following without using pencil and paper.
a. 200%, of 8 d. 100%
o
ofl3
b. 150% of 16 e. 125%, of 12
c. 500%, of 7 f. 350% ofl0
5. In 1940, there were about 25,000,000 children attending
school in the United States. In 1890, there were about
12,500,000. The number attending in 1940 was what per
cent of the number in 1890? The increase between 1890 and
1940 was what per cent of the attendance in 1890?
6. In June, 1940, there were 900 airplane engines produced
in the United States. In June, 1941, there were 1800 pro-
duced. The number produced in June, 1941, was what per
cent of the number in June, 1940? This was what per cent
increase?
7. In June, 1940, the United States built 20 light army
tanks, while 260 were built in June, 1941. The number pro-
duced in June, 1941, was what per cent of the number in
June, 1940? Find the per cent of increase.
MA6
A7/NE-
q
Using Per Cents in Figuring Expenses and Profits
Eugene Sanders owns a newsstand. Last month his total
sales were $250. The newspapers and magazines he sold
cost him $175. He paid $15 for rent, $20 to a boy who helped
him, and $15 for express charges. Find his profit.
The money a merchant takes in is used for three purposes:
to pay the cost of the articles sold, to pay the operating ex-
penses, and to pay the merchant a profit.
Selling Price
=
Cost +
Expenses +Profit
To find whether expenses are too great and whether profit
is reasonable, most merchants express cost, expenses, and
profits as per cents of the sales. Eugene did this.
Expenses
=
-$
=
\
=
20%
of the sales.
Cost
=
m
=
-^
=
70%
of the sales.
Profit
=^&^
=
10%
of the sales.
1. How could Eugene check his results? 20%+70%
+
10%
=
100% . Why should this sum equal 100%?
2. Express cost, expenses, and profit as %'s of sales. Check.
Sales Cost Expenses Sales Cost Expenses
$ 1,000 $ 600 $ 800 $ 800 $ 600 $ 100
12,000 8,000 3,000 7,200 3,600 2,400
5,000 3,500 1,000 9,200 6,900 1,480
100
Using Per Cents in Problems
101
i
e
1. The total enrollment in the seventh grade of the
Washington School
is 30 pupils. Last Monday there were
27 pupils present. What per cent of the pupils were present?
What per cent were absent? Check.
2. In order to test his seed corn, Mr. Smith planted 40
grains in a box. Thirty-five of these grains sprouted. What
per cent of the corn sprouted?
3. On a test containing 24 questions, Mane Owens
answered 18 correctly. What per cent did she have right?
What per cent did she answer incorrectly or omit? Check.
4. A farmer weighs his corn in the fall and finds that he
has 50,215 lb. How many pounds will he have in the spring
if the corn loses 20% of its weight through drying?
5. During one month Mr. Elling sent to the creamery 7500
pounds of milk, testing 4%
butterfat. How much butterfat
was there in the milk? What did Mr. Elling receive if he was
paid at the rate of 22^ a pound for the butterfat?
6. Last year Mr. South picked 900 bushels of peaches
from his orchard. Of these, 600 bushels were first grade.
What per cent of the total crop was first grade?
7. During the second World War, Hopeville sold $60,000
worth of bonds during the first week of the Fifth War Loan
Drive. This was what per cent of its quota of $75,000?
8. Mr. Morris owns a shoe store. Last year he sold $15,000
worth of shoes, which cost him $9,000. He paid $900 for
rent, $3,100 for salaries to himself and clerk, $200 for adver-
tising, and $300 for heat, light, and other expenses. Express
the expenses, profit, and cost each as a per cent of the sales.
Can you check these results?
9. Mr. McComb had a deposit of $857.18 in a bank that
failed during the depression. Six months after the bank
closed, it paid the depositors a dividend of 25%
of their
deposits. How much did Mr. McComb receive? The bank
later paid dividends of 10%
and 3%.
How much did Mr.
McComb receive altogether? How much did he lose?
102 Finding
the Whole when a Per Cent
of It Is Known
THE EQUATION
Albert Carter gave his father this problem: "Two thirds
of the pupils in the eighth grade are girls. How many pupils
are in the eighth grade, if there are 18 girls in the class?"
Mr. Carter's solution is given below.
fxA
f
= 18
9
N
=
18 -r-
J
=iSfxJ>
= 27 pupils
A statement such as "XN
= 18"
is called an equation.
The two members of
an equation are equal. We show this fact
by using the sign
=. If we add or subtract, multiply or
divide in one member of an equation, we must do the same
in the other member to keep them equal. What did Mr.
Carter do to both members of the equation above?
Mr. Carter divided
"
XN" by .
The quotient is N; just
as when you divide "5x7"
by 5, the quotient is 7. Then he
divided 18 by
J.
The quotient is 27. So, N= 27.
Mr. Carter explained to Albert that this kind of problem
often occurs in working with per cents and gave the follow-
ing
illustration from his furniture store. He sells his furniture
so that 60%
of the selling price covers the cost. The rest
of the selling price covers expenses and profit. He showed
Albert how to find the selling price of a chair that costs $12.
Mr. Carter used "S.P." for selling price.
60% of S.P.
=
$12
|XS.P.
=
$12
4
S.P.
=$12-hf =$HTxJ>
=
$20
1. State a rule for finding the whole when a per cent of it
is known. Compare your rule with the one on page 103.
2. Find the whole number, N, in each of the following.
a. 66f%ofA
r
=
15 b. 37i%ofN
= 21 c.
25%oftf =
$7
Problems. Finding
tin- Whole 103
USING COMMON
FRACTIONS
1.
Marguerite takes
subscriptions for a maga-
zine and receives a com-
mission of
8|%.
How
much must her subscrip-
tions amount to for a
week in order to earn
$1.50?
2. Howard read that
5,180,538
people in Cali-
fornia live in towns and
cities and that this is ap-
proximately 75%
of the
population of that state. From this, Howard found the
population of California. Can you?
3. Harriet made the following problem: "I spelled 35 words
correctly on a spelling test. This was 87
J
%
of the total
number of words. Can you tell me how many words were
in the test?" Find the answer to Harriet's problem.
4. Tests show that a certain
breakfast food loses 10%
of
its weight after packing. How much will the manufacturers
have to put in a box so that the contents will weigh 18 ounces
after standing?
5. Find the whole number, N, in each of the following.
33i%ofiV
=
12 12i%o(N
=
7 66f%ofiV
= $8
75% of N
=
30 87j%
of N
=
U 37j%
of A
r
= 9
16f%ofAT
=
5
60%ofAr =
15 200% of iV = $17
300%
of
AT =
18 250% of A
r
= 25 125%,
of
AT = 25
To find the whole when some per cent of it is known,
write an equation expressing the per cent as a common
fraction or whole number. Then divide both members of
the equation by this fraction or whole number.
Finding the Selling Price
Mr. Hopper owns a jewelry store. He knows that 45% of
the selling price of every article goes to pay expenses (rent,
insurance,
wages to clerks, advertising, light, heat, etc.); and
that in order to make a living he must get 15%
of the selling
price as his profit. At what selling price must he mark a
watch for which he paid $30?
As the expenses and profit together equal 60%
of the selling
price, only 40% of the selling price is left to cover cost. Mr.
Hopper must sell the watch so that 40% of the selling price
(S.P.) equals the cost price (C.P.), or $30.
40%,
of S.P.
=
$30
5
S.P.=
=
$30X4
=
$75
Check
:
40%
of S.P.
=
fX$75
=
$30
1. Find the selling price. Check.
Profit
10%
of S.P.
Cost
Expenses
$
5.40 15%
of S.P.
17.15 33^%
of S.P.
8.05 25%
of S.P.
21.36 30%
of S.P.
9.50 35%
of S.P.
2. In Mr. Whitaker's furniture store last year the total
sales were $72,000. The expenses were $18,000.
The furniture
which was sold cost $48,000. What was the profit?
Express
the expenses, profit, and cost of furniture each as a per cent
of the sales. How can you check your results?
16f
%
of S.P.
5% of S.P.
of S.P.
of S.P.
10%
15%
104
Writing
IVr Cents
as Decimals L05
You know that in finding a per cent of a number it is often
easier to write the per cent as a decimal fraction instead of a
common fraction. As "per cent" is just another name for
hundredths, simple per cents such as
17'
,
and 32
r
;
are
easily written as decimals. In many practical problems,
however, you will meet more
complicated per cents such as
317%,
i%,
2|%,
.7%,
and 32.7%. In working such prob-
lems you must be able to write these per cents as decimals.
1. Study the following
examples
carefully. Be sure that
you understand all of them.
a. 23%
=
23 hundredths
= .23
b. 7%
=
7 hundredths
=
.07
c. 1 %
=
1 hundredth
= .01
d. 317%
=
317
hundredths
=
3 wholes and 17
hundredths
=
3.17
e. 1%
=
i
of a hundredth
=
.00j
= .005
f. 2
J
%
=
2
J
hundredths
= .02
\
= .025
g.
3J%
=
3J
hundredths
=
.03
J
h. .7%
=
.7 of a hundredth
=
7 thousandths
= .007
i. 32.7%
=
32.7 hundredths
= .327
2. State a rule for writing a per cent as a decimal. Com-
pare your rule with the one at the bottom of the page.
3. Write the following per cents as decimals.
35%
486%
f%
81%
560%
393% .5%
8i%
i%
19-9%
45.2% 6.6%
19.5%
160%
|%
9.4%
56.1%
2i%
37.7%
82.2%
\%
170% 67%
5i%
9%
To write a per cent as a decimal, think of it as hundredths
and write it as a decimal.
Remember that a tenth of a
hundredth is a
thousandth, so tenths of a per cent are
written in thousandths' place.
106
Finding Per Cents of Numbers
USING DECIMALS
1. Find the following.
.2% of 875
i%
of 810 .7% of 1250
37.2% of 8.7 88.7% of 49 17.1% of 45
117% of 93 2.5%
of 112 lj% of 105
i%
of 756 349%
of 18 85.4% of 70
2. Find the following to the nearest cent.
32.2% of $8.75 19.2% of $17.80 307% of $19.20
3.8% of $25.18
\%
of $72 91.5% of $43.15
231% of $5.25 2j%
of $36 .7%
of $125
3. There were 48,833,000 persons in the United States in
1930 engaged in gainful occupations. Of these, 21.5% were
engaged in agriculture, 2.5% in mining, 29.3% in manufac-
turing and mechanical industries, 9.0% in transportation,
15.4% in trade, 2.3% in public service, 7.0% in professional
service, 9.8% in domestic service, and 3.2% in all other occu-
pations. How many were engaged in each type of work?
Can you check your results? Do they check exactly?
4. The population in 1940 and the per cent of increase, or
decrease, from 1930 to 1940 are given in the table below for
the eight largest cities in the United States. If they continue
to change at the same rate, what will be the population of
each of these cities in 1950?
City
Finding the Whole when a IVr Cent
of It Is Known
In finding the whole when some per cent of it is known, it
is often easier to use a decimal instead of a common fraction.
In one year the people of the United States bought 2495
tons of shelled peanuts from China. This was 91.9% of the
total amount bought from all foreign countries. How many
tons were bought from all countries?
91.9% of N=2495
.919 XA
r
= 2495
Divide both members of the equation by .919. Explain.
N
=
2495 -f- .919 = 2715 tons (approximately)
.
1. State a complete rule for finding the whole when a per
cent of it is known, using either common or decimal fractions.
2. Horace Jennings read
that Texas produced 4,038
bales of cotton in 1930, and
that this was 28.9% of the
total produced in the United
States. How many bales
were produced in the United
states in 1930? How many
pounds was this if the bales
averaged 500 pounds? What
was its value if it was worth
9.5 cents a pound, on the
average?
3. Find the whole to the nearest cent.
17% of
AT =
$2.04 330% of iV
=
$9.24 27.3% of N
25% of TV =
$16 3.4% of N
=
$2.72 85.9% of N
8%
of AT =
$2.50 149% of A^
=
$25.10 .7% of A^
=
$
$8.25
$31.21
.83
To find the whole when some per cent of it is known,
write an equation expressing the per cent as a common or
decimal fraction. Then divide both members of the equa-
tion by this fraction.
Finding
the Per Cent of Games Won
The
football team of the Connellsville
High School played
7 games and won 4. Eugene said they won j-
or .571,
of their
games. He thought,
".571 equals 57 hundredths and 1
thousandth,
or 57.1 hundredths,
or
57.1%."
In changing a decimal to a per cent it is necessary to read
the decimal as so many
hundredths. This is easy in the case of
.39,
or .72, but harder in such cases as .571, .3,
or 2.32.
1. Eugene used the rule at the bottom of the page. Study
and explain each step.
2. Can you explain each step of the rule below?
3. Read the following as hundredths.
.17
.4 .185
1.324
.0032
1*38
3.5
.497
7.019 .1709
To Read a Decimal as Hundredths:
a. Read the figures up to and including the second decimal
place as a whole number. Fill in hundredths' place with
a zero if necessary. This is the number of whole hun-
dredths.
b. If there are three decimal places, read the figure in the
third place as tenths of a hundredth.
c. If there are four decimal places, read the figures in the
last two places as hundredths of a hundredth.
108
Writing Decimals as Per Cents L09
When Eugene found the per cenl of games
won
by the Connels-
ville High
School, he had to
know how to write ;i decimal fraction
as a per cent. He used the rule a1 the bottom of the page. Ex-
plain. Remember that per cents and hundredths
arc differenl
names for the same thing.
1. Road the following decimals as hundredths and write
them as per cents.
2.176
2.019
5.307
11.122
1.007
7.301
2. The standings of the teams in the two major baseball
leagues on August 12, 1943 are shown below. The standings are
given as decimal fractions. Write these decimals as per cents.
National League American League
Stand- Stand-
.29
1 10
Changing
Common
Fractions to Per Cents
You have already
memorized the per cent
equivalents of certain
common
fractions.
You know that
|
=
66%,
J
=
75%,
and so
on.
Sometimes you meet other common
fractions and must
know how to change them to per cents.
In the Woodward
School there are 786
pupils in all, 363
boys
and the
rest girls. What per cent of the total enrollment is boys?
.4 6 1
The boys are
fi
of the total
enrollment,
7 8 6)3 6
,3.0
|H
=
363 +786
=
.462 (nearest
thousandth)

_
=
46.2%
(nearest tenth of a per cent)
4 7 16
1440
7 86
654
In changing a common fraction to a per cent, unless it comes
out even like 17%,
or with an easy fraction like
13j%,
it is
customery to find the result to the nearest tenth
of
a per cent.
This means that the division must be carried to the nearest
thousandth.
1. State a rule for changing a common fraction to a per cent.
Compare your rule to the one at the bottom of the page.
2. Change the following
common
fractions to per cents.
Express the results to the nearest tenth of a per cent.
f

ft
T*T
f
m
u
u
a
m
To change a common fraction to a per cent, first change it
to a decimal by
dividing the numerator by the
denominator.
Be sure to carry this division to the nearest
thousandth.
Then write the decimal as a per cent.
Saving Time* Using
Short
Methods ill
K.illnyn Phillips' father
showed her
several short methods
of changing common fractions to
per cents. He explained thai
it was often easy to change the denominator of a fraction to 100
without changing the value of the fraction. Study hisjllustrations
below.
20 100 200 100
2

1. Can you explain Mr. Phillips' first illustration? How did
he get the -j
3
^?
How did he get the 35%?
2. Can you explain his second solution? How did he get the
48

2? The 48*%?
100
2
3. Change the following to per cents. How many can you
work without using pencil and paper?
7
25
112 Finding What Per Cent One Number
Is of Another
The school nurse found that 8 of the children in John's
room were overweight, 17 were normal weight, and 7
were
underweight. John
found what per cent of the pupils were
overweight, normal weight, and underweight. His solutions
are shown below. Study and explain.
The number overweight =^
=
i
=
25%
of the total.
The number normal weight
=
^|
=
. 531 =53.1% of the total.
The number underweight =^
=
.219
=
21.9%
of the total.
1. State a rule for finding what per cent one number is of
another. Compare your rule with the one given at the bottom
of the page.
2. Find the following
without using a pencil.
24 is what %
of 48?
What
%
of 2 is 7?
9 is what
%
of 3?
What
%
of 30 is 18?
15 is what
%
of 20?
What
%
of 3 is 15?
3. Solve to the nearest tenth of a per cent.
23 is what %
of 38?
What
%
of 196 is 2?
231 is what
%
of 315?
What
%
of 17 is 25?
4. An overcoat marked $22.50 was sold for $18. The
reduction was what per cent of the original price?
5. In one school year there were approximately 919,400
students
enrolled in American colleges and universities. Of
these 563,200 were men and 356,200 were women. What
per cent of the total enrollment was men? What per cent
was women?
The number of men enrolled was what per cent
of the number of women? The number of women was what
per cent of the number of men? Figure all per cents to the
nearest tenth of a per cent.
To find what per cent one number is of another, write
the ratio of the one to the other as a common fraction. Re-
duce this fraction to lowest terms and change to a per cent.
Problems^ Using Per Cents L13
1. In 1911,
Hay Ilarroun won the 500 mile automobile
race at Indianapolis. His average speed was 74.59 miles
per
hour. Floyd Roberts established the record for this race in
1938, with an average speed of 117.2 miles per hour. How
many more miles an hour did Roberts average than Harroun?
Find to the nearest tenth of a per cent the per cent of in-
crease in speed in this race from 1911 to 1938.
2. In the first half of a recent year the air lines of the
United States scheduled 42,005 trips. Of these, 39,441 trips
were started. What per cent of the trips scheduled were
started? Figure to the nearest tenth of one per cent.
3. Of the trips started, 36,823 were completed. What per
cent of the trips scheduled were completed? What per cent
of the trips started were completed? Give results to nearest
tenth of a per cent.
4. A farmer wishes to have 25 bushels of seed corn in May.
How many bushels should he save in October, allowing 14.3%
for shrinkage during the winter?
5. Mr. Andrews, a real estate agent, sold a house and lot
for Mr. Johnson for $8000. He charged a commission of
5%
of the selling price. How much did he get for making
the sale? How much did he turn over to Mr. Andrews?
6. Tell what you understand by this statement: "Mr.
Johnson's expenses last year were equal to 125% of his in-
come." What were his expenses if his income was $1200?
7. Last year the Armstrong family saved $250. What per
cent of their total income of $2000 did they save?
8. Find the sale price of each of the following:
Name of Article Former Price
%
of Discount
Davenport $150 33j%
Chair
40 25%
Table 25 20%
Bed 30 25%
Lamp
12
16f%
114
Safety First.
Estimating
Results
In working with per cents, a common. error is getting the
decimal
point in the wrong
place. The best way to detect
such errors is to form the habit of making an estimate of the
result before working the
problem out more accurately.
1. Read and explain each of these
examples.
a. 17%
of 79
= ?
Estimate:
J
of 79
=
13
(approximately)
Solution: .17x79
= 13.43
b. 29 is what per cent of 76?
Estimate :
^
is about
f
or
.
f
=
37j %
Solution:
ff
=
29 +76
= .382 =38.2%
c. 68.2%
of a number is $17.13. What is the number:
Estimate: N=l7+>
=^-=
24f-
Solution: N
=
$17.13
-.682
= $25.12
2. Estimate the result in each of the following; then work
it out more accurately. See who can find the easiest method of
estimating.
a. 32.7%
of $8.70
=
?
e. 39 is what
%
of 18?
b. 19 is what
%
of 28? f. 86.7%
of $2.50 = ?
c. 7 is what %
of 98? g.
532 is what
%
of 786?
d. 215%
of N
=
$17.21
h. 35%
of N= $7.25
N
=
?
N= ?
3. A traveling man received a salary of $2500 a year plus a
commission
of 3%
on all sales above $50,000
a year. Last
year he sold $78,000 worth of goods. What was his total in-
come?
Estimate the result before working this problem.
4. There are 2500 pupils enrolled in the
Woodward
High
School. One day .8%
of the pupils were absent.
How many
pupils were absent?
Check the location of the decimal point by first estimating
the result.
Problems. Estimating Results LIS
In each of the following problems, first estimate the result;
then solve the problem.
1
.
A silver dollar contains 14.25 grains of copper and 398.25
grains of silver. What per cent is pure silver? What per cent
is copper? Check your result.
2. It is estimated that the weight of a steer shrinks about
46% of its live weight, when dressed. What will be the dressed
weight of a steer weighing 1350 pounds when alive?
3. The population of St. Paul in 1940 was 288,000. In
1930, it was 272,000. Find the per cent of increase to the
nearest tenth of a per cent.
4. The population of Minneapolis in 1940 was 490,000.
In 1930, it was 464,000. Find the per cent of increase to the
nearest tenth of a per cent. Did St. Paul or Minneapolis
grow at the faster rate? (See problem
3.)
5. The weights of various substances are often given by
comparing them with the weight of water. The average
weights of several kinds of well-seasoned woods are given below
as per cents
of
the weight
of
water. Find the weight of a cubic
foot of each kind of wood to the nearest tenth of a pound.
A cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 pounds.
Redwood 41.6% American Elm 52.8% Walnut 59.2%
White Pine 46.4% Sugar Maple 67.2% White Oak 76.8%
6. In a city containing 7853 qualified voters, 5821 voted in
the presidential election of 1940. What per cent of the quali-
fied voters actually voted? Find the result to the nearest
tenth of a per cent.
7. Meadville voted on building a hospital. Only 4027 of
the 6152 qualified voters voted. Of these, 3297 voted for the
hospital. The number voting for the hospital was what per
cent of the number voting? Of the total number of qualified
voters? Find results to the nearest tenth of a per cent.
110
Saving
Time.
Round
Numbers
Harold read in his geography
that the circumference of the
earth at the equator is 24,902
miles. The book stated that
for most
purposes it is
sufficiently
accurate to call the cir-
cumference 25,000
miles. What is gained by this? Is the
circumference
nearer 25,000
or 24,000
miles? Why?
In working with large numbers it is often possible to save
time and work by using only the first few figures and filling
in the other places with zeros. The resulting
numbers are often
called round numbers.
Harold found other
illustrations
of
round numbers in his geography.
The diameter of the earth at the
equator is 7,927
miles, or
in round numbers, 8,000
miles.
The distance to the sun from the earth is 92,897,416
miles,
or in round numbers, 93,000,000
miles.
1. Round each
number below to two figures.
34 281
141,295
465,149
75,893,471
2,756
58,548
1,572,093
8,430,286
2. Round each number in problem 1 to three figures.
3. Harold tried to round 39,782
to two figures. He called
the result 39,000. His teacher said it should be 40,000.
Why?
Is 39,782
nearer 39,000
or 40,000?
4. Round each of the numbers below to three figures.
189,628
75,976
839,581
5. Harold wanted to round the
decimal 3.1416 to three
figures. He wrote 3.1400 and then changed it to 3.14.
Is
this correct?
Round 3.1416 to two figures. To four.
To round a number, save as many
figures at the left as
you want to use and put zeros in place of the other figures.
If the first figure dropped is 5 or more,
increase the last
figure saved by 1.
7 8,3 9 2
4.8
118 Saving Time. Round Numbers in Division
Louise worked out a rule to save work in division. She divided
24 by 3.1416. Then she rounded 3.1416 to three figures and divided
again. Her work is shown below. Are the two results the same
to two figures?
First Solution
Second Solution
7.6
7.6
3.1 4 1 6
A
)2
4.0
A
3.1 4
A
)2
4.0
A
219912
2 198
200880
2020
188496
1884
12384
136
Louise divided 192,395 by 23,421. She rounded each number
to three figures and divided again. Her work is shown below.
Are the two results the same to two figures?
First Solution
Second Solution
8.2
8.2
2342 1)19
2 39 5.0
2 3 4)19 2 0.0
187368
1872
50270
480
46842
468
3428
12
In the second solution,
Louise first wrote
V^Vo
=
Wr-
She divided both the numerator and denominator of the first
fraction by what number? Does dividing the numerator and
denominator of a fraction by the same number change the result?
1. Round each number below to three figures. To four.
187,391-52
154,739^78,569
2. Find the results in problem 1 approximate to two figures.
To three figures.
In dividing large numbers, round them to one more figure
than you wish in the result.
Population Problems
ii.<
In each of the following
problems first estimate the result;
then work it out to the desired number of figures. Save time
and work by using round numbers.
1.
The population of the United States from 1890 to 1940
is given below. Find the per cent of increase (nearest tenth of
a per cent) for each ten-year period. How many figures do you
want in your results? How many figures must you use?
During which period did the population increase most rapidly?
Year Population Year Population
1890 62,947,714
1920 105,710,620
1900 75,994,575 1930 122,775,046
1910 91,972,266 1940 131,409,581
2. If the population of the United States continues to in-
crease at the same rate as it did from 1930 to 1940 (prob.
1),
find the probable population in 1950 to the nearest million.
3. The area of the British Isles is 94,284 square miles.
This is .71% of the total area of the British Empire. Find
the area of the British Empire correct to two figures. Be
sure you get the decimal point in the right place.
4. The population of the British Isles is 46,196,945. This
is 9.5% of the population of the British Empire. Find the
population of the British Empire to two figures. Be sure to
get the decimal point in the right place.
5. The number of illiterates (persons unable to read and
write) in the United States and the total population over ten
years of age are given below for 1910, 1920, and 1930.
Year
120
Problem Test
1.
If you know the original price of an article and the per
cent of discount, how do you find the sale price?
2. If you know the original price of an article and the
price at which it was sold during a sale, how would you find
the per cent of discount?
3. If you know the installment
price of an article and the
per cent of discount given for cash, how do you find the cash
price?
4. If you know the installment price and the cash price
of an article, how do you find the per cent of discount allowed
for cash?
5. What do you have to know to find the amount of com-
mission earned by an agent? How would you then find the
commission?
6. What do you have to know to find the per cent of in-
crease? How do you find it?
7. What do you have to know to find the per cent of
decrease? How do you find it?
8. If you know the amount of a merchant's sales during
a year, the amount of his expenses, and the total cost of the
goods sold, how do you find the amount of his profit?
9. Mr. Stover owns a furniture store. Last year his ex-
penses
amounted to 35%
of his sales.
Based on last year's
experience, how could he find the selling price of an article
so that the profit would be 10%
of the selling price?
10. What would you have to know to find what per cent
of the total games played was won by the
Philadelphia
Athletics last season? How would you find this per cent?
11. The population of Detroit in 1940 was 1,623,452.
In
1930, it was 1,568,662.
What was the per cent of increase,
approximate to a tenth of a per cent? How many
figures do
you want in your result? To how many figures
should
you
round the given numbers? Find the
approximate
population
in 1950, if it continues to increase at the same rate.
Diagnostic Tests in Fundamental Processes
i_i
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Work
these examples and check. Work as fasl as you
can
without hurrying.
1. a.
122 Diagnostic Tests. Changing Fractions
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
In working with per cents you have found that it is often
necessary to change per cents to decimals or to common frac-
tions, and to change common fractions and decimals to per cents.
Further practice in making these changes will help you in working
the problems in the rest of this book, and in making a better
score on Improvement Test Number Four.
1. Write the common fraction equal to each of these per cents.
60% 37j% 40%
66f%
30% 62j% 70%
75%
16f%
20% 87|% 10% 25% 80%
2. Write the per cent equal to each of these fractions.
5 7 1
3 4 3.
JL
8 TO 5 8 5 4 2
1 3 1
1
2
i
7
8 TO 4 12 3 6 8
3. Write as whole or mixed numbers (common fractions).
250% 800% 375% 366% 175% 300% 233j%
150% 600% 100% 125% 1000% 525% 116%
4. Write the following per cents as decimals.
23% 318% 7.2% 70% 400%
J%
.7%
21.4% 282% 250% 76.9% 2.8% 4% 279%
5. Write the following decimals as per cents.
.17 .8 .376 .007 .5 .6 3.18
.002 .8562 5.025 2.1 .009 .07 .0593
6. Change these common fractions to per cents.
8 5
2J7. _7_ 3. .18. 138
"25
7 31 20 7 11 257
19 75 25 2 3 5 1 1 15
5~0
29 300 200 1221 13 9
OVERCOMING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Then
turn to the Practice Tests (pages 807 to
80)
for further practice as
suggested below.
1.37 2.-87 3.-38 4.-35
5.

6.

U
DiagnosticTests.ThreeProblemsofPercentage 123
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
1. State a
rule for finding a per
cent of a
number.
2. Find the
following without using pencil or paper.
16%
of 32 200% of 19 150%
of 7
87^%
of 56
3. Estimate, then find the results to the nearest cent.
2.8%
of $85. 10 17% of $9.85 .9%
of $9.25
31.2% of $25.50
232% of $5.15 81.7%
of $12.00
4. State a rule for finding what per cent one number is of
another.
5. Find the following without using pencil or paper.
8 is what %
of 24? What
%
of 16 is 20?
12 is what
%
of 18? What
%
of 9 is 3?
6. Estimate, then find to the nearest tenth of a per cent.
7 is what
%
of 29
9
What
%
of 17 is 13?
41 is what
%
of 35? What
%
of 31 is 150?
7. State a rule for finding the whole when a per cent of it is
known.
8. Find the whole number. Do not use a pencil.
16
% of the number
=
9 250%
o
of the number = 25
66
% of the number
=
48 500%
of the number = 85
9. Estimate the whole number, then find to nearest cent.
7.6%
of the number =$1.17 149.2% of the number = $81.25
85% of the number
=
$19.83 84.7% of the number = $49.50
113% of the number
=
$31.29 5.2% of the number = $8.20
OVERCOMING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study
your
errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Then
turn to the
Practice Tests (pages 307 to
340)
for
further practice as
suggested below.
2.-42 1.42 5.-43 6.-43 8.-43 9.-44
MEASURING YOUR
PROGRESS
Take Improvement Test Number Four. Record your score
on a Score Card in your notebook. Find the class average and
start a graph like the one on page 6.
124
Improvement
Test Number Four
THE
FUNDAMENTALS OF PERCENTAGE
Check each example by going over it a second time before
starting the next. Whenever possible, estimate the result and use
this as an additional check. Time, 12 minutes.
1.
Find 66|%
of
36.
>3/0
5.
Write .876 as a
per cent.
9.
195 is what
per cent of 73?
(Nearest tenth
of a per cent)
13.
Give the
per cent equal
tof.
17.
Write 2.6
as a per cent.
21.
Find 217.3%
of $8.50.
(Nearest cent)
2.
Write 325% as
a common
fraction or
mixed number.
6.
Find the whole
if 75% of it is
27.
10.
Find 76.4%
of $89.25.
(Nearest cent)
14.
12 is what
per cent of 8?
18.
Find the
whole if
37^%
of it is 12.
22.
Write 7.389
as a per cent.
3.
Change
-f-f-
to
a per cent.
(Nearest tenth
of a per cent)
7.
Write 37.9%
as a decimal.
11.
Write 387%
as a decimal.
15.
Write 900%
as a whole or
mixed number.
19.
Write
|
as a per cent.
23.
Write the com-
mon fraction
equal to
62j%.
4.
37 is what per
cent of 89?
(Nearest tenth
of a per cent)
8.
Write the com-
mon fraction
equal to 12j%.
12.
Find the
whole if 7.9%
of it is $5.13.
(Nearest cent)
16.
Write .005
as a per cent.
20.
Write .3%
as a decimal.
24.
24 is what
per cent of 16?
You will take this test again in a few days. If you study and
practice as suggested, you should be able to improve your score.
Chapter Test 125
Write the numbers from 1
to L8 <>n a
paper. After these
numbers
write the words or numbers which belong in the corresponding
blanks below.
1. 39% means 39
0)
2. 72 hundredths can be written in three ways, , and
(2)
,
and
(3) (4)
3. To find any per cent of any number, write the per cent
as a common or decimal fraction, and then
(5)
4. The common fraction equivalent of
37^%
is
(6)
5. The per cent equivalent of -^ is
6. 75% of 24
=
6
(7)
(8)
7. 6 is %of9.
(9)
8. 12 is %of6.
(10)
9. A's population is 450% of B's population. This means
that A's population is times B's population.
(id
10. 25% of a number
=
8. The number is
(12)
11. 300% of a number
=
36. The number is
(13)
12. The decimal equivalent of 87.2% is
(14)
13. The per cent equivalent of 1.793 is
(15)
14. Of the three numbers 37
,
$3.69, and $36.86; 39.7% of
$92.85 is nearest
(16)
15. In finding (to the nearest tenth of a per cent) what per
cent 7,895,971 is of 9,321,456, it is sufficiently accurate to call
the first number and the second number
(17) (18)
(.11 A IT I. R
Using
Arithmetic
in the Mo
me
1
JS Personal Accounts
Dick Cunningham received an allowance of three dollars a
month from his father. His allowance usually was gone
before the end of the month, and he never knew where it
went. One Christmas Dick's father gave him an account
book and suggested that he keep an account of all of the
money he received and spent. Below is his account for the
first month.
I
:

l<?45
Family Accounts 129
Many families keep a cash account. Do you think all
should? Why? Below is Mr. Cunningham's account for May.
JHrt
lJJWI
1. What was "Cash on hand" called in Dick's account?
How is it obtained? Check.
2. Total the "Received" column.
Does the account balance?
The "Paid" column.
3. Compare the form used in this account with the one
Dick used. Which do you like best? Make out Dick's ac-
count on a form like the one above.
130
Problems.
Personal and Family Accounts
1. Rule forms like the one shown on page 129. Make out
the following
accounts and balance each account.
a.
In February Dick received and spent money as follows.
Received: Feb. 1,
cash on hand, $1.20; Feb. 2,
allowance,
$3.00; Feb. 12,
errand, 15^;
Feb. 20, beating rug,
25^;
Feb. 27,
cleaning garden, 25.
Spent: Feb. 3,
knife,
50^;
Feb. 7,
Sunday school, 10^;
Feb. 12, basketball game,
25^;
Feb. 14,
Sunday school, 10*5;
Feb. 15,
movies, 15^;
Feb. 17, war stamps, 50^;
Feb. 21,
Sunday school, 10j;
Feb. 23, ball, 75^;
Feb. 28, Sunday school, 10;
Feb. 29,
movies, 15^,
candy, 10^.
b. During March, Agnes Cunningham received and spent
money as follows. Received: March 1,
cash on hand,
$2.73;
Mar. 5,
allowance, $3.00; Mar. 7,
typewriting,
75^;
Mar. 21, typewriting, $1.25;
Mar. 26,
allowance,
$3.00.
Spent: Mar. 8,
book, 75^;
Mar. 14,
movies, 15^;
Mar. 17, candy, 10;
Mar. 22, war stamps, 50^;
Mar. 24,
ribbon, 30^;
Mar. 28,
pin, 15
2. The amounts received and spent by Mr. Cunningham
during June and July are given below. Make out and balance
his account for each of these months. Rule forms like the
one shown on page 129.
a.
Receipts: June 1,
balance on hand, $21.25; June 1,
salary,
$200.
Expenditures: June 1,
rent, $25.00; June 10,
light,
$3.73,
telephone, $2.00; June 19, suit, $30.00; June 23,
shoes, $5.00; June 28, church, $5.00; June 30,
groceries,
$45.81,
meat, $17.32,
milk, $4.50, dry goods, $4.12,
garage, $12.60, war bonds, $18.75.
b. Receipts: July 1,
salary, $200.00.
Expenditures: July 1,
rent, $25.00; July 10, light, $3.24,
telephone, $2.00;
July 26,
church, $5.00; July 31,
groceries, $32.10; meat,
$15.40,
milk, $4.50,
garage, $17.10,
savings account,
war bond, $37.50. In making out this account do not
forget the balance on hand on July 1
(problem a).
Making a
Personal ltu<l-< I
L3I
After Dick had been keeping an account for several months
he decided that it was not enough to "know where his money
went after it was gone." He decided he would probably get
"more for his money" if he planned ahead for a year. His
father showed him how to make an estimate of his earnings
and expenses for a year. Such an estimate is called a budget.
g&r>^Ct&C
*3/riXLcrmJi-. 4jS
3/r*-o. &&&
36
24
Oo,
oo
6<J
Oo
i&ittsH^ds&f***"^
/O.
/m-o. <<? 41. So
7
5
5
/o
/o
go
%
So
oo
oo
oo
oo
oo
OO
b9
oo
%
U
^j^m g!Hb-^^.^w^>-w^'
s^
iT
~-.^^sj
1. How did Dick find the balance? Check to see if it is
correct. Check the addition of each column. Did Dick add
correctly? Does Dick's budget balance?
2. Why did Dick include savings with estimated expenses?
3. Give as many reasons as you can why you think it is a
good plan to make a budget.
4. The United States government, state governments, and
large business organizations all make yearly budgets. Why?
5. Make a budget of your personal income, expenses, and
savings for a year. Keep a personal account so you won't
spend more than you planned.
132
Making a Family Budget
During one year the Cunningham's income was $2500.
They spent $700 for food; $600 for shelter; $450 for clothing;
$100 for education and recreation; $300 for operating ex-
penses such as fuel, electricity, and telephone; $350 for other
expenses; and saved nothing.
At the end of the year Mr. and Mrs. Cunningham talked
over their financial problems and decided they would have
to make and follow a budget if they wanted to save any money.
Mrs. Cunningham found the table given below in a book
on household management, suggesting how a family of four
might plan their expenditures. She showed it to her husband,
and they studied it carefully.
Making a Family Hu<l^<'t
133
1. What per cent of their income did the Cunninghams
spend for each item? According to the table given on page
132, which items ought they reduce in order to save some-
thing?
2. The Cunninghams decided to try the budget suggested
in the table on page 132, for a yearly income of $2500. Their
expenditures for the first year are given below. Classify
them under the seven headings in the table. Where would
you put money spent for cleaning and pressing clothes? For
Christmas and other gifts? For Dick's and Agnes' allow-
ances? For War Bonds? The Cunninghams put cleaning
and pressing under Clothing, gifts and allowances under
Other Expenses, and bonds under Savings. Why?
Rent $360 Church $24 Fuel $80
Clothes 275 Cleaning and Gas 36
Pressing 65
Meat 100
Savings bank
deposit 25
Magazines 8
Groceries 400
Telephone 24
Education 30
3. What per cent of their total income did the Cunning-
hams spend for each of the seven groups? Find each to the
nearest tenth of a per cent. Do you think they were reason-
ably successful in following their budget?
4. Mr. Cunningham said their rent was rather low because
they lived in a small town. He suggested that the saving in
shelter should be added to their savings. Did they succeed in
doing this?
5. A family budget should be based on the size of tne in-
come as well as the number in the family. As the income
increases, for which items are smaller per cents allowed in
the table on page 132? Which items increase with the income?
Can you explain each of these?
Amusements. . . 47
Life Insurance.
.
67
Gifts 40
Shoes 45
Furniture 50
Milk 75
Doctor, Dentist 80
War Bonds. ...375
Charity 25
Automobile
Expenses. ... 100
Allowances .... 72
Books 12
Electricity 50
Cash on hand
at end of year 35
134
Making
a Family
Budget
1. Agnes found
the table at the
right in a maga-
zine article about
a typical family
consisting of moth-
er, father, and two
sons.
What per
cent of their in-
come do the Jones-
es spend for each
item in the table
on page 132? On
what items are
they spending less
than
suggested?
More? Does it pay
them to own their
home?
How the Joneses
Spend Their
Money
Food $
600
Clothing
200
Boys'
allowances
50
Taxes on home
150
Gas, water, electricity,
telephone 180
Health
50
Life Insurance
150
Recreation
100
Contributions
10
Automobile
150
Newspapers,
magazines, lectures 50
Insurance on home
30
Interest on mortgage on home .
. 60
Maintenance of home
120
Miscellaneous
100
$2000
How Banks
Serve Us
One day Dick went to the bank with his father. On the
way home he asked, "What do banks do for us? Wouldn't
we be just as well off if there were no banks?"
Mr.
Cunningham
explained that banks serve the people
of a
community
in many
important
ways. They receive
money on
deposit for safekeeping.
They pay out the money
you have on deposit by means of checks, or written orders for
payment,
and collect cash for the checks you receive
from
others. This makes it possible for you to make and receive
payments
without
handling the actual money and gives you
a written
record of each transaction.
Banks also lend money for use in business and for other
purposes, and advise their depositors on how to invest
their
money and on other business
questions.
Mr.
Cunningham
said we could not get along without
banks and Dick agreed.
Doiii" Business with a Bank L36
When Mr. Cunningham
decided to open an account with
the bank, he was receiving a salary of $200 a month. As soon
as he received his pay for the month, he deposited it in the
bank for safekeeping and to give him an easy way of paying
his bills. The bank required Mr. Cunningham to give refer-
ences and to leave a copy
of his signature. The bank
then gave him a bank-
book and a checkbook.
DEPOSITED WITH
THE BANK OF WOOD COUNTY
BOWLING GREEN. OHIO
136
Paying a Bill by Check
One of the reasons why Mr. Cunningham deposited his
money in the bank was that it gave him a convenient way
of paying his bills by check. The first bill he paid was for rent.
>/JAXfi or Wooit Cor.xn' (>o.
Ch**-4~CC. V*l*_*_
-<-w,
"^^/feo
" nu.\ns
This check is a written order for the bank to pay to Mr.
J.
H.
Roberts the sum of $25.00 out of the amount deposited
by Mr.
Cunningham. In order that he might have a record
of the way in which he spent his money and of the balance
remaining in the bank, Mr.
Cunningham filled out the stub
as shown. He tore out the check
and gave it to Mr. Roberts
but kept the stub in his checkbook.
*
H
/L*^o^*y
Mr. Roberts then took the
check to the bank to have it
cashed. In order to receive his
money he had to endorse the
check by writing his name across
the back of the left end, as
shown here.
X^^VJXTvTvJV^S
1. Why did the bank require
Mr.
Cunningham to leave a copy of his signature?
2. Why is it better to pay bills by check than by cash?
3. Why did Mr. Roberts endorse the check?
4. When will banks cash checks for strangers? Why?
5. Try to get a copy of a blank check with an attached
stub. The balance in the bank is $312.14. Write a check
for $4.65 and fill in the stub correctly.
Writing and Gashing ChecJ&s 137
1. Mr. Cunningham also
paid these bills by check: W.
O. Cox, groceries, $17.23; Hol-
man's Meat Market, $8.15; P.
A. Allen, milk, $2.40. Write a
check for each. Fill out the
stubs.
2. To pay his grocery bill,
Mr. Allen used the check he
received from Mr. Cunning-
ham. Before giving it to Mr.
Cox, he endorsed it as shown.
Why did he do this instead of
simply writing his name? Can
you find out?
3. On February 10, Mr. Cunningham drew $25 for his
own use. He wrote a check payable to Cash. Write this
check. Such checks are sometimes written to Self.
4. Who cashed the check Mr. Cunningham wrote to
"Cash"? Is it necessary to endorse such checks? Why?
5. Imagine you have a balance of $50 in a bank. Write
a check in payment for a new suit. Fill out the stub.
6. It is against the law to write a check on a bank in
which you have no money, or for more than you have on
deposit. How can you avoid overdrawing your account?
7. Mr. Smith expected to be away from home for a week.
Before leaving he signed his name to a blank check and told
his wife to fill it out for any amount she might need. Is it
safe to sign one's name to a blank check? Why? Would it
have been safer if he had made the check payable to Mrs.
Smith and left the amount blank?
8. Is it safe to write a check in pencil? Why?
9. Will a bank cash a check drawn on another bank? How
does it get the money? Appoint a member of the class to
find out and make a report.
138
Merchants' Bills and Statements
Most of the merchants with whom Mr. Cunningham dealt
mailed him a bill, or a statement of the amount he owed, on
the first of each month. On April 1,
he received the statement
shown.
MONTHLY STATEMENT
Receipts
139
One month Mr. Cunningham paid his rent in cash. He
asked Mr.
J.
H. Roberts, the landlord, to give him a receipt.
The receipt is shown below.
[Ai/r//Y//f/'<M ob. Jj.
Gu^n^iJi-ria'h'tzmT/
Instead of writing a separate receipt, merchants often
write or stamp "PAID" at the bottom of their bill, with the
date and initials of some representative of the firm.
If Mr. Cunningham
had paid his rent by check, he would
not have asked Mr. Roberts for a receipt. The cancelled
check, when returned to Mr. Cunningham by his bank, would
have been evidence that he had paid his rent. Do you see
why this is true? This is one reason why the bank required
Mr. Roberts to endorse the check.
1. Many people pay all bills only by check. Why?
2. Is it necessary to ask for a receipt at a drugstore if
you pay cash at the time the purchases are made? Why?
3. On October 1,
19, Mr. M. E. Moss paid Mrs. C. A.
Owens $4.50 for garage rent for the month of October. Make
out a receipt.
4. On June 3,
19, Mr. T. O. Mclntyre paid Marion
Wells $7.25 for dressmaking. Write a receipt.
5. On September 5,
19, Mrs. Cox asked George Stevens
to pay a bill for her, amounting to $4.65. George wished to
give Mrs. Cox a receipt. What should he do?
140 Postal Money Orders
Mr. Cunningham paid most of his out-of-town bills by-
mailing a check. Often, when he was not well known to the
person or firm he owed, he would mail a postal money order.
The post office charges a small fee for money orders,
depending upon the amount. The fees are given on the back
of the application blank.
Fees for Postal Money Orders
From $
0.01 to $ 2.50 6 cents
From 2.51 to 5.00
From 5.01 to 10.00
From
From
From
From
From
10.01 to
20.01 to
40.01 to
60.01 to
80.01 to
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
8 cents
11 cents
13 cents
15 cents
18 cents
20 cents
22 cents
1. On April 26, 1944, Mr. Cunningham sent a postal money
order for $4.75 to Morrison Book Company, Chicago, Illinois,
to pay for some books. He bought the money order at his
post office. How much did it cost, including fees?
2. What did Mr. Cunningham do with the order after
buying it at the post office?
3. In what way could the Morrison Book Company get
its money after the money order was received?
4. You must fill out an application blank when buying
a postal money order. Have some member of the class get a
sample blank from your post office. Show how you would fill
out the application for Mr. Cunningham's money order.
5. Find cost, including fees, of money orders for the fol-
lowing amounts: $17.25, $81.36, $25, $.72.
6. Dick Cunningham bought a model airplane outfit by
mail for $4.75. In payment he sent a postal money order.
What did the order cost? What was the total cost of the
airplane outfit, including the money order?
BanU Drafts, Express, and Telegraph Money 141
< Orders
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,
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u-Third Union TRt;sr Co
'
/y An \,\ ^ >
On April 12, 1942, Mr. Cunningham wished to pay a bill
of $54 which he owed The Winslow Company of Cincinnati.
He sent them a bank draft, which he secured from his local
bank. A draft is a check written by one bank on another.
1. Study the bank draft above, and answer these questions.
a. Who signed the draft?
b. On what bank was the draft made, or to whom was
it addressed?
c. To whom was the draft made payable?
d. The bank charged
yq%
of the amount of the draft as
a fee. Mr. Cunningham paid the banker by check. Write
a check exactly like Mr. Cunningham's.
e. Mr. Cunningham mailed the draft to The Winslow
Company. How should the company obtain payment in
money?
f. To whom should the Fifth-Third Union Trust Co.
look for payment after it has cashed the draft?
2. Find the cost of bank drafts, including fee at
yo%,
for
the following amounts: $139.50, $89.17, $937, $2500.
3. Express money orders are similar to postal money
orders. Where may they be bought?
4. Money may be sent quickly by telegraph. Have some
member of vour class find out how this is done and report.
142 Buying in Larger Quantities
Mrs. Cunningham decided that her groceries were costing
too much. She had a talk with her grocer and he suggested
that she save money by buying in larger quantities. He took
her around the store and gave her comparative prices on
small and large amounts. She made a list of some of the
things on which she might save.
Mrs. Cunningham's Grocery List
Small Larger
Article Amount Price Amount Price
Breakfast food. . . . 8 oz. package . . . 10^ 13 oz. package .... 13 ji
Cocoa
\
lb. package . . . lb{. 1 lb. package 25j
Soap flakes 5 oz. package . . . 10^ 1 lb. package 25^
Soap 2\
oz. bar hi 8 oz. bar 10^
Canned soup 1 can 10^ 12 cans $1.05
Canned pears 1 can 25j* 12 cans $2.65
When she returned home, Mrs. Cunningham figured the
per cent she could save by buying the larger quantity of each
of the articles she had priced. She did this first for the break-
fast food. Her solution is shown below.
a.
^
=
1^
an ounce, d.
x-li-
=
i--f
=
i
=
20%
b.
\%
=
l<t
an ounce e. 20% of higher price saved.
c. Saving
=
\
an ounce.
1. Why can manufacturers and merchants afford to sell
larger quantities at a cheaper rate than smaller quantities?
2. What per cent of the total price, figured at the higher
rate, could Mrs. Cunningham save by buying the larger
amount of each of the articles she priced?
3. On which article on the grocery list was there the larger
per cent of saving?
4. Mrs. Cunningham bought a case (24 cans) of canned
peaches for $8.00. What per cent of the higher price did she
save if the peaches sold for 35^ a can?
Buying in Larger Quantities
After leaving the grocery store, Mrs. Cunningham
asked
Mr. Durham, the druggist, if she could save money on drugs
and toilet articles by buying larger packages. Mr. Durham
suggested several articles on which she could save money,
and Mrs. Cunningham made another list.
j
1
Buying at Sales
One January
afternoon Mrs. Anderson, a neighbor, told
Mrs.
Cunningham
about a coat which she had just bought
at a sale for $25,
and for which the store asked $40 before
Christmas.
What per cent did Mrs. Anderson save on the
coat?
Mrs.
Cunningham said that she did not believe in sales,
that stores first marked up the prices and then marked them
down again for the sale. Mrs. Anderson was sure that this
was not true of the coat she had bought. She had priced it
herself several weeks before, when it was marked $40.
That evening Mrs. Cunningham asked her husband about
sales. He gave her several reasons why stores find it a good
policy to hold sales.
Many kinds of goods are sold only during certain seasons
of the year. Mrs. Anderson's coat belonged to this class. It
is usually poor business to keep seasonal goods from one year
to the next, so most merchants hold sales at the end of the
season. They are glad to sell such goods at a lower price in
order that they may use the money to buy other goods that
can be sold at a profit within a shorter time.
Sales are also held to get rid of goods that are shopworn,
or that may go out of style, or that are not selling well. Some
merchants hold sales for advertising
purposes. The purpose
of these sales is to gain new customers.
144
Buying al Sal<\s I r>
1
.
Write a list of all the reasons Mr. Cunningham gave for
holding sales. Can you give an illustration of each?
2. What other reasons can you think of for holding sales?
Ask your parents and some of your local merchants. Make
a list of as many reasons as you can find.
3. Bring to class as many sales advertisements as you
can find. Does each advertisement give the reason for hold-
ing the sale? Does the reason seem to be a good one?
4. Mrs. Cunningham read an advertisement offering
POSITIVE SAVINGS OF 25% TO 50% on all women's
wearing apparel. The following items were included in the
advertisement.
$ 39.50 coats reduced to $29.75
49.50
How Gas Is Measured
The
Cunninghams used gas for cooking. One month Mrs.
Cunningham
thought her bill was too high. She knew that
the gas meter measured
the amount of gas that they had
burned, but she did not know how to read this meter. Dick
offered to show her.
Dick
explained to his mother that a gas meter records the
number of cubic feet of gas that passes through it.
There are three dials. The right-hand
dial reads in hundreds.
When the needle on this dial has made one complete revolu-
tion, 10 hundred or 1000 cubic feet of gas has passed through
the meter. For this reason
this dial is usually
marked
"1
thousand."
The center
dial reads in thousands and the left-
hand dial in ten thousands.
Dick
explained that in reading
the left-hand dial and the center dial you must always take
the last figure that the needle has passed, but in reading the
right-hand dial you must take the figure that is nearest to the
needle.
1. In what unit does the
right-hand
dial read? Why is it
marked
"1
thousand"?
Answer the same
questions for each
of the other dials.
2. On some
meters the three dials are
marked
10,000's;
1000's; and 100's. Can you explain why this is done?
3. After Dick finished
his
explanation,
Mrs.
Cunningham
read the meter. She read it 49,500
cubic feet. Did she read
it correctly?
146
Problems. Reading the (ias Meter 147
1. Read the following meters:
a
b.
2. Draw meter dials showing the following readings:
13,600 cubic feet 6,900 cubic feet
47,000 cubic feet 20,800 cubic feet
3. A gas meter is always read to the nearest hundred cubic
feet. Do you see why, in reading the right-hand dial, you
take the number nearest the needle?
4. Why do you read the smaller number instead of the
nearer number on the other dials? If you had read meters
b and d in problem 1 to the nearer figure on each dial, what
would the readings have been? Why?
5. If there is a gas meter in your home, make a drawing
showing the position of the hands on the dials. Read it.
6. Most gas meters have a small dial marked
"Two Feet," or "Five Feet." This is used to test
the meter and to detect leaks. What does it mean
if this hand moves when all the gas outlets in
the house are turned off?
THE
OHIO FUEL GAS COMPANY
SEE REVERSE SIDE FOR OFFICE ADDRESS
OFFICt HOURS: (40 A. M. TO 1)00 P. M.
tAIURDAY TO I* NOON
METW RCADINO OATK
Jan. 18, 19U
THE OHIO FUEL GAS COMPANY
LAST DAY TO PAY NET AMOUNT
GAS USED
HUNOPLUS
CU. FT.
396 37
2.98 2.84
Feb. 8
Problems. Figuring Gas
Hills i ft
1. Read the following
meter and find how many cubic feet
of gas were consumed during May.
Reading May 1 Reading June 1
2. Find the amount of the bill in problem
1,
using the rates
given on page 148.
3. One of the Cunningham's neighbors had a gas furnace.
One winter month they burned 26,400 cu. ft. Find the net
and gross amount of their bill, using the rates on page 148.
4. Mrs. Cunningham burned natural gas which is obtained
from wells. In many parts of the country there is no natural
gas, so that all the gas used must be manufactured. The rates
for manufactured gas are usually considerably higher than
for natural gas. Find the amount of the bill in problem 1,
using the rates given below.
Service charge per month $ .50
First 1,000 cu. ft. per month 1.20 per thousand
Next 4,000 cu. ft. per month 1.15 per thousand
Next 15,000 cu. ft. per month 1.00 per thousand
Over 20,000 cu. ft. per month 85 per thousand
Discount for prompt payment.
5^
per 1000 cubic feet
5. If there is a gas company in your community, secure a
copy of their rates and figure the amount of the bill in problem
1 according to these rates.
6. If possible, bring to class copies of gas bills and verify
the amounts.
150
How
Electricity Is Measured
KILOWATT
HOURS
The
Cunninghams
used electricity in their home. Electric
current is measured in kilowatt hours. A kilowatt hour (or 1000
watts for one hour) is the amount of electrical energy that is
needed to run ten 100-watt lamps for one hour, or one
100-
watt lamp for ten hours.
Kilowatt hour means 1000 watts for
one hour.
Dick also showed his mother how to read an electric meter.
It is read just like a gas meter, except it has four dials instead
of three. The right-hand dial reads in kilowatt hours, the next
in 10 kilowatt hours, the next in 100 kilowatt hours, and the
left-hand
dial in 1000 kilowatt hours. On the right-hand dial
the figure nearest the needle is read. On the others the last
figure the needle passed is read. Why?
1. The dials of the Cunningham's
meter are shown above.
Mrs. Cunningham read them 857 kilowatt
hours.
Did she
read the meter correctly?
2. Read the following
meter:
KILOWATT
HOURS
3. If there is an electric meter in your home,
make a draw-
ing showing the position of the hands.
Read the meter.
ill ron rut mo H M K
'
t or nmvi.iNo green. 01110 pn.
;tric department
omn noma
30A. MTO500PM.
L. D. CUNNINGHAM
310 N. MAIN BT
BOWLING GREKN, OHIO
o, ... i.ocK~n
887 0
3.19
fu'lV' *"h."i'
01
r'otneV
MAKE CHECKS PATABLE TO
bffi SIlfUu
l
M
b
11
p
tJ; "OTi 0F BOWUNC GREEN. OHIO"
brim; THIS BILL A.VD ATTACHED STVB WHEN MAKLNO SETTLEMENT AT OCK OfTlCE
III. .1 nil
July 1
July 10
!.A<T DAT TO TAT HET AMOrWT
3-04
BALMKMVVm
rieu* EnctoM Slab Win BonllUim
Figuring the Cost of Electricity
When she received the electric light bill for June, Mrs.
Cunningham asked Dick to verify it and make sure it was
correct. The bill showed that the meter read 887 kilowatt
hours on June 1 and 931 kilowatt hours on July 1.
The amount of the bill was $3.04. Dick obtained the follow-
ing schedule of rates from the company.
7^ a kilowatt hour for the first 40 kilowatt hours per month
6
(if a kilowatt hour for the next 40 kilowatt hours per month
3jt
a kilowatt hour for all additional per month
Minimum charge $1.00. Penalty of
5%
of net amount if
not paid by date due.
1. Dick figured the bill as follows:
First 40 kilowatt hours $2.80
Next 4 kilowatt hours
.24
Net Bill $3.04
Penalty
.15
Gross Bill $3.19
Check Dick's figures. Explain each step. Was the bill
correct?
2. Figure the bill in problem 1 on the basis of rates charged
by
your local electric company.
3. Secure a copy of an old electric light bill and take it to
class. Compare the bill with the one at the top of this page.
Use the solution in problem 1 and the rates in your city to
check the correctness of the bill.
151
152
The Cost of Electric Lights
Dick Cunningham left two 40-watt lamps burning all
night in the cellar. When his mother discovered this the next
morning, she told him that if he had to pay for the current
out of his allowance, he would not be so forgetful. Dick
promised to be more careful. He wondered how much the
light cost and figured it out as follows:
80 watts for 12 hours =960 watts for one hour
960 watts for one hour
=
.96 kilowatt hours (1
kilowatt hour
=
1000 watts for one hour)
.96X7^
=
7^
(to the nearest cent)
Dick showed his mother his work and offered to pay her
7i,
but she would not accept the money.
1. Mr. Cunningham liked to light the whole house every
night. Dick made a list of all the lamps and the number of
watts each used. He found the number of watts printed on
the end of each lamp. He then figured the cost of lighting the
whole house for three hours each night. Can you find out how
much it cost for one night, at 7j a kilowatt? What did it cost
for a month of 30 days?
Room
Problems. Using Electricity in the Home
1. On the back of their radio, Dick found the statement
that it used 125 watts an hour. He estimated that the radio
was in use about 70 hours a month. Find the cost of operating
the radio for one month at
li
a kilowatt hour.
2. Dick found that their refrigerator used 300 watts an hour.
The motor ran about 6 hours a day. What was the cost of
operating it for one day at 7^
a kilowatt hour?
3. Before buying an electric refrigerator, the Cunninghams
bought 50 pounds of ice a day at 60^ a hundred pounds.
Which cost more to operate, the ice or the electric refrigera-
tor? How much more?
4. Find the cost of operating each of the following for
one hour, at 1$, a kilowatt hour.
Watts Used Watts Used
Appliance per hour Appliance per hour
Iron 600 Small fan 40
Vacuum cleaner .... 150
Waffle iron 500
Washing machine. . . 200 Dishwasher 175
Electric toaster 550 Heating pad 50
Sewing machine. ... 75 Electric pump 160
5. Make a list of the electrical appliances used in your
home and the amount of current each uses. Find the cost of
operating each at the rate charged by your local company.
153
DICK
CHECKS THE WATER
BILL
The
Cunninghams
received their water bill every month.
Dick tried to check the bill. He found that the water meter
had six dials as shown above and that it was read just like a
gas meter.
Dick read the meter 2,749 cubic feet. He did not read the
dial marked "One Foot" as this is used only to detect leaks.
One complete
revolution of the bottom dial means that 10
cubic feet of water has passed through the meter, so each
space on this dial equals 1 cubic foot. In the same way, each
space on the dial marked 100 equals 10
cubic feet.
1. Did Dick read the meter correctly?
2. The bill showed that the previous reading of the meter
was 1,818 cubic feet. How many cubic feet had they used
since the previous reading?
3. The rate was 25^ for 1000 gallons. One cubic foot is
equal to approximately
1\
gallons. Find the amount of the
bill.
4. In some
communities
water is charged for by the cubic
foot, instead of by the gallon. What
would be the cost ot
2700 cubic feet at $1.50
per 1000
cubic feet?
154
Problems. The Cost of
Water
1 55
1. The diagrams below show the reading
of a water meter
on May 1 and on June 1. Find the cost of water for May at
the rate of
25^
per 1000 gallons.
^
ou
^,
2. Water rates differ in different communities. What
would be the cost of 3,400 cubic feet if the rate is 30^
for the
first 1000 gallons, 20^ for the second 1000 gallons, and 15
for each 1000 gallons after that?
3. Figure the amount of the bill in problem 1,
using the
rates given in problem 2.
4. In some communities water is not measured by meters,
but the user pays a flat rate, that is, a fixed amount for each
outlet for water. Find out how water is sold in your com-
munity. Figure the bill in problem 1, using your local rates.
5. Which is cheaper,
25^
per 1000 gallons, or $1.50 per
1000 cubic feet?
6. Secure several old water bills and check them.
156
Interest and Amount for One Year
Mr. Cunningham loaned $2000 to Mr. E. R. Sanders, a
farmer, who agreed to pay it back at the end of three years.
Mr. Sanders agreed to pay interest at the rate of
6%
a year.
This means that, for each year's use of the money, he promised
to pay 6%
of $2000, or $120. Mr. Sanders had to pay for the
use of Mr. Cunningham's money just as he would pay rent
for the use of a house.
The $2000 which Mr. Sanders borrowed is called the prin-
cipal; the $120 which he pays for the use of it is the interest;
and 6%
is the rate of interest. At the end of the first year
Mr. Sanders pays Mr. Cunningham $120 interest. At the
end of the second year he again pays $120. At the end of the
third year he must pay $120 interest and $2000 principal, or
a total of $2120. The interest plus the principal is called the
amount.
1. You can sometimes shorten your work by using can-
cellation. Study the two solutions below for finding the in-
terest for 1 year on $900 at 7%.
Which do you prefer?
First Solution
Second Solution
$900
9
.0 7 Interest
=
^r
x^=
$63
$ 6 3.0
2. Find the interest for 1 year, to the nearest cent:
$500 at
4%
$930 at
7%
$3000 at
7%
$275 at
7%
$890.75 at
3j%
$3187 at
6j%
$387 at
4|%
$132.25 at 6%,
$5864 at
4%
3. Mrs. Cunningham inherited $3500 which she loaned to
J.
C. Smith for five years at 5%
interest. How much interest
was due each year? How much would the interest have been
if it had not been paid until the end of the five years?
Interest for 1 year
= Principal multiplied by Rate
Amount
=
Principal +Interest
Promissory Notes lf)7
>A6*je>0_
,
_ &<**~_!*-p//__qjz_ GEEARS
f ynW^
, v4^i<^-
/
Ota*
ppfttr mtint/ fourt
tfA
'protrss andtwt/kss aj
__ Jiereiyaultiorty am/jVtornrt/ atIan' /u appearmany fourt qf/iccord in the United Stat a/ter the ahotv
l^*it odligahon tieromes dueami naive tne Issuing andservice efpmxrss andtan/ess aJudgmmiapainstJJO^J^r injhiorof
rfsuit/fihi therrih&n lo releast ait errors and wa/ve ait
the holder hereof.[for tne amount then appearingdue, together
rightufappeai.
7h
When Mr. Sanders borrowed the $2000, he gave Mr.
Cunningham the promissory note shown above. A promissory
note is simply a written promise to pay a given amount, at a
given time and place, with or without interest.
The individual who promises to pay the money is called the
maker of the note. The one to whom the money is to be paid
is the payee. The amount borrowed is the face of the note.
1. Name the maker of the above note; the payee; the face.
2. The maker of a note may not agree to pay interest.
Such a note is called a noninterest-bearing note. Is the note
above interest bearing, or noninterest bearing?
3. Write the following notes. Use fictitious names and
write "Sample" across each note so that your copy cannot
by used by anyone for collection on the note.
Face
Time Rate of Interest
$2500
158 The Interest Formula. Time in
Years and Months
When money is borrowed for several years, the interest is
usually paid at the end of each year. Sometimes it is not paid
until the principal is due. If Mr. Cunningham had agreed
to wait for his interest until the end of 3 years (page 156),
how much interest would Mr. Sanders have had to pay? The
interest for 3 years would be how many times as much as the
interest for one year?
Dick wrote the rule below:
Interest
=
principal
X
rate X
time. Mr. Cunningham sug-
gested that Dick's rule could be stated in shorter form by
using i for interest,
p
for principal, r for rate, and t for time.
Dick wrote i=pXrXt.
An abbreviated rule, written as an equation, using letters
and mathematical signs instead of words, is called a formula.
In writing formulas, the multiplication sign is usually omitted
between letters. Thus the interest formula is usually written
i=prt. Can you write a formula for the amount? Can the
sign for addition be omitted? Why not?
1. Dick found the interest Mr. Sanders would have to pay
20 at the end of three years as shown
* =,2000X^X3
=
$360 at the left. Check and explain.
2. If Mr. Sanders wishes to repay Mr. Cunningham at
10 the end of 9 months, how much in-
JX3
terest will he owe? Dick's solution
i
=^06CXj^X4^=$90
is shown at the left. Check and ex-
*
plain. Why did Dick change 9
months to
-^
year?
3. In using the interest formula given below, the time
must be expressed as years or part of a year. Why?
Interest formulas:
i=prt a=p+i
The
Interest Formula.
Time in L59
Years and
Months
1.
Find the interest and amount, to the nearest cent:
Principal Rate Time
Principal Rate Time
a. $800 5% 2 years d. $2750 4% 9
months
b. $875 6%
3 years e. $480 5% 1
year 3
months
c. $72.50 7%
4 months f. $257 7% 2
years 6
months
Time in Days
One day Dick asked his father, "How do banks earn money?
What do they do with the money that is deposited with them
for safekeeping?"
Can you answer Dick's questions?
Banks lend money and charge interest. On small loans the
time is usually 30, 60, or 90 days. The banks count 360 days
to the year and express the number of days as a fraction of
a year. 30 days
=
^o
year^
year.
Express 60 days as a fractional
part of a year; also 90
days.
Count 360 days to the year.
Banks count 360 days to the
year, instead of 365, because it is more
convenient in figuring
interest for 30, 60, or 90 days. Can you show why this is true?
2. Find the interest on $300 for 90
days at 5%.
Check
3
and explain each step in
i=3<&X^xMr=
1
*
L
=
3- 75 the solution at the left'
4
3. Find the
interest, to the nearest cent.
Principal
Rate
Time
$125 7%
60 days
$850 5%
90
days
$1200 4%
30
days
$925 7%
120 days
4. Banks usually collect
interest in advance.
Mr. James
gave his bank his note for $500
payable in 90
days. The bank
deducted 6%
from the amount they gave him. How much
was the interest? How much did Mr. James
receive?
How
much did he have to pay the bank at the end of 90
days?
5. How much would the borrower
receive in each part of
problem 3 if the interest is deducted in
advance?
How much
would he pay back?
Opening a Savings Account
At Christmas Agnes received $10 from her grandmother.
Agnes also had money in a toy bank. Her father suggested
that she deposit all of it in a savings bank so that it would
earn more money for her by drawing interest. He took her
to the bank and helped her open a savings account.
The banker told Agnes they would pay interest at 2% a
year, and that this interest would be added to her account
every six months, on January 1 and July 1, and would draw
interest from that time.
1. Agnes asked her father if he had a savings account at the
bank. He replied that he had two accounts, a checking ac-
count and a savings account. Explain the difference.
2. Mr. Cunningham received no interest on his checking
account. Can you explain why banks pay interest on savings
accounts but not on checking accounts?
3. Some banks charge small fees for checking accounts.
Why do they do this? Appoint a classmate to find out what
fees your local banks charge on checking accounts.
4. Mr. Cunningham told Agnes that the rate paid on
savings varies from
3%
to
\\%.
He also said that some
banks compute the interest annually, some semiannually, and
others quarterly. Explain.
5. How often did Agnes's bank compute the interest?
160
Finding
Interest on Savings Accounts L61
1. Agnes opened her savings account on December 31.
She deposited $75. If Agnes made no more deposits and the
rate of interest was
2%
per annum, how much interest should
the bank add to her account on July 1?
2. Savings banks pay no interest on parts of a dollar. On
what principal did Agnes draw interest for the second six
months if she made no more deposits? What was the interest
for this period?
3. How much did Agnes have in the bank at the end of
three years if she made no more deposits?
4. A few years ago Mr. Dunlop deposited $500 in a sav-
ings bank paying 3%
interest, computed annually. How much
did this
amount to at the end of three years?
5. Mr. Brown deposited $500 in a savings bank paying
3%
interest,
computed
semiannually. How much did this
amount to at the end of three years?
6. Mr. Kennedy
deposited $500 in a savings bank paying
3%
interest,
computed
quarterly. How much did this amount
to at the end of three years?
7. Did Mr. Dunlop or Mr. Brown have more in the bank
at the end of three years? Why? Did Mr. Brown or Mr.
Kennedy
have more? Why?
8. What rate of interest do your local banks pay? Do
they
compute the interest annually, semiannually, or quar-
terly?
9.
How much would Agnes have had at the end of three
years if she had deposited her $75
(problem
1)
in one of
your local banks?
10. June
Norton's
grandfather gives her $50
every Christ-
mas. June
deposits this in a savings bank paying
2%
interest,
computed
semiannually. How much will June
have in the
bank at the end of 3 years? At the end of 5
years?
11. Do you have a savings account? How many reasons
can you give in favor of having such an account?
162 Postal Savings Accounts
Dick Cunningham had also saved some money. He decided
to put it to work by depositing it in the Postal Savings Sys-
tem. Dick went to the post office for information. The post-
master stated that the rules are as follows:
a. Any person, ten years old or over, may open an account.
b. He may make deposits at any time by buying postal
savings certificates. These are issued for amounts of
$1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $200,
and $500.
c. Interest at the rate of 2% a year is computed starting
on the first day of the month following the month in
which the deposit is made. Unless called for earlier, this
interest is paid when the money is withdrawn.
d. Interest is not paid on any fraction of a year.
e. Money may be withdrawn at any time.
f. The deposits of any one person may not exceed $2500.
1. The purchase of postal savings certificates is one of
the safest ways of putting money to work. Why?
2. Why are the deposits of any one person limited to $2500?
See if you can find out if you do not know.
3. Dick bought a $50 certificate. He drew out his money
at the end of three years. How much did he receive?
4. How much would Dick have had at the end of three
years if he had deposited the $50 in the savings bank, with
interest at 2%,
computed semiannually? How much more
is this than the amount he received for his postal savings cer-
tificate?
5. How much would Dick have received for his postal sav-
ings
certificate if he had not withdrawn his money until the
end of five years? How much would he have received if he
had deposited his money in the savings bank for the same
time?
6. Dick and Agnes talked over the merits of savings ac-
counts and postal savings certificates. Give the chief advan-
tages and disadvantages of each.
MRS.
CUNNINGHAM
BUYS A WAR BOND
United States Savings Bonds were first placed on sale by
the
government on May 1,
1935. By April
30, 1941, more
than two and a half million Americans had invested their
savings in almost four million dollars worth of these bonds.
This is the largest
amount ever invested in a single security.
During
World War II, the name of these bonds was changed
to United States War Savings Bonds. Mrs. Cunningham
decided to buy some of these war bonds. She gave two reasons.
"My
money will be safe because the credit of the United
States is pledged for payment of both principal and interest,
and my money will be working in the national defense pro-
gram to protect the freedom and safety of the United States."
Do you think her reasons were good?
War Bonds, Series E, are dated the first of the month in
which purchased, and are
repayable by the government at the
end of 10 years. They may be purchased in five denomina-
tions, as shown below.
Issue Price
Maturity Value
$
18.75 will increase in 10 years to
$
25.00
37.50 will increase in 10 years to 50.00
75.00 will increase in 10 years to 100.00
375.00 will increase in 10 years to 500.00
750.00 will increase in 10 years to 1000.00
1. What is meant by maturity value?
2. Mrs.
Cunningham first bought a $100 bond (maturity
value). How much did she pay for it? How much will the
government pay her for the bond at the end of ten years?
3. Dick bought a $25.00 bond. How much did he pay?
How much will he receive at the end of 10 years?
4. Agnes did not have enough money to buy a bond, so
she bought War Savings Stamps. Find out about these.
163
; -',4i
THE CUNNINGHAMS BUY A HOME
The Cunninghams bought a house for $7500. Mr. Burch,
the owner, agreed to take $3000 in cash and the balance in
monthly installments of $60 a month. In this way the Cun-
ninghams could pay for the house like paying rent.
Mr. Cunningham gave Mr. Burch a mortgage for the balance
of $4500 and agreed to pay
6%
interest on the unpaid balance.
This mortgage gave Mr. Burch the right to sell the house,
if Mr. Cunningham failed to pay, and to pay himself out of
the money received from the sale.
1. Secure a blank mortgage form and bring it to school.
Study it carefully and be ready to explain.
2. Part of the $60 Mr. Cunningham pays each month goes
to pay the interest; the rest is used to reduce the amount
owed. Find the interest on $4500 at 6%
for one month.
3. How much of the $60 paid the first month was needed
for interest? How much was deducted from the amount
owed? How much did Mr. Cunningham still owe?
164
Problems. Buying a Home L66
4. On what principal did Mr. Cunningham have to pay
interest for the second month? (Use your results for problem
3 on page 164.) How much of the $60 payment went to pay
interest? How much to reduce the principal? How much did
he still owe?
5. Make a table like the one below for four months. Com-
pute the interest for each month to the nearest cent. Fill
each blank as you proceed. What is the amount of the debt
after the payment at the end of the third month?
Total Reduction on
Month Principal Payment Interest Principal
1 $4500 $60
2 $60
3
$60
4 $60
6. Before deciding on the plan for making payments, Mr.
Cunningham had gone to his bank. They agreed to loan
him $4500, at 6%
interest, if he would pay $40 on the principal
each month and pay interest monthly on the remaining debt.
The table below shows how the bankers' plan works. Copy
the table and fill each blank.
Month
\0
~~"
>
ft
DICK LENDS MONEY TO HIS CLUB
Dick's club needed $10 to help buy baseball uniforms.
They told Dick that if he would lend them $10 they would
pay him $11 at the end of a year. Dick wanted to know what
rate of interest he would be getting. Do you know?
Dick's father helped him. He explained that, since Dick
would get $1 interest on $10 for one year, his interest would
be <$,
or 10% of the principal. Dick wrote the rule at the
bottom of the page. Is it correct?
1. Find the rate of interest on each of the following.
Principal Interest for 1 Year
a. $ 750 $
45
b. 800 56
c. 1000 90
d. 420 23.10
e. 1200 144
f. 3500 297.50
2. Dick's club repaid his loan at the end of six months.
They offered to pay $11 but Dick said that wouldn't be fair.
One dollar for the use of $10 for six months would be at the
rate of $2 for the year. 2-r-10=
T
2
o=20%.
Dick accepted
$10.50. What rate of interest did he receive?
To find the rate of interest, divide the interest for one
year by the principal.
i
r
=

P
166
Problems. Finding the Kale of Interest L67
I. Find the rate of interest on each of the following:
Amount Borrowed
Buying on the Installment Plan
Mr. Cunningham needed an automobile. The car he
wanted cost $1200 and Mr. Riggs, the dealer, offered him
$400 for his old car. Mr.
Cash price $1200
Cunningham had only $200
Down payment and
cash to pay on the car so
allowance
600
Mr Riggs explained how he
d balance
^
could pay he balance in 12
c { ch 36
equal monthly installments.
"qTQ
The carrying charge would be
^
otal
*
b3b
only 6%
of the unpaid bal- T^. =
$53 monthly payment
ance. Mr. Riggs figured the
12
monthly payments, as shown above. Explain each step.
Mr. Cunningham figured the rate of interest he would be
paying. He would owe the dealer $600 during the first month,
$547 during the second, and so on, the amount decreasing by
$53 each month. He totaled all these amounts and found
he would owe the dealer the equivalent of $3702 for one month.
$36 for the use of $3702 for one month is at the rate of
$432 for the year. 432-T-3702
=
.117
=
11.7%.
Mr. Cunning-
ham decided he would be paying 11.7% interest.
1. Check each step in Mr. Cunningham's figuring. Do
you understand?
2. Is a carrying charge of 6%
on the unpaid balance the
same as 6%
interest? Why? Did Mr. Cunningham owe the
full amount of the unpaid balance for a year? Why not?
3. Mr. Cunningham decided to buy the car as he needed
it immediately in his business. Do you think he was justified?
168
IS
BUYING ON
INSTALLMENT
EVER A GOOD PLAN?
1. The
Cunninghams had a long discussion about install-
ment
buying. Agnes and Dick drew up the following rules.
Do you think they are good ones? Would you add others?
a. Do not buy any article on the installment plan if you
can wait until you have saved enough to pay cash.
b. Be sure you can meet the payments when due.
c. Don't pay too high a rate of interest.
d. Don't buy luxuries you could do without.
2. Agnes Cunningham
became interested in buying on
payments and obtained cash and installment prices on various
articles from local merchants. She found that she could buy
a radio for $50 cash, or for $10 down and $7
a month for six
months. Find the rate of interest.
3. An electric refrigerator sold for $250
cash, or $55
down
and $35 a month for six months. Find the rate of interest.
4. A piano sold for $350 cash, or $75
down and $25
a
month for twelve months. Find the rate of interest.
5. A watch sold for $25 cash, or $1
down and a dollar a
week for 30 weeks. Find the rate of interest.
6. If possible, obtain cash and
installment
prices from
local dealers and figure the rate of interest.
169
170 The Cost of Running an Automobile
1. Mr. Cunningham paid $1250 for his automobile. The
first year he had it he kept an accurate account of all the
operating expenses, as shown below. Find his total operating
expenses for one year.
Gasoline $162.72 Insurance
$52.25
Oil
27.30 Repairs 35.10
License 10.00 Miscellaneous. . . 17.30
2. At the end of the year, Mr. Cunningham
estimated
that his car was worth only $900. He called the difference
between the cost of the car and the value at the end of the
year, depreciation. Find the amount of depreciation for the
year.
3. He figured that if he had not bought the car he could
have loaned the money and received interest on it. Find
how much interest he lost if he could have loaned the money
at
6%. He called this the interest on his investment.
4. To find the total cost of the automobile for one year,
Mr. Cunningham added the operating expenses, depreciation,
and interest on his investment. Find the total cost.
5. The Cunninghams drove their car 11,900 miles during
the year. Find, to the nearest tenth of a cent, the total cost
per mile.
6. Operating expenses were what per cent of the total
expenses? Find to nearest tenth of a per cent.
7. Sometimes Mr. Cunningham drove his own car while
engaged on business for the company for which he worked.
The company paid him
6 for every mile he drove on com-
pany business. Did he make or lose money? How much did
this amount to if he drove 2750 miles on company business?
8. Mr. Simmons paid $1400 for his car, drove it 40,000
miles and sold it at the end of two years for $600. His operat-
ing expenses were $900. Find the cost per mile, charging
6%
interest on his investment.
9. When Mr. Simmons drove his car for business, his em-
ployer paid him
5^
a mile. How much did he gain or lose
per mile?
Finding the Cost of a Vacation
One summer the Cunninghams took an automobile trip
to Boston. Before starting they estimated the cost.
1. Dick found from the road map that it was about 800
miles to Boston. With some side trips to points of interest,
they would probably drive about 2500 miles on the trip. Find
the cost of running the automobile at 5j a mile.
2. Agnes figured that meals would cost them about $1.50
apiece, each day. Find the total cost of food for the four
members of the family if they were away 15 days.
3. They expected to be away 14 nights. Mr. Cunningham
said they could get rooms at a dollar a night each for himself
and Mrs. Cunningham, and fifty cents each for Agnes and
Dick. Find the total cost of sleeping accommodations.
4. Mrs. Cunningham suggested that they would probably
spend some money for newspapers, magazines, candy, and
souvenirs. The family thought $1.50 a day would be enough
for this purpose. How much would this be for the trip?
5. Find the total cost of the vacation as estimated above.
This would be how much a day for each person?
171
172
Travelers' Checks
U.S. DOLLAR TRAVELERS CHEQUE
*uo,ooo,ooo*
Mr.
Cunningham
decided to take $350
with him on his
vacation trip. He took $50 in cash and the rest in travelers'
checks, which are sold by banks and by the American Express
Company.
These are printed
checks, in
denominations of
$10, $20, $100,
and $200.
1. The purchaser signs each check when he buys it and
signs it a second time in the presence of the person cashing it.
This serves as an identification.
Explain.
2. Mr. Cunningham
did not use his personal checks to
pay
expenses on the trip because
people will seldom accept
such a check from a stranger. Why?
3. There is seldom any
difficulty in cashing travelers'
checks. Any bank will cash them and most business men
will accept
them in payment for articles bought. Why?
4. Mr.
Cunningham
paid a fee of
f
%
of the face value of
the checks he bought. This is how much per $100?
5. He bought 4 checks of $10 each, 8 of $20
each, 2
of
$50 each. How
much did he have to pay for these checks,
including the fee?
6. Mr.
Cunningham
checked out of the hotel in Chicago.
The clerk at the cashier's
window gave him his bill which
amounted to $8.30. Mr.
Cunningham
gave the clerk a $20
travelers'
check.
Where did Mr.
Cunningham
sign the
travelers'
check?
Problem
Teal 17:;
1. In keeping a cash account, what must you know to
find your balance? How do you find it?
2. The Osburn family did not want their expenditures
for food to exceed 35% of their income. What would you
have to know to find out whether they kept within this limit
last year? How would you find out? Give more than one
way.
3. What must you know to find the balance in your
checking account at the bank at the end of the month? How
would you proceed to find the balance?
4. Mr. Anderson bought a suit at a sale. What would you
have to know to find the per cent of discount he received?
How would you then find it?
5. On March 31, the Smith's gas meter read 23,200 cubic
feet. What else would you need to know to find the amount
of their bill for March? How would you find it?
6. The Joneses pay 50^ for each 1,000 gallons of water
they use. At the end of August their meter read 37,823 cubic
feet. What would you need to know, and how would you find
the amount of their bill for August?
7. Mr. Owens got a 90-day loan. What would you need
to know, and how would you find the interest?
8. Mr. Collins bought a new car. At the end of the year
he said that the depreciation on his car was $350. What
would you need to know to find the per cent of depreciation?
9. Mrs. Madison deposited $300 in a savings bank. What
would you need to know, and how would you find to how
much this amounts?
10. Mr. Murray borrowed some money and paid $32
interest at the end of a year. What would you need to know,
and how would you find the rate of interest?
11. Write a formula for finding the interest when the prin-
cipal, rate, and time are known.
12. Write a formula for finding the rate of interest when
the principal and interest for one year are known.
174
Problem Test
1. The school enrollment of a city is about 20%
of the total
population. What is the probable population of a city whose
school enrollment is 13,752? Estimate the result before working
this problem.
2. Mr. Higgins owns a prize winning cow which produced
18,523 pounds of milk last year, averaging 4.1%
butterfat.
How many pounds of butterfat did this cow produce? Estimate,
then find result to nearest pound.
3. Mrs. Johnson bought an electric stove. At li
a kilowatt
hour, how much did it cost to cook a meal on this stove if it took
2 hours and the stove used 600 watts per hour?
4. Electric motors use 746 watts per hour for each horse-
power. At
1
per kilowatt hour, how much would it cost to run
a 2-horsepower
motor for 8 hours?
5. A furniture dealer marks all articles with the installment
price and allows from 10% to 20%
discount from this price if
cash is paid. Find the cash price and the amount saved by paying
cash for each of the following:
Article
Installment Price Discount
Table
$
15 10%
Chair
25 10%
Davenport
125 15%
Bedroom set
200 20%
6. Mrs. Owens attended a sale of canned goods at a grocery
store and made the following purchases:
Regular Price Mrs. Owens Bought
Peaches 35^ a can 4
cans for $1
Pineapples 25^ a can 3
cans for 50^
Plums
20^ a can 2
cans for 35^
Pears
30^
a can 3
cans for 55^
What per cent of the regular price did she save on each? What
per cent of the regular price on her entire purchase?
Diagnostic Tests in Fundamental Processes
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Work and check. Work as fasl as you can without
hurrying.
Multiply
176
Diagnostic
Tests in Percentage
LOCATING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Work each example and check. Work as fast as you can
without
hurrying.
1.
Write the
common
fraction
equal to
87j%-
e.
Write .219
as a per
cent.
b.
16 is what
%
of 87?
(Nearest tenth
of a per cent)
f.
Write 750%
as
a whole or
mixed number.
c.
Write
329% as a
decimal.
g-
Find 75%
of 96.
2. a.
Write .3
as a
per cent.
e.
Write
166%
as
a mixed
number.
c.
Write the
%
equal
to
d.
Find the whole
if
66%
of it
equals 86.
h.
Change
-J
to
a %.
(Nearest
tenth of a per
cent)
d.
What
%
of
32 is 64?
7
10-
Write
71.3%
as a
decimal.
h.
Write
3^
as a per cent.
b.
Find 86.2%
of
S8.27?
(Nearest cent)
f.
Find the whole,
if 17.4% of it
is $2.14.
(Nearest cent)
OVERCOMING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots.
Then
turn to the Practice Tests (pages 307 to
SIfi)
for further
practice as
suqqested below.
le
_
40
2a

40
2e

38
la

37
lb

43
lc

39
Id

44
If 38
lg-42
Ih 41
40
2b 42
2c

37
2d

43
2f

44
2g-39
2h 41
MEASURING
YOUR
PROGRESS
Take
Improvement
Test Number Four.
Record your score on
your Score Card. Did you improve? Find the class average and
bring your graph up to date.
( ihapter Test 177
Write the numbers from I
to L3 on a paper.
Alter
these numbers
write the words,
or numbers, which
belong in the corresponding
blanks below.
L. In keeping an account, money is entered
on the
left-hand side, and
money - on the right-hand side.
(2)
2. The Jones family have a yearly income of $3000. Last
year they spent $600 for clothing. This was
% of their
(3)
income.
3. In everyday language, currency means money.
(4)
4. When you cash a check, you must write your name across
the back. This is called the check.
(5)
5.
, ,
and are convenient and safe methods of
(6) (7) (8)
paying bills at a distance.
6. The gas meter shown below reads cubic feet.
(9)
7. The electric meter below reads kilowatt hours.
(10)
8. The general rule for figuring interest can be abbreviated
into a formula as follows:
(id
9. provide a convenient and safe method of carrying
(12)
money when traveling.
10. When you borrow money to buy a home, you are usually
required to give a
(13)
<: ii a p r 1; R
6
^^V
?*
Helps
in Problem Solving
One summer the Cunninghams visited Chicago. In plan-
ning their trip, Mr. Cunningham laughingly remarked that
they needed to know three things:
(1)
their destination,
(2)
their starting point, and
(3)
the connections between their
starting point and their destination.
Agnes, who liked arithmetic, suggested that planning the
solution of a problem in arithmetic is just like planning a trip.
You must know the destination, or what you want to find.
You must know the starting point and other necessary facts.
Finally, you must plan the solution. To make the plan, you
must investigate the relations between the things to be found
and the things known. These relations correspond to the
roads in planning a trip. Just as in the case of the trip, more
than one solution may be possible.
179
180
The Steps in Solving a Problem
It is 245 miles from Bowling Green to Chicago. On a long
trip Mr.
Cunningham
usually averages about 35 miles an
hour. How many hours should the journey take? At what
time must he start so as to reach Chicago by noon?
Solution
To Find: (1)
Number of hours it will take for the trip.
(2)
Time he must start.
Given : Distance
= 245 miles
Speed
=
35 miles an hour
Time of reaching Chicago
= 12 o'clock noon
Plan: (1)
To find the number of hours to reach Chicago,
divide 245 miles (total distance) by 35 miles
(distance traveled in one hour).
(2)
To find the starting time, subtract the number
of hours spent on the journey from 12 (the
time he wants to reach Chicago).
Computations: _7
12
Check: 5 35
35)245
^7
_7
__]_
245 5
12 245
Mr. Cunningham
must start by 5 o'clock in the morning.
1.
Explain the first step in The Plan. If you know the
total distance and the average distance in one hour, how do
you find the number of hours the trip will take?
2. Can you explain the check? What is the purpose of
adding 7 to 5? Of multiplying 35 by 7?
Follow these steps in solving a problem:
1. To Find. What does the problem call for?
2. Given.
What facts are known?
3. Plan. How are the known facts related to the un-
known? Make a plan. This plan should be kept "in your
head," but sometimes it helps to write it out.
4.
Computation.
Carry out the computations as planned.
5. Check. Are your results correct?
FINDING THE COST OF THE CHICAGO TRIP
Read each problem carefully and write down the fact or
facts to be found and the things given, or known. Refer to
page 180 for information, if you need it. Plan the solution
before you work the problem. It may help you to write out
the steps. Try to find some way of checking your results in
each problem.
1. Mr. Cunningham's car averages 14 miles on a gallon
of gasoline. How much would the gasoline cost for the round
trip to Chicago, at 19^ a gallon?
2. Mr. Cunningham said he would need to change the oil
in the car before starting. If he buys 5 quarts at 35^ a quart,
how much will it cost?
3. The Cunninghams planned to leave home on Thursday
morning and to return Sunday afternoon. They can rent a
small apartment in Chicago for $1 a night for each person and
50 a night for the garage. They allowed $15 for meals. Find
their expense for the apartment, garage, and meals.
4. Agnes asked how much they could have to spend while
on the trip. They decided to allow Agnes and Dick each 50^
a day and Mr. and Mrs. Cunningham $2 apiece each day.
Find the total amount allowed for spending money.
5. Dick found the total estimated cost of the trip and the
average cost for each person. Can you find how much these
were?
181
182
Help in Planning the
Solution
Agnes Cunningham often had trouble in planning the solu-
tions of arithmetic
problems. One day her teacher suggested
that she draw a picture, or diagram, to illustrate the rela-
tions between the facts she knew and the facts she wanted
to find. Miss White showed
Agnes how to draw the picture
for the problem given below.
1. Mr. Mason owns a furniture store. To determine the
selling price of an article, he increases,
or "marks up," the
cost price by one third of itself. What did he pay for a desk
which he sold at $36?
SELLING
PRICE
=*'36
>-
v-
^
COST
PRICE =P
MARKUP--?
2. Study the figure.
What does the whole rectangle repre-
sent?
Since you know the selling price and want to find the
cost price,
you must discover the relation
between these two.
The cost
price is what part of the selling price? How can you
find the cost price?
Complete the
solution.
3. Dick showed
Agnes
another way of solving the
problem.
He
asked her, "The markup is what
part of the selling price?
How can you find the
markup?
Knowing the
markup
and
the selling price, how can you find the cost price?"
Can you
answer
these
questions?
Complete the solution.
4. A year ago Miss
Owen's
salary was cut 20%.
By what
per cent
would her present
salary
have to be increased to
restore her to her
original salary?
Draw a figure.
5.
During the
Christmas
rush a store
increased its sales
force by one third.
What
fractional
part of its force
would
it have to drop to reduce it to its
original size?
Problems^
I sin^
Diagrams
183
i. Mrs.
Jackson boughl a coat
advertised at "One
Fifth
Off Regular Price." She paid
$56 for the coat. What
was
the regular price?
Agnes
chew
the diagram given below.
What part of the regular price equals the sales price? How
can you find the regular price? Complete the solution.
_
a,
2. Mr. Madison's expenses average
20% of his sales. At
what amount must he sell a table that cost him $14, in order
to make a profit of 10% of the selling price? What per cent
of the selling price goes to gross profit, or expenses and profit
combined? What per cent of the selling price must equal
the cost? How can you find the selling price? Complete the
solution.
r
184
Problems.
Using
Diagrams
1.
Three boys,
Harry, Joe,
and Ned, ran a
refreshment
stand at the county
fair and
agreed to divide the
profits in
proportion to the time they
worked.
Harry
worked 12
hours,
Joe
worked 8 hours, and Ned
worked 10
hours.
The tota!
profits
amounted to $30.45.
Find each boy's share.
2.
Three men, A, B, and C, bought a business together
and
agreed to share the profits in
proportion to the amount
each
invested. A
invested $2000, B invested $1500,
and C
invested
$3000.
At the end of the first year they divided
profits of $8500. Draw a diagram. Find the share of each.
3. A and B
invested equal amounts in a store and agreed
that A was to manage the store and to receive twice as large
a share of the profits as B. At the end of the first year the
profits were $2550.
Find the share of each.
4. In his will Mr. Doane
directed that his money should
be
divided
among his wife, his daughter, and his son. The
wife was to receive three times as much as the daughter, and
the son twice as much as the daughter. Find the share of each
if the total
amount to be divided was $12,000.
5. Agnes and Dick
Cunningham ran a lemonade
stand in
their front yard one summer during
vacation.
Agnes
worked
20 hours at the stand and Dick worked 15 hours. Their
profits
amounted to $7.00. How much should each receive?
Can you
work this problem
without drawing a diagram?
Problems. Using Diagrams
In each of these problems the value of part of the whole is
known and you are to find the value of the whole. Draw a
diagram to illustrate each problem. Write a complete solu-
tion, as shown on page 180, if it helps you to do so. Include
the diagram in the third step, or plan.
1. Mr. Jones sold a horse at a profit of 20% of the selling
price. The profit was what per cent of the cost price?
2. Louise obtained a sample of the goods she planned to
use in making a dress. She washed the sample and found
that it shrank one tenth of its original length. Her pattern
called for
4^
yards of material. How much goods should
she buy if she washed it before making the dress?
3. How many pounds of wheat are needed to make a barrel
of flour weighing 196 pounds if wheat loses 25% by weight
when made into flour?
4. Last winter Ralph Becker helped his father cut ice and
store it to sell in the summer. Mr. Becker said that the ice
could lose about 25% from the time it was stored until it was
sold. He usually sold about 1200 tons each summer. How
many tons of ice should he store?
5. One Saturday morning Morris started hoeing potatoes
at 8 o'clock. By noon he had hoed 6 rows. At the same rate,
how long would it take him to finish if there were 8 rows in
the field? Can you find more than one solution?
6. When the potatoes were ready, Morris dug them and
got
1\
bushels from the first 3 rows. At the same rate, how
many bushels should he get from the whole field?
185
Problems.
Using
Diagrams
Write a
complete
solution for each
problem below. Draw a
diagram
for each
problem as part of the third step, or plan.
1. Mr.
Baylor
shipped
some hogs to Chicago. How much
pork
was
obtained
from a hog weighing 360 lb. when
loaded
on the
train,
if it lost
^
of this weight on the trip and the
dressed
weight
was 75%
of the weight just before killing?
2. Mr.
Baylor
received
$3.45
a hundred
pounds, live
weight at
Chicago.
How
much was this per pound of pork?
3. Mr.
Baylor
wanted to build a new fence 135 feet long.
How
many
posts
would he need if he wanted to set them
15 feet
apart?
There
must be a post at each end.
4. Mr.
Baylor
planned a second fence, 168
feet long, be-
tween
two fences
that were
already built. He did not need a
new
post at either
end of this fence as he could use the posts
in the
existing
fences.
How
many new
posts would he need
if he set them
about 15 feet apart?
5 Can
you make a rule for finding
the number of posts in
a fence,
including
posts at both ends?
Including
a post at
one end only? At
neither end?
6. Mrs.
Cunningham
made a
patchwork
quilt. She
made
20 blocks,
as it was to be 4 blocks
wide and 5
blocks long.
She then
decided to add an extra row of blocks to both the
length and width.
How many
more blocks did she need?
7. A gross
profit of 33j%
of the cost
price is what pei cent
of the selling
price?
8. A
gross profit of 20%
of the selling
price is what per cent
of the cost
price?
186
Checking
Problems. Working in Two Ways
One of the best ways of checking a solution of a problem is
to work it in two different ways and see whether you get the
same result both times. Solve each of the following in two
ways. Draw a diagram whenever you find it helpful.
1. Two passenger trains leave New York for Chicago at
the same time on parallel tracks. One goes 40 miles an hour
and the other 42-
miles an hour. How far apart will they be
at the end of 5 hours?
2. A pupil pays $45 tuition in a term of nine months of
twenty days each. He is absent from school sixteen days.
Find the amount of tuition lost to him by his absence.
3. During one quarter of last year a household used 15,000
gallons of city water. The bill was $8.25. The next quarter
they used 7000 gallons. What should be their bill for the
second quarter at the same rate for each 1000 gallons?
4. A certain automobile uses 16 gallons of gas to run 180
miles. At this rate how much does it cost for gas for a season's
run of 7650 miles if gas costs
20|^
a gallon?
5. A farmer used 48 tons of hay to feed 32 head of cattle
through the winter. At this rate, how much hay will he need
to feed 75 head of cattle the next winter?
6. In October a farmer was offered 76

a. bushel for 2640

bushels of corn. However, he held it until January, when
he sold it for
81^ a bushel. How much did he gain by waiting?
7. The distance from New York to Chicago by one route
is 960 miles, and from Chicago to El Paso by one route 1460
miles. Find the cost of a railroad ticket at
2i
a mile by this
route from New York to El Paso. Find the length of time
for the trip at an average speed of 50 miles an hour.
187
188
Checking
Problems.
A New
Method
One
evening
Dick tried to
check his solution
for a problem
by
working
the
problem
in
another way. Mr.
Cunningham sug-
gested
that
Dick could
check by
starting
with his answer and
working
for one of the
facts
given in the
original
problem.
Study
the work
below.
Problem:
The
population
of the town of
Southwick was 7500
in 1930 and 9000 in 1940.
Find the per cent of increase.
Dick's
Solution
Per cent of
increase
Population
in
1930
=
7500
Population
in 1940
= 9000
(1)
Increase
=
1940
population
-
1930
population
(2)
Per cent of increase
=
increase -r- 1930
population
9000
7500
To Find:
Given :
Plan:
Solution :
150 -JL-20%
7 5 5
AU
/o
To Find:
Given :
Plan:
Solution :
1500
Mr.
Cunningham's
Check
Population
in 1940
Population
in 1930
=
7500
Increase
=
20%
of 1930
population
(1)
Increase
=
20%
of 1930
population
(2)
1940
population
=1930
population+increase
1500
7500
^X
7500
=
1500
1500
9000
1. Why
did Mr.
Cunningham
find
iX7500?
What does the
1500
represent?
2 Why
did Mr.
Cunningham
add 1500 to 7500?
How does
the'result, 9000,
give a
check on
Dick's
solution?
Was
Dick's
solution
correct?
3.
Describe
two
ways of
checking
the
solution of a
problem.
Problems. Checking by Starting with Answer
Solve each problem and check by starting with your result
and
working for one of the facts in the original problem.
Write a complete solution for both the original solution and
the check.
1. A mechanic had his wages increased 10%. Find his
wages before the increase if he now receives $4.95 a day.
Draw a diagram.
2. The Bronson School gave a play. Tickets to pupils
were 15^
each and to outsiders, 35^
each. There were 175
pupils who promised to buy tickets. How many tickets must
be sold to outsiders to take in $100
altogether?
3. There are 45 pupils in the seventh grade of the Owen
School, and there are
f
as many boys as girls. How many
are there of each?
4. A dealer in used automobiles sold a car belonging to
Mr. Calhoun. He mailed Mr. Calhoun a check for $409.50,
after deducting 10%
of the selling price as commission. How
much did the dealer receive for the car?
5. Mr. Dwight drove his automobile 36 miles in 45 minutes.
How many miles an hour did the car average?
6. A family is renting a house for $55 a month. How much
money could they borrow and put into a new house without
increasing their yearly expense, if interest is
6%
and if they
figure taxes at $70 a year, and repairs, etc. at $125
a year?
189
^9
m
190
Checking
Problems
AGNES
MAKES A MISTAKE
Agnes spent twenty minutes in working and
checking the
problem given below, only to find that her solution was incorrect.
Study her solution and check carefully. Can you find the errors?
Problem :
Mr. Adams and Mr. Murray are planning an automobile trip
together. Mr. Adams' car averages 12 miles on a gallon of gasoline
and Mr. Murray's
averages 16 miles. How much money can they
save by taking Mr. Murray's car, if the total distance is 2500
miles and gasoline averages 20^
a gallon?
Agnes' Solution
208^-
Checking
Problems 191
AGNES LEARNS TO SAVE TIME
Agnes' mother said that she could save considerable time
if she would form the habit of checking each step in the solu-
tion of a problem before starting the next. Mrs. Cunningham
wrote out the following suggestions for Agnes.
a. Write down what you are to find. Check.
b. Make a list of all the facts given in the problem. Check
carefully to make sure you have omitted none and that
you have copied each number correctly.
c. Plan the solution. Write the plan out if it helps you.
Check carefully to be sure your method is correct. A
diagram will often help you to make and check your
plan.
d. Carry out the first step in your plan. Check by going
over the work a second time or by estimating the
result. Do this with each step before going to the next.
e. If possible, check your final results in some way.
1. There are four common errors in solving problems.
Which do you make?
a. Mistakes in what is to be found and given.
b. Mistakes in copying numbers.
c. Mistakes in plan.
d. Mistakes in computation.
2. Show how Mrs. Cunningham's suggestions would help
you prevent each of these errors.
3. What methods have you had for checking the result?
4. Mr. Bronson borrowed $500 from his bank, with
6%
interest, payable in advance. How much was the interest?
How much cash did Mr. Bronson receive? Check.
5. On the next page you will find a list of problems. Follow
Mrs. Cunningham's suggestions and see how many of the
problems you can work correctly the first time you try.
Problems.
Checking
Each Step
Solve each of the following
and check each step before
starting the next. If possible, also check your final answer.
1. Henry made a bookcase
which he sold for $5.
The
material cost him $3.72,
and it took 5 hours and 20 minutes
to make the case. How much did he make per hour for his
labor?
2. John wanted to estimate
the number of words in a
composition he had written for his English teacher. He found
that he averaged about 9 words to the line and 18 lines to
the page. About how many words were there in his composi-
tion if it contained
6f
pages?
3. Mrs. Crane wants to average not more than
$5
a week
for groceries. Last month she spent $5.32
the first week,
$4.29 the second, $6.03 the third, and $4.18
the fourth. Did
she average more or less than she planned? How much?
4. It is about 14,000 miles by sea from New York to San
Francisco by way of Cape Horn, and only 5250 miles by way
of the Panama Canal. How many days can a steamer save
by way of the Canal if it averages 350 miles a day?
5. Mrs. Owens was canning
fruit. She burned one burner
of her gas stove for 6 hours. Find the cost of the gas used
if the burner consumed 6^
cubic feet of gas an hour, costing
90fi
per thousand cubic feet.
6. A truck full of coal weighed 4150 lbs. Find the cost
of the coal, at $9.50 a ton, if the empty
truck weighed 1975
lbs.
192
Problems. Checking Each Step
7. Mrs. Adams bought a remnant of silk goods for $8.50.
How much was this a yard if the remnant contained 5 yards
25 inches? What per cent of the regular price did Mrs. Adams
save if the goods sold regularly for $2.50 a yard?
8. The basketball team of the Jones High School won
8 games and lost 4. What per cent of its games did it win?
What per cent did it lose?
9. Mr. Anderson bought 20 dozen lemons for $5.25. He
sold them at 3 for a dime. How much did he make if 9 of
the lemons spoiled?
10. Harold Summers bought a used car for $25. He spent
$17 for new parts and 16 hours in repairing the car. He then
sold it for $65. His profit was what per cent of the selling
price, counting his labor at 75^ an hour?
11. Mr. Bengston bought a farm for $7500 and sold it for
$8250. How much did he make on the transaction if he paid
an agent
5^%
commission on the sale?
12. Mrs. Munson bought an electric refrigerator for
$189.60. She paid $75 down and agreed to pay the rest in
12 equal monthly payments. In addition she agreed to pay
$1 a month as carrying charge on the deferred payment.
How much did she have to pay each month?
193
Problem Helps.
Telling How to Solve Problems
On this and the three following pages you will find four
Problem Helps. Practice on these will help you in solving
problems. More practice on these Problem Helps is given
at intervals throughout this book.
Probably the hardest step in solving a problem is making
the plan. Do you find this true? Practice in Telling How to
Solve Problems will help you on this step.
1. How do you find the difference between two numbers?
2. How do you find the ratio of one number to another?
3. Morris is saving money to buy a bicycle. If you know
how much the bicycle costs and how much he has saved,
how can you find how much more he needs to save?
4. Ernest wants to find what per cent 8,279,758 is of
9,876,498. He wants the result to the nearest whole per
cent only. How can he find it with the least work?
5. How do you find the value of the whole when you
know the value of some per cent of it?
6. If you know how much a month a man earns, how
much a month he spends, and that he saves the remainder,
how can you find how much he should save in a year?
7. If you know how far you have driven and for how
many hours, how can you find your average speed?
8. If you know how fast you are driving and the distance
you must go, how can you find how long it will take?
9. If you know your average speed per hour, how do
you find how far you can drive in a given number of hours?
10. If you know the cost, and what per cent this cost is
of the selling price, how can you find the selling price?
194
Problem Helps.
Supplying ih<-
Missing Facts L95
Often in working a problem in life you do not know
enough
facts, and you have to decide what additional information
you must get before you can work the problem.
In each of the following problems one or more facts that
are needed in solving the problem are missing. Look up the
facts needed, or have your class agree on probable figures,
and solve the problems. Check. Write complete solutions
and draw diagrams whenever you
find it helpful.
1. Last summer Ernest sold alu-
minum cooking utensils on commis-
sion. His total sales on the cooking
utensils amounted to $325.50. How
much did he earn?
2. Miss Norris borrowed $350
and agreed to pay
6%
interest.
How much did she have to pay?
3. Mrs. Daly left the large burner
on her gas range burning for 8
hours one night by mistake. How
much did it cost her?
4. What does it cost to run an
electric fan for 3 hours at
7^
per
kilowatt hour?
5. Mr. Atkins had $175.22 in the
bank on May 1. During the month he withdrew $42.50,
$13.20, $112.10, $59.57, and $74.25. Find his balance on June 1.
6. The Atkins family planned to spend only 20%
of their
income for rent, 25% for food, 15% for clothing, 20% for
miscellaneous expenses, and to save 20%. Last year they
spent $600 for rent and $800 for food. Were these items kept
within the budget?
7. The energy-producing value of foods is measured in
calories. Sirloin steak contains about 957 calories per pound.
Halibut steak contains about 458 calories per pound. Find the
cost of 1000 calories of each.
Problem
Helps.
Choosing
the
Facts You Need
In a life problem
you
usually
know many things about the
situation
which you do not need to use in solving your prob-
lem. It is often
difficult to select the facts you need.
In each of the
problems on this page one or more facts are
given that are not
needed
in the
solution of the
problem.
Decide
which facts you need and
solve the
problems.
Check.
Write
complete
solutions,
if helpful.
1 Harry
worked on a farm
42 days last year. He
worked
275*
hours and earned
$72.50.
This was how much an hour?
2. Mr.
Adams
bought a house
for $4500.
He paid $2000
cash and
borrowed
the
remaining
$2500
from a bank. At
the end of the year he paid the bank 6%
interest and $1000
on the
principal.
How
much was the
interest?
3 A real estate
dealer
sold a farm for $7200.
He
charged
a
commission
of 3%
and sent the
former
owner a check for
$6984.
How
much was his
commission?
4. The
pupils of the
Smithville
Junior
High
School gave
a play
They sold 312 tickets
to
school
pupils at 15*
each
and 276 adult tickets at 25*
each.
They
gave away 125
com-
plimentary
tickets.
What
were the
total
receipts?
5
Robert
raised
150
bushels
of
potatoes.
He sold
half
of them at 25*
a bushel,
30 bushels at 30*,
and 45
bushels at
35*.
How
much did he
receive
for the
potatoes?
196
Problem Helps.
Making Problems i'7
Making problems of your own will help you in solving
other problems. Enough information is given
in each para-
graph below to enable you to find one or more facts thai are
not given. Make one good problem out of each paragraph.
Solve each of your problems and check.
1. Mary Doane wishes to buy a radio that will cost $57.50
cash or $27.50 down and $5 a month for 7 months.
2. Mr. Thomas bought a house for $4500. During the
first year he spent $210 on repairs, $157 for taxes, and $62
for insurance. He received $35 a month rent.
3. In 1930, the population of Jonesboro was 11,287 and
the population of Brandon was 9,352. In 1940, their popula-
tions were 13,198 and 12,756 respectively.
4. On a recent date there were 2,333,000 telephones in
New York City and 717,468 in London. The population of
New York was 7,380,259, and of London, 8,202,818.
5. Alice Winters went to the drugstore to buy a bottle
of lotion. The clerk showed her two sizes. The small bottle
contained A^ ounces and cost 50^. The large bottle contained
11 ounces and cost a dollar.
6. Seven high schools belong to an athletic league known
as the Big Seven. Last year the record of games won and
lost in football was as given below:
School
198
Probem
Test
Solve each
problem on this page. Check.
1. Marjory took a standard test in arithmetic and made
a score of 5 examples
correct out of 8
attempted. A month
later she took the same test and had 7
correct out of
9
at-
tempted. Find her per cent of accuracy on each test.
2. Morris plays on the basket-
ball team.
Every day he practices W
(
A
throwing
fouls. One day he made
17 out of 30 attempts.
The next
day he made 13 out of 19. What
per cent did he make each day?
Did he
improve?
3. The
International
Limited, on the Canadian
National
Railroad,
makes the run from Montreal to Toronto, a dis-
tance of 334 miles, in 5 hours 40 minutes. This is an average
speed of how many miles an hour? Find the result to the
nearest
hundredth
of a mile.
4.
Mrs.
Clark bought a new automobile for $1285. It
was
worth $815 at the end of the first year, $600 at the end of
the second
year, and $515 at the end of the third year. Find
the per cent of depreciation each year.
5.
When Mr.
Fitzgerald
bought his home, he borrowed
$5000 at 5%
interest and gave a mortgage as security. He
agreed to pay $75 a month. How much of the first monthly
payment
did it take to pay the interest? How much was
applied to the principal?
Answer the same
questions for the
second,
third, and fourth months.
6. Mr. McCoy
bought a used car. The dealer asked $120
cash, or $50 down and $10 a month for 10
months. Mr.
McCoy
chose the second plan. How much did he owe the
dealer
during the first month? The second?
During each
succeeding
month?
This was equivalent to how much for
one
month? For one year? Can you find the rate of interest
Mr. McCoy
paid?
A
Diagnostic Tests in Fundamental Processes 199
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Work ami check. Work as fast ae you can
without hurrying.
1. a. b. c.
<1.
Add: 5386; 759;
Give result to
X^
Subtracl
878; 2647; 7056;
nearest hundredth. $179.92 from
649; 538;
1077. 5.76)408.816
$398.72.
e.
f. g.
b.
h
Give result to nearest cent.
s
-
^
9|
i
S89.50
-3^q
+]_
X.805
2. a.
b. c. d.
(To nearest
Subtract
5^
Multiply
cent)
5.8738 from 2 .7985
$132.57-^100 27.396.
+4-1- by 100.
e.
f.
g.
h.
6f-h2
Subtract 2X2j
2497.2
66
from
396.7
100.
1786.9
+790.7
OVERCOMING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Then
turn to the Practice Tests (pages 307 to
340)
for further
practice as
suggested below.
la

5, 1,
2 If

25, 21, 22, 24 2d

35
lb

34, 36, 17,

18 lg

33, 36, 11, 13 2e

30, 24, 27,

28
lc 29
lb. 30
2f 26, 8
Id

32, 6 2a

35, 36 2g

29, 27, 28
le 26, 22, 21 2b

32, 6, 8 2h 81, 1,2

2c

35, 21, 22, 23

MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS
Take Improvement Tests Numbers One, Two, and Three.
Record your scores on your Score Cards. Did you improve?
Find the class averages and bring your graphs up to date.
200
Diagnostic Tests in Percentage
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Work these examples and check. Work as fast as you can
without hurrying.
1. a.
b. c. d.
875 is what per Write 1200%
cent of 1027? as a whole
(Nearest tenth or mixed
of a per cent) number.
2.
a.
Find the
whole, if
85.1%
of it
equals $74.39.
(Nearest cent)
e.
Write 7.5%
as a decimal.
a.
Change
-ff
2
to
nearest
hundredth of
a per cent.
e.
Write the
common frac-
tion equivalent
of 90%.
b.
Write
the
%
equivalent
off.
f.
Change
f
to a per cent.
b.
$2.50 is
what
%
of
g-
Find 37
J%
of 92.
c.
Write .9% as
a decimal.
h.
Write .1982
as a per cent.
d.
Write 13.97
as a per cent.
f. g.
h.
Find the Write 166
%
Find 18.6%
whole if as a whole of $2.87.
33^%
of it or mixed (Nearest
equals 89.7. number.
cent)
OVERCOMING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Turn
to the Practice Tests (pages 307 to
SIfi) for further practice as sug-
gested below.
la

44 le

39
2a

41 2e

37
lb
_
37
If 41
2b 43
2f 44
lc
_
43
lg

42 2c

39 2g

38
Id 38
lh 40
2d 40
2h 42
MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS
Take
Improvement Test Number Four. Record your score on
your Score Card. Did you improve? Find the class average
and bring your graph up to date.
( ihapter Test 201
Write the numbers
from 1 to 20 on a paper. After these numbers
write the words, or numbers, which belong in the corresponding
blanks below.
1. There are steps in the solution of a problem. They
(i)
are and
2. The diagram at t la-
left shows thai a gross profil
of
%
of the selling price
(7)
is equal to a gross profit of
'
, of the cost price.
TOTAL
-\
H
(8)
3. The diagram at the left
shows that Harry's share of
the profits is times John's
(9)
share. Harry receives per
(10)
cent of the total profits and
John receives per cent.
on
4. Three ways of checking the solution of a problem are
,
and
(13) (14)
5. Practice in Telling How to Solve Problems helps you in
(12)
(15)
the solution of problems.
6. Alice spelled 8 words correctly on a spelling test. To find
w
T
hat per cent she spelled correctly you would have to know
(16)
7. The Barberton basketball team played 10 games last year.
They won 7,
lost
2,
and tied 1. To find what per cent of the
number of games played they won, you do not need to use the
number they or
(17) (18)
8. Mr. White owns a clothing store. Last year his sales totaled
$22,700. The goods sold cost him $15,890.
His expenses totaled
$4,540. He made $ profit. His profit was
%
of his sales.
(19) (20)
*=&
Z II A l T E R
\
Practical
Measurements
Measuring is part of our daily lives. Almost everything we
use must be measured. Think of trying to buy supplies in a
grocery store if we had no means of measuring. We might
buy eggs and bananas by the dozen, although these are fre-
quently weighed today; but flour, sugar, butter, and many
other articles must be weighed. Even if you buy these in
packages, someone had to weigh them. Things we buy in
other stores are also measured. Nails are sold by the pound,
drugs by the ounce, dress goods and ribbon by the yard. In
fact, almost everything we buy is measured by someone.
Without accurate measurements we could not make a pie,
or a cake, or bake bread. We could not construct highways,
dams, bridges, railroads,
skyscrapers, ships, automobiles, air-
planes, or many of the other things in our modern
civilization.
We could not even build houses or make furniture for them.
Our age is often spoken of as a "scientific age." Such
sciences as astronomy,
physics, and chemistry and their
many practical
applications would be
impossible
without
accurate methods of measuring.
This is so true that we might
well call this the "age of
measurement."
203
Measuring in Everyday Life
1. When North
America was settled by the white men,
did the Indians have much need to measure things? Why?
2. Can you describe at least one practical situation in
which we need to measure time? Length? Area?
Volume?
Capacity?
Weight?
Temperature?
3. What reasons can you give for the fact that we need
to measure more than the Indians did?
4. What things have you measured lately? Why did you
measure them?
5. Ask your father and mother what things they have
measured lately, and why they measured them.
6. Describe at least one way in which each of the following
needs to measure. If you do not know, try to find out.
Cook
Carpenter Bricklayer
Clerk in dry goods store
Nurse
Plasterer
Electrician Clerk in hardware store
Tailor Painter
Paper hanger Clerk in grocery store
Doctor Plumber
Dressmaker
Prescription
clerk
204
x \
Natural Units of Measure
BOY SCOUTS
MEASURE BY PACES
In order to measure anything, we must have a unit of
measure, that is, a quantity of the same kind with which the
given quantity may be compared. In order to measure the
length of this page, you must use some length as a unit. In
this country we usually measure length in inches, feet, yards,
and miles. To measure the length of this page, you would
probably compare its length with the length of an inch on
your ruler.
Originally people used the lengths of various parts of the
human body as units. A few of the many units employed
were the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle
finger, the distance from the end of the thumb to the end of
the little finger of the outstretched
hand, the breadth of the
thumb, the breadth of the four fingers, the length of the
stride or pace, the distance from the tip of the nose to the
end of the thumb, and the length of the foot.
1. Dick Cunningham, a boy scout, found that he took 20
steps in walking 50 feet. What was the average
length of
his pace?
2. Last Saturday Dick's troop took a hike. Dick took
8,248 steps. How many miles did he walk?
205
i
206 The Span, Thumb Width, and Pace
1. The distance from the end of the thumb to the end of
the little finger of the outstretched hand is called the span.
Measure two of the following in spans:
The length and width of your desk
The length and width of the teacher's desk
The width of the door
The length of the blackboard
The height of the blackboard above the floor
The width of a window
2. Use the width of your thumb to measure the following:
The length and width of this book
The length and width of a piece of paper
The length of this line of printing
The length of your pencil
3. Measure at least two of the following in steps or paces:
The length and width of the schoolroom
The length and width of the schoolyard
The distance from your seat to the teacher's desk
The distance from your seat to the door
The length and width of the school building
The distance from school to your home
4. Measure the span of your hand to the nearest half inch.
Change your results in example 1 into inches.
5. Measure the width of your thumb to the nearest six-
teenth of an inch. Change the results you obtained in ex-
ample 2 into inches.
6. Take twelve steps along some straight line such as the
edge of a sidewalk, or a crack in the floor. Measure this
distance to the nearest foot. Find the average length of your
step or pace. Change your results in example 3 into feet.
7. If you will remember the width of your thumb and
the lengths of your span and pace, you will have a convenient
method of measuring lengths approximately when you do not
have a ruler. Use these to measure various lengths.
Standard Units
Measurements made by using the length of some part of
the body as the unit could not be very accurate, as individuals
differ in size. As more accurate
measurements were needed,
the units of length were gradually standardized, or defined so
that they meant the same to everyone. In this way our
present units of length came into use. Some of the old names
have been retained. The foot
comes from the length of the
human foot, the inch from the width of the thumb, and the
yard from the distance between the tip of the nose and the
end of the thumb. The mile originated with the Romans and
was a thousand double steps in length.
The early attempts to standardize the units of length were
very crude. Henry I of England defined the yard as the dis-
tance from the tip of his nose to the end of his thumb. At
another time the English Parliament denned the inch as the
length of three grains of barley laid end to end. In Germany
the foot was once defined as the average length of the left
feet of sixteen men taken at random.
Today the yard is defined as the distance between the
center marks in two gold plugs set in a large bar which is kept
in the Standards Department of the
British Board of Trade.
The other units, such as the inch, foot, and mile are defined
in terms of the yard.
207
208 Diagnostic Tests in
Denominate Numbers
LOCATING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
1. What standard units do we commonly use in measuring
time? Length? Area? Surface? Volume? Weight? Capacity?
2. Do you know the relationship between the different units
of length? Copy and complete the following table.
inches
=
1 foot
feet
= inches
=
1 yard
yards
= feet = 1 rod
rods
= feet = 1 mile
3. Can you make up similar tables for time, surface, volume,
weight, and capacity?
4. Copy the following and fill the blanks.
a. 5 hr.
= min. g.
5 hr. 17 min.= min.
b. 4 bu.
= pk.
h. 2 gal. 1 qt, = qt.
c. lOoz.
= lb.
i. 2 T. 372 1b. = lb.
d. 13 pt,
= qt, j. 3 wk. 4 days
= wk.
e. 27 mo.= yr mo. k. 4 lb. 6 oz. =
lb.
f. 60 in.
= yd ft, 1. 2 yr. 9 mo. =
mo.
5. Carry out the following operations. In how many ways
can you work eaeh?
a. Add 3 ft, 7 in. and 4 ft. 8 in.
b. Subtract 2 lb. 7 oz. from 5 lb. 2 oz.
c. Multiply 4 hr. 27 min. by 3.
d. Divide 7 ft, 2 in. by 4.
e. Divide 3 lb. 6 oz. by 9 oz.
OVERCOMING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
If you had trouble with problems 1 to 3,
study the tables given
pages 342 to 343. If you had difficulty with problems 4
and
5,
ask your teacher for help; then turn to Practice Tests 45 to 50,
pages 336 to 340, and find similar examples for further practice.
Exact and
Approximate
Measurements
No
matter
how
carefully a
measurement
is made, the
result is never exact but only
approximate.
The picture shows
a
micrometer
which
engineers,
mechanics,
scientists,
and
others use to
measure
accurately.
With it
measurements
can
be made
accurate to .0001 of an inch.
Such a high degree
of accuracy
is not
necessary in most
measurements.
Dick
Cunningham
reseeded the lawn in the back
yard.
To find how much seed he would need, he
measured the
yard
and found that it was
about 26 ft. 3 in. by 40
ft. 10
in. He
called it 26 ft. by 41 ft., to the
nearest foot.
If it had been
26
ft. 6 in. wide, he
would have called it 27 ft., as it is customary
to add 1 for a fraction
equal to or greater than one half, and to
drop a fraction less
than one
half.
1.
Measure the
following
to the
nearest foot.
To the
nearest
inch.
The
length and width of the
blackboard
The
height and width of the door
Your own
height
2.
Measure the
following
to the
nearest
half inch. To
the nearest
eighth of an inch.
The length and
width of this book
The length and width of a piece of paper
The length of this line of type
209
210 Common Errors in Measuring Distances
Agnes' class was studying measurement. Miss Smith
placed two dots on the blackboard and asked her pupils to
measure the distance between the dots. Eugene used a foot
rule. He
placed the zero of the ruler on one dot and pointed
the other end in the direction of the second dot. He then
marked the position of the end with his thumb and slid the
ruler in the direction of the second point until the zero part
of the ruler was just below his thumb. Working in this way,
he found the distance between the dots was 8 ft. 7 in.
Miss Smith asked the class to criticize Eugene's method
of measuring the distance between the dots.
Agnes said Eugene had not measured the shortest distance
between the two dots, as he had not measured along a straight
line but had zigzagged back and forth. Albert suggested
that they cover a string with chalk and stretch it between
the two points. He pulled the center of the string away from
the board and let it snap back. This marked a straight line
on the board between the two points.
Harry
suggested that Eugene mark the end of each foot
by a chalk mark on the board instead of using his thumb.
Why?
Eugene
measured again, following these suggestions,
and found that the distance was 8 ft.
2\
in.
1. Name two errors to be avoided in measuring the dis-
tance
between two points. Tell how to avoid each.
2. Place two dots on the blackboard, at least 6 feet apart,
and measure the distance between them as accurately as you
can, Use a foot rule and string. Have at least two groups
from
your class measure it independently, as a check.
3. Drive two small stakes in your playground about 20
feet
apart and measure the distance between them. Use a
yardstick and a string.
4. Measure the length and width of the schoolyard. Use
a
yardstick. Use a string if necessary. Have at least two
groups make each
measure, as a check.
Estimating Distances
Agnes
Cunningham received a camera for her birthday.
Before taking a picture, the camera had to be adjusted accord-
ing to its distance from the object to be photographed. At
first Agnes had difficulty in estimating distance, but after a
little
practice she did so quite accurately.
It is often
useful to be able to estimate short distances
without
having to measure them. The following exercises
will help you to develop this ability.
1. Study the distance between two successive inch marks
on your ruler. When you think you have a clear picture of it
in your mind, try to draw a line one inch long without using
your ruler.
Measure it. Repeat this until you can draw,
without
measuring, a line which is less than an eighth of an
inch longer or shorter than an inch.
2. Draw lines of the following
lengths without measuring.
Check by measuring.
2 in.
5 in. 4 in. 7 in. 10
in.
9
in.
3. Can you estimate the length and width of the cover of
this book to the nearest half inch? Can you estimate the
thickness of this book to the nearest
eighth of an inch?
4. Draw a line less than a foot long on the blackboard.
Ask someone to estimate its length.
Check by measuring.
211
212
Estimating
Distances
Scouts should be able to estimate short distances with an
error of not more than 25% of the correct distance. Thus, in
estimating a distance of 10 inches, the estimate should be
from 7^ to 12^ inches. Why? Between what limits should
the estimate be if the true length is 12 inches?
1. Find the per cent of error in each of the following:
Estimate
True Length
1 ft.
8 in.
20 in.
2 ft.
2. Estimate the lengths of objects in the schoolroom.
Check by measuring. Find what per cent the error is of the
correct length in each case. Practice until you can estimate
lengths less than a foot with an error of not more than 20%.
3. Study the length of your foot rule. When you think
you have a clear picture of it in your mind, try to draw a line
one foot long without using your ruler. Measure it. Practice
until you can draw a line which is not less than eleven and
not more than thirteen inches long.
4. What is the per cent of error in problem 3
if the line
drawn is 11 inches long? If it is 13 inches long?
5. Mark distances of the following lengths without measur-
ing. Check by measuring. Find the per cent of error.
3 ft. 2 ft. 6 ft. 12 ft. 8 ft. 41 ft.
6. Estimate different distances in or near the school.
Check by measuring. Find the per cent of error in each case.
Practice until you can estimate any distance up to 50 feet
with an error of not more than 25%.
7. In estimating a long distance, it often helps to lay it
off in shorter distances with the eye. Dick used this method
to estimate the distance from the boy scout cabin to the
road. He estimated the distance from the cabin to the large
oak tree as 50 ft., from the oak to a large rock as 40 ft., and
from the rock to the road as 30 ft. He estimated the whole
distance to be 120 ft. Use this method to estimate several
distances.
RECTANGLES
RIGHT ANGLE
ACUTE ANGL]
OB i i -I. \
-.<
;LE
Rectangles, Squares, and Angles
You have learned that the first two figures above are called
rectangles and that the second is also called a square. A
square is a rectangle whose sides are equal. The corners of
squares and other rectangles are called right angles. Angles
less than right angles are called acute angles. Angles larger
than right angles are called obtuse angles.
1. Can you find any right angles in this linoleum pattern?
Any obtuse angles? Any acute
angles?
2. Turn to the map of
Smithville, on page 220. Can
you find any right angles?
Any acute angles? Any ob-
tuse angles?
3. Fold a paper and crease
the fold sharply. Fold the crease
back on itself and crease again.
The four angles formed by the
two creases are all what kind of angles?
4. Is a square always a rectangle? Is a rectangle always
a square?
5. Using the paper you folded in problem 3 as a model,
draw a right angle. Draw an acute angle. Draw an obtuse
angle.
213
214 Finding the Area of a Rectangle
Mrs. Cunningham wanted a new carpet for her living room.
Dick helped her find the cost of the carpet.
Dick first found the amount of floor surface or area to be
covered. You have learned that in measuring lengths we use
some standard length as a unit. In the same way, in measur-
ing areas we use the area of a square, one unit on each side,
as a unit. The common units for measuring areas are the
square inch, square foot, square yard, and square mile. These
are the areas of squares 1 inch, 1 foot, 1 yard, and 1 mile on
a side, respectively.
The Cunningham's living
room was 7 yards long and
5 yards wide. Dick drew a
figure like the one at the
left. What does each square
represent? How many square
yards of carpet will it take?
Mr. Cunningham sug-
gested to Dick that he could
have found the number of square yards in the floor without
drawing a figure and counting them one by one. How many
square yards are there in the bottom row in the figure? How
many yards in the length of the rectangle? How many rows
are there? How many yards in the width of the rectangle?
How could you find the total number of square yards without
drawing a figure and counting the square yards?
Can you state a rule for finding the area of a rectangle by
measuring the length and width? Mr. Cunningham gave Dick
the rule below. Do you think it is correct?
To find the number of square units in the surface of a
rectangle, multiply the number of units of measure in the
length by the number of like units in the width.
Problems* Finding 4jreas of Rectangles 215
i. In order
to check the accuracy <t Mr. Cunningham'
rule, draw the following rectangles
and divide them into
square inches. Does the rule work in each ca
3"
by
6"
.V by
9"
8j" by
6" :>>\
"
by 2j*
2. In what unit will the area be if the length and width
are in inches? In feet? In yards? In miles?
3. Draw a figure to show the number of square feet in a
squard yard. How many square inches are there in a square
foot?
4. Find the area of a rectangle that is 1 foot long and 8
inches wide. Can you do this in two ways? Can you show
that the two answers are equal?
5. Is the following statement always true? "The length
and width of a rectangle must be expressed in the same units
before multiplying to find the area."
6. Mrs. Cunningham considered two kinds of carpet for
her living room (page 214). One came in wide widths and
cost $3.50 a square yard. What would this carpet cost?
7. The other carpet came in a strip 27 inches wide and
cost $2.75 a running yard. How many strips would it take,
running the long way of the living room? How many yards
would it take? What would the carpet cost?
8. The Cunningham's dining room is 12 feet wide and
18 feet long. How many square yards are there in the surface
of the floor? Can you find this in two ways? How much
would a new carpet cost at $3 per square yard?
9. How many square yards of linoleum will it take for a
kitchen floor 9 ft. by 12 ft.?
10. How much would the linoleum for the kitchen in prob-
lem 9 cost at $1.50 a square yard?
216 Formulas for the Area of a Rectangle
You have already seen how the rule for finding interest
can be stated more briefly by the use of letters as abbrevia-
tions for words. Dick abbreviated the rule for finding the
area of a rectangle in the same way.
A=lXw, or A
=
lw
Dick read this, "The area of a rectangle equals the length
times the width." He explained that the multiplication sign
is usually omitted between two letters, or a number and a
letter, in writing a formula.
The length and width of a rectangle are often called the
base and altitude. Either side of a rectangle may be used as
the base, but we usually call the side on which a figure rests
the base. The altitude measures the height of the figure.
Height and altitude mean the same thing. Notice that the
altitude forms a right angle with the base. The length and
width, or the base and altitude, of a rectangle are often called
its dimensions.
1. Dick read in a newspaper that the altitude of Mount
McKinley, in Alaska, is 20,300 feet above sea level. What
does that mean?
2. Find the area of the following rectangles.
a.
=
8 in., 6
=
12 in. c. 7=9 ft., w = U ft.
b. o
=
13 ft., b
=
17 ft. d. l
=6in.,w =7m.
3. Find the number of square feet in a rectangle 7 ft. 5
in.
by 9 ft. 7 in. Do this in two ways.
4. Find the number of square feet in the floor of your
schoolroom.
A
=
lw
A
= ab
The area of a rectangle equals the length times the width,
or the altitude times the base.
Formula for the Area
<>f
a Square 217
Since a square is a rectangle with equal base and altitude,
we can write the formula, A=sXs, using s to represent the
length of the side of the square. This
formula is usually
written A=s
2
. The small 2, written to the right and above
the s, shows that s is to be multiplied by itself, or used as a
factor two times, s
2
is just a shorter way of writing sXs.
s
2
is read s square, or the square
of
s.
1. Find the value of s
2
,
if s
=
4 yards; 6 inches; 9 feet; 2 feet
8 inches.
2. Give the value of each of the following.
3
2
5
2
12
2
6.22
2
2
4
2
.5
2
(f)
2
3. Find the areas of the following squares.
a. s
=
7 inches d. s
=
2.72 yards
b. s
=
3 yards e. s
-
8 feet 7 inches
c s
=
17 feet f. s
=
2 yards 9 inches
4. How many square feet are there in the square in problem
3b? How many square yards in the problem 3c?
5. The lot on which the Underwood Junior High School is
located is 250 feet square. The building is 120 feet by 80 feet.
How many square yards are there in the yard surrounding
the building?
6. How many square feet are there in a square 20 inches
on a side? Solve in two ways.
7. Can you find a square picture in this book? Find the
length of one side of the picture in inches. Find the number
of square inches in the area of the surface.
8. If you can find some large square surface, such as a
flower bed, measure it and find the area.
218 Finding the Perimeter. Order of Operations
The perimeter of a rectangle or a square is the distance
around it, or the sum of the four sides. Using
p
for the perim-
eter of a square, Dick wrote, p=s+s+s+s. Agnes wrote,
p
=
4s. Which formula do you like better?
Dick wrote the formula for the perimeter of a rectangle,
p
=
a +b+a+b. Agnes wrote, p=2a +2b. Which do you like
bettor?
They used Agnes' formula to find the perimeter of a rec-
tangle 8 feet by 7 feet. Their solutions are shown below.
Which is correct? Draw the rectangle and add the lengths
of the four sides, if you do not know.
Dick's Solution
p
=
2a+2b=2x8+2x7
=
2xl0x7
=
140 feet
Agnes' Solution
p
=
2a+2b=2x8+2x7
=
16 +
14
=
30 feet
In a statement such as 2x8+2x7,
which must be carried
out first, the
multiplications or the additions? What does
5 X
8 _6 -=-2
equal? Study the rule below.
1. Find the value of each of the following.
3X6+8X9
d. 12-^2+4 g. 5x6+4
b. 5X7-3X4
e.
10-8-2 h. 8x9-2
6X8+7X9
f. 3x4-1
i. 9-3+5
2. Find the perimeters of the following.
a. s
=
14 ft.
c. a
=
17 ft., &
= 25ft.
b s
=
9yd#
d. a
=
49 in., b
=
85 in.
a
c.
In a series of arithmetical
operations, all multiplications
and divisions must be carried out before the additions and
subtractions.
5X8-6^2
= 40-3 =
37
Finding the Perimeter. Using Parentheses 219
The formula p=2 (a
+
b) is read, "The
perimeter Ol a
rec-
tangle equals two times the sum
of the altitude and
bi
The parentheses,
( ),
tell you to perform the
pro inside
the parentheses first.
Agnes used this formula to find the perimeter of a rec-
tangle 9 in. by 12 in. Her solution is shown below. Is it cor-
rect? Draw the rectangle and add the lengths of the four
sides, if you do not know.
p=2 (9 +12) =2x21 -42 in.
1
.
Find the value of each of the following.
a.
2(8+9) d.
3x4+2 g.
4+8-2
l>. 2x8+9 e.
3(4+2) h. (4+8) -2
c. 3(4-1) f. 7(8-5) i.
(3 +2) x
(4-1)
2. For what is the first formula at the bottom of the page
used? The second? State each of these formulas in words.
3. Agnes preferred the formula for the perimeter of a
rectangle given at the bottom of this page, to the one she
made
(p
=
2a+2b). Do you agree? Why?
4. Use the formulas at the bottom of this page to find
the perimeter of each of the following squares and rectangles.
a. s
=
12 in. e. 0=9 ft., b
=
ll ft.
b. s
=
125ft. f. a
=
1.9 mi., b
=
2.4 mi.
c. s
=
3ft. 4 in.
g.

=
1 ft. 9 in., b
=
3 ft. 7 in.
d. s
=
5yd. 2 ft. h. c?
=
4 ft. 8 in., 6
=
6 ft.
5. Harry Smith helped his father build a fence around a
field 100 rods by 80 rods. Without allowing for a gate, how
many rods of fence did it take? How many feet?
In a series of arithmetical operations, the operations
inside the parentheses
(
)
must be carried out first.
3(15-7)=3X8
=
24
p
=
4s
p
=
2(a + b)
220
Parallel Lines and
Parallelograms
k
Parallel Lines an<l
Parallelograms 221
1. Name two streets shown on the map of Smithville
that are parallel. Can you find two others? Two more?
2. Name two streets that are not parallel. I low many
other pairs of nonparallel streets can you name?
3. Are the two rails of a railroad track parallel? The two
sides of a street? The spokes of a wheel? Two opposite sides
of a rectangle? Two adjacent sides of a rectangle? Two sides
of a triangle?
4. See how many pairs of parallel lines you can find in
your schoolroom. Can you find ten pairs of lines that are
not parallel?
5. Name two streets, or roads, near your school that are
parallel. Two that are not parallel.
6. Are the top and bottom of this page parallel? The two
sides?
7. Is a rectangle always a parallelogram? Why? Is a
parallelogram always a rectangle? Why? Draw figures to
illustrate your answers.
8. Define a rectangle as a particular kind of parallelogram.
9. Is a square a parallelogram? Is it a rectangle?
10. What lots on the map of Smithville are parallelograms?
Which of these are rectangles? Are any of these squares?
11. How many parallelograms can you find in your school-
room? Can you find any that are not also rectangles?
12. Draw a parallelogram. Be sure to get the opposite sides
as nearly parallel as possible. It will help you if you remember
that the opposite sides are equal.
13. Two railroads cross. One runs east and west, the other
northeast and southwest. What kind of figure is formed by
their tracks at the intersection? What kind of figure would
be formed if thev crossed at right angles?
The Area of a
Parallelogram
Before Mr. Mullins built his house, he hauled in dirt to raise
the level of the lot three feet. To find out how much dirt he
would need he had to find the area of the lot. He drew a
picture like the first figure shown above and marked the
altitude and the base.
Notice that the altitude, which meas-
ures the height of the
parallelogram,
makes right angles with
the base.
Mr. Mullins cut off the triangle on the left end of the figure
and fitted it on to the right end as shown in the second figure.
He thought, "I now have a rectangle with the same area, base,
and altitude as the
parallelogram.
Since the area of the
rectangle
equals the
product of its altitude and base, the
area of the
parallelogram
must also equal the product of its
altitude and base." He wrote the rule and formula at the
bottom of the page. In using them, the altitude and base
must be
expressed in the same units.
1. How did he know that the
parallelogram
and rectangle
have the same altitude?
The same base?
The same area?
2. Was Mr.
Mullins' reasoning
correct?
3. How many
square feet are there in the surface of Mr.
Mullins' lot? How much did it cost to fill the lot if the con-
tractor charged 35^
for each
square yard of surface?
A
=
ab
The area of a
parallelogram
equals the altitude times the base.
222
Problems. Areas o Parallelograms 223
1. Find the area of the following parallelograms.
c
=
2 ft., 6
=
9 in.
o
=
3 ft. 2 in., 6
=
15 in.
a
=
4 ft. 1 in., b =
2 ft. 3 in.
50"
o
=
7 in., 6
=
9 in.
a
=
ll ft., 6
=
3 ft.
= 2 yd., 6
=
5 ft.
2. Find the number of square feet in a rectangle 18 inches
by 15 inches. Work in two ways.
3. Are there any other lots on the map on page 220 that
have the same areas as Mr. Mullins' lot? How many can
you find? How do you know that they have the same area?
4. Agnes
measured the length
of two
adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, as shown in the
figure, and multiplied. She said
the area was 1750 sq. in. What
error did she make?
5. Cut out of paper a parallelogram that is not a rectangle.
Be sure to get the opposite sides as nearly parallel as possible.
Remember the opposite sides must be equal. Find the alti-
tude by folding through the center so that the parallel sides
are folded back on themselves. Measure the base and alti-
tude as accurately as you can and find the number of square
inches in the surface of the parallelogram.
6. How much of an error would you make on the area of
your parallelogram if you made the same error as Agnes
made in problem 3? Try it and see.
7. Each square in the figure represents one square inch.
Find the area of the parallelo-
gram ABCD by multiplying the
altitude by the base. Check the
result by counting the number of
square inches and halves of
square inches in the
parallelo-
gram. Does the short rule give
the correct result?
Right
Triangles
You have learned that all of the figures shown above are
called
triangles. A triangle is a figure bounded by three
straight lines. If one of the angles of a triangle is a right
angle, the triangle is called a right triangle.
1.
Which of the figures above is a right triangle?
2. Take a rectangular piece of paper and fold it along a
straight line passing through two opposite corners. Are the
two triangles
formed right triangles?
Cut the two triangles
apart. Can you put one on the other so they fit exactly?
Are they equal?
3. Cut out of paper a
parallelogram
that is not a rec-
tangle. Fold through the opposite corners. Are the triangles
formed right triangles? Are they equal?
4. Read and complete the following
sentences.
a. A rectangle can be divided into two equal
triangles.
A
parallelogram can be divided into two
triangles.
Turn to the map of Smithville on page 220. Can you
find any
triangles? Are any of these right triangles?
6. Are there any triangles in your schoolroom?
Are any
of these right triangles?
7. Using a model right angle, formed by folding a piece ot
paper twice (see page 213),
draw a right triangle.
8. Draw a triangle that is not a right triangle.
b.
5.
224

'"'
-
h
-
**k*i^-
*"
75 ROUS
The Area of a Right Triangle
Mr. Anderson owns the field shown in the figure. He
wanted to find the area of this field. He thought, "My field
is just half of a rectangle. To find the area of a rectangle,
you multiply the base by the altitude, so the area of my field
will be one half the product of the altitude and base."
1. Was Mr. Anderson's reasoning correct? Explain.
2. Find the number of square rods in Mr. Anderson's field.
Find the number of acres.
3. Harry and Robert wished to find the area of a right
triangle with a base 24 ft. long and an altitude of 18 ft. Their
solutions are shown below. Which do you like better?
^J
Harry's Solution
24
18
192
24
432
216 sq. ft.
2)432
Robert's Solution
9
A=iab=^X*&X24
=
216 sq. ft.
The area of a right triangle equals one half the product
of its altitude and base.
225
The Area of Any Triangle
Mr.
McMurray's
farm is bounded by two roads and a rail-
road. To find the area he measured the base AB and the altitude
DC. He thought, "My
farm is just half of a parallelogram. To
find the area of a
parallelogram you multiply the base by the
altitude, so the area of my farm will be one half the product of
the altitude and base."
1. Was Mr.
McMurray's
reasoning correct? Explain.
2. Find the number of acres in Mr. McMurray's
farm, if
the base measured 325 rods and the altitude 196 rods.
3. Each square in this figure
Find the area of triangle ABC
by counting the number of square
inches and halves of square inches
in the triangle. Find the area
by the short rule. Do your two
results agree?
represents
inch.
A
=
|ab
The area of any triangle equals one half the product of the
altitude and base.
226
Problems. Finding Areas
of Triangles 227
1. Find the areas of each
of the following triangles.
a. a
=
32 in., b= 13 in.
l>. a
=
15 ft.,
b
=
24 ft.
c. a =19 ft, 6 in., b
=
27 ft. 9 in.
(1. a =121 yd., b
=
200 yd.
c. a
= 32rd., b
=
58 rd.
2. Find the number of acres in the fourth triangle in problem 1.
In the fifth.
3. In a right triangle the two sides of the right angle may
be used as the base and the altitude. Why? Can any two sides
of a triangle that is not a right triangle be used as base and
altitude? Why?
4. Find the area of Lot 445 in Smithville (page 220). What
kind of triangle is this?
5. To find the area of the tri-
c
angle shown, Mary measured the
sides AB and BC. She then found
the area as shown below. Was her
work correct? Why?
lift.
A
=
-|ab=|x/xll=44 sq. ft.
6. Find the correct area of the triangle in problem 5. Also find
the per cent of error in Mary's result.
7. Find the areas of each of the following triangles.
a. a
=
8 in., b
=
12 in.
b. a=37 ft., b=50 ft.
c. a
=
9 yd., b
=
13 yd.
d. a
=
6yd., b
=
7 yd.
e. a
=
175 ft., b
=
97 ft.
f. a
=
87 in., b
=
49 in.
g.
a
=
2ft, 7 in., b
= l ft, Sin.
h. a
=
3 yd. 9 in., b
=
2 yd. 3 in.
8. Mr. Adams owns two fields
as shown at the right, Find the
number of acres in field B.
40 rd.
40 rd.
228
The Area of a
Trapezoid
Jack's
father owns
a lot of the shape
shown here. Such a
figure is called a
trapezoid. A trapezoid
is a figure with four
4oFt. c no ft.
60 ft.
no ft. B 40ft.
sides, two that are
parallel and two that
are not parallel. The two parallel sides
are called the bases.
To find the area of his father's lot Jack measured the two
bases AB and DC, and the altitude EF. He then drew a plan,
like the one in the picture. Note that the altitude makes right
angles with the bases.
Jack thought, "The lot is half of a
parallelogram
with an altitude of 60 ft. and a base of 150 ft.
Since the area of this
parallelogram is 60X150,
the area of the
lot is
JX60X150
= 4500 sq. ft."
1. State a rule for finding the area of a trapezoid. Compare
it to the one Jack made, at the bottom of the page. Do you agree
with Jack's rule?
2. What does a stand for in Jack's formula? What does
stand for? What does b' stand for? b' is read b prime.
3. Each square shown
represents
1 square inch. How long is each
base of this trapezoid?
How long is
the altitude?
Find the area of the
trapezoid by
Jack's rule and by
counting
squares. Do the results
agree?
4. Find the number of acres in field A in problem 8
on page
227. As a check find the combined area of both fields in two ways.
A=ia(b+b')
The area of a trapezoid equals one half the product of the
altitude and the sum of the two bases.
Problems. Finding Areas of Trapezoids 229
1. Alice, Lucy, and Jane
wished to find the area of
:i
trapezoid
with an altitude of 12 inches and bases of 20 inches and 32 inches.
Their solutions are shown below. Which
one
is incorrect? Why'
Alice's Solution
A
=
ia(b+b')=iXi2X20+32=
120+32= 152 sq. in.
Lucy's Solution
6
A
=
Ja(b+b')=iXl2X(20+32)=Jxi2X52
=
312 sq. in.
230 Drawing the Altitude
1. Draw a triangle on a piece of paper. Cut out and fold
the longest side back on itself so the fold will go through the
Before Folding Folded
Unfolded
corner opposite the longest side. Unfold. Is the crease an altitude
of the triangle? Why? Measure the base and altitude and find
the area.
2. Cut several triangles out of paper. Find the areas in the
same way as in problem 1.
3. To find the al-
titude of the triangle
ABC, Eugene took a
large piece of paper
DEFG, having a right
angle at E. He laid
the paper on the tri-
angle so that the edge
DE was on the side
AB and then he slid the paper along AB until the edge FE passed
through C. He then drew the line CE on the triangle with a
pencil. Is CE an altitude of the triangle ABC?
4. Draw a triangle on a piece of paper Draw an altitude as
described in problem 3. Measure the base and altitude and
find the area.
5. Find the areas of at least two other triangles by the method
used in problems 3 and 4.
6. Trace the trapezoid on page 229 on a thin sheet of paper.
Draw an altitude. Measure the bases and altitude and find the
area.
Drawing Circles
231
Take a cardboard about three inches
Long and make
a small
hole in one end. Stick a pin through the other end of the
cardboard, about two inches from the hole. Now lay a sheel
of paper on a board and place the cardboard on the paper,
pushing the pin through the center of the paper into the
board. Put the point of a pencil through the hole in the card-
board and move the pencil and cardboard around the pin.
The pencil will draw a circle on the paper. The distance
around the circle is called the circumference. The pin is at
the center. Draw a straight line from the center to any point
on the circumference. This line is called a radius. Draw a
straight line through the center and ending on the circum-
ference at each end. This is called a diameter.
Compasses are convenient in drawing circles. If you do
not have a pair, you can use cardboard, as described above,
or string tied to a piece of chalk or a pencil for larger circles.
1. With a piece of cardboard or a pair of compasses draw
a circle having a radius of
1^
inches. Draw a radius. A diam-
eter. How long is the diameter?
2. Draw a circle 5 inches in diameter. What radius will
you have to use?
3. Draw a circle that has a radius of

of an inch. What
is the length of the diameter?
4. All points on the circumference of a circle are the same
distance from the center. Why?
5. The plural of radius is radii. Are the radii of a circle all
equal in length? Why?
6. Are all diameters of a circle equal in length? Why?
7. Make a formula which tells you how to find the diameter
when you know the radius. The radius when you know the
diameter.
8. In answering problem 7, Dick made the formulas given
below. Are they correct?
d=2r
r
=
U
ii
Relation between Circumference
and Diameter
Mrs. Cunningham wished to buy a jardiniere for a large
fern. She tried to measure the diameter of the pot so she
would know what size of jardiniere to buy. Dick offered to
help. He measured the circumference of the top of the pot,
and from that he found the diameter. Do you know how
he did it?
1. Dick's class discovered the formula he used by measur-
ing several circular objects and making the table given below.
Copy it and complete the last column.
Object
Formulas.
Diameter, Radius,
ami
( Circumference
233
It is proved in higher mathematics
that the ratio of the circumference to
the
diameter is the same for all circles,
and that it is equal to about 3.1416,
or
approximately
31. It is customary
to
represent
this ratio by the Greek
letter tt, or pi. This is
pronounced just
like the
English word "pie."
Dick's class, after making the table
given on
page 232, wrote the formulas
at the bottom
of the page. Explain
each formula in the first row. Do you
see how they obtained the first formula
in the second row? If you divide one side of an equation by
a number or
quantity, what must you do to the other side
to keep the sides equal? What does ird^w equal? In what
other way can you write c -r- tt?
1.
Explain how the class got each of the last two formulas
in the second row.
2. State a rule for finding the
circumference
of a circle
when the diameter is known.
The circumference,
when the
radius is known.
The diameter,
when the
circumference
is
known. The radius, when the
circumference is known.
3. Dick
Cunningham
found that the
circumference of the
flowerpot,
page 232, was about 25 inches. He found the
diameter as shown below and decided it was about
8
inches.
Was his solution
correct?
d =
25-3i
=
25^
= 25X^ =
W
=
7- 95
234 Problems. Finding Diameter and
Circumference
1. Harriet drew a circle on the blackboard with a radius of
1\
inches. She wished to know the circumference but could
not measure it accurately. Can you find the circumference?
Use t
=
^-.
2. What is the circumference of a circular flower bed, 15
feet in diameter? How many bricks will it take to make an
edge around this bed if the bricks are laid end to end and
each brick takes
8|
inches of the circumference? Use tt
=
2
^-.
3. Copy the following table and fill the blank spaces. Use
T
_22
TT--J-.
Radius Diameter Circumference
12 ft.
42 in.
57 in.
1 yd. 1 ft.
4. How far will an automobile wheel 32 inches in diameter
move forward in one revolution? Make a general statement
of how far any wheel moves forward in one revolution.
5. How many revolutions does a 30-inch wheel make in
going one mile?
6. How many revolutions a minute does a 32-inch wheel
make when the car is going 40 miles an hour?
7. How fast is the automobile going if it has 30-inch wheels
and they are making 300 revolutions a minute?
8. Change
3^
to a decimal fraction. Carry your result to
the nearest ten-thousandth. The correct value of t, to four
decimal places, is 3.1416. How many figures of the two values
of r are equal? Would
3^
be accurate enough to use for r
if you want two figures in your result? Three figures? Four
figures? Five figures?
9. Find the circumference, to the nearest foot, of a circle
800 feet in diameter. Estimate the answer. How many figures
will it contain? What value of ir should you use?
The Area of a Circle 23J
Mr. Sanders took a contract for building a circular
pool.
To find how much concrete it would take, he figured the area
of the pool. How did he do it?
1. Draw a circle with a radius of 3 inches. Cut out and
fold through the center. Fold again and again until you have
the circle divided into eight equal parts as shown in the first
figure. Cut along the creases and rearrange the pieces as
shown in the second figure. If AB and CD were straight lines,
what kind of figure would you have?
2. The area of ABCD can be found just as if it were a
parallelogram. It is equal to ABxDE. Why? DE is what
part of the circle? AB is what part of the circumference?
3. Write a formula for the area of a circle.
4. Mr. Sanders found the formula, A
=
\cr, in his Con-
tractor's Handbook. Does this agree with your formula?
5. The Handbook showed how to put this formula into
a more convenient form, as A =%cr
=
%x2irTXr= ttt
2
. Why
can you put the 2-kt in place of c? What does r
2
mean?
236
Problems.
Finding
the Area of a
Circle
1 . Find the area of a circle
having a 3
inch radius.
A=7rr2 =
-
2
/x9 =
H^
=
28
f
sc
l-
in-
2. The pool Mr.
Sanders built was 60 ft. in
diameter.
Find
the' area of the
bottom to the
nearest
square
yard. Use
7T
=3.1416. Find the cost of covering
the bottom with con-
crete at $2 a square
yard.
3 Mr.
Sanders
also
built a curb
around the pool to retain
the water.
Find the length
of the curb to the nearest
yard.
Use tt
=
3.1416.
What
did this cost at $1.50
a yard?
What
was the total
cost for building
the
pool?
4 Is it
necessary
to use 3.1416
for tt,
instead
of
^f
in
problem
2? See
problem 8,
page 234. How
much
difference
would it
make in the area of the pool, to the
nearest
yard, if
you used tt=-^?
5 A
cement
walk 8 ft.
wide
surrounds a circular
flower bed
20 ft. in
diameter.
Find the
number of square
yards of cement
in the walk.
Draw a figure.
Use tt = 3.1416.
6. A
horse is tied to a post by a rope 12 ft. long.
Over how
many
square
feet can
the
horse
graze? Use tt =
3.1416.
7 If the
horse is tied to a corner
of a barn by a rope 20
ft. long,
over how
many
square
feet can he
graze if the
barn
is'
20 ft', by
30 ft.?
Draw a figure.
Use tt =
3.1416.
8. Copy
the
following
table
and
complete.
Use tt=^-.
Radius
Diameter
Circumference
Area
12 ft.
75 in.
5 in.
100 yd.
88 yd.
1000 ft.
Rectangular Solids and Cubes
You have been studying figures such as rectangles, squares,
triangles, and circles. All of these have only two dimensions

length and width. A solid is a figure having three dimensions

length, width, and height. Finding the size of a solid is
called finding its volume.
If each face of a solid is a rectangle, as in the first figure
above, it is called a rectangular solid. If the length, width,
and height of a rectangular solid are all equal in length, as in
the second figure above, it is called a cube, and each dimen-
sion is called an edge, or side.
1. Is your schoolroom a rectangular solid? Your pencil?
A chalk box? A baseball? A football? A brick?
2. Is a cube always a rectangular solid? Is a rectangular
solid always a cube?
3. Name as many rectangular solids as you can. Which
of these are cubes?
4. What kind of figures are the faces of a rectangular
solid? The faces of a cube?
1. The faces of a rectangular solid are all rectangles.
2. The faces of a cube are all squares.
237
238
The
Volume of a
Rectangular Solid
When Mr.
Cunningham
bought his house, the coalbin
was partly rilled with coal. To find how much coal was in
the bin, Dick had to know how to find the volume of a rec-
tangular solid.
In
measuring areas, we use the area of
a square, one unit on each side, as a
unit. In the same way, in measuring
volumes we use the volume of a cube,
one unit on each edge, as a unit. The
common
units for measuring
volumes are
the cubic inch, cubic foot, and cubic
yard. These are the
volumes of a cube
1 inch, 1 foot, and 1 yard on a side,
respectively.
Dick took some small wooden cubes, one inch on a side,
and built a rectangular solid 3 inches long, 2
inches wide, and
4 inches high. He thought,
"This solid
contains 4
layers of
cubes, like the layers of a cake. Each cube is a cubic inch.
The top layer contains 2 rows of cubes with 3
cubes in each
row. There are 2x3
cubes in the top layer.
Since
there are
4 equal layers, there are 4x2x3
cubes in the solid."
Dick
then wrote the formula, V
=
hwl. Can you state this
formula
in words?
1. If possible,
secure a supply of small wooden
cubes, 1
inch on each side. With
these build
rectangular
solids of
various sizes and verify Dick's rule.
2. Find the volume of each of the
following.
a. h
=
6 in., w
=
S in., Z
= 10 in.
b. h
=
12 ft., w=9 ft., 1
= 23 ft.
c. h=9 ft., m/
= 15 ft., 1
= 20 ft.
d. h
=
3 ft. 6 in., w
=
4 ft., 1
=
6
ft.
V=hwl
The volume of a rectangular solid is equal to the
product
of its height, width, and length.
The Volume of
a Cube
239
Dick also wrote a formula
for the volume
of a
cube. He
thought, "Since the length, width, and height of a cube
are
all equal and each is called an edge of the cube,
V=eX<
=
e\"
Dick explained to his sister that the small
3, written
to
Hit-
right and above the e, shows that e is to be used as a factor
three times. e
z
is just a short way of writing eXeXe. r is
read e cube, or the cube
of
e.
1. Read the following and find their value.
2
3
3
3
4
3
5
3
6
3
10
3
2. The squares and cubes of the numbers from 2 to 6, and
of 10, are used frequently. Make a table of these and then
memorize for future use.
3. How many cubic inches are there in a cubic foot? How
many cubic feet in a cubic yard? Work these out, if you do
not know them, and then memorize for future use.
4. Find the volumes of the following.
a. e
=
7in. c. e
=
2ft. 5 in.
b. e=8ft. d. *=5ft., w=6ft., /
=
10ft.
e. h
=
2\
ft., w
=
3h ft., l=4\ ft.
f. h
=
2 ft. 3 in., w
=
3 ft. 1 in., 1
=
4 ft. 7 in.
5. Mr. Mitchell has a bin 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and
6 feet deep. How many bushels of wheat will the bin hold
if one bushel occupies
1|
cubic feet?
6. Mr. Mitchell's bin, problem 5, is now filled with wheat
to a depth of 4 feet. How many bushels are in the bin? Find
in two ways.
7. Mr. Mitchell wants to build a brick wall. The wall is
to be 40 ft. long, 18 in. thick, and 4 ft. high. How many bricks
will it take, allowing 22 bricks to a cubic foot? What will
the brick cost at $20 a thousand?
m&M
*SK(B*^:
J
Problems.
Volumes
of
Rectangular
Solids
Last
winter
Harry
helped his father
cut ice from their
pond
They cut a
rectangle
of ice from the center
of the pond,
65 feet long
and 40 feet
wide.
The ice was 9
inches
thick.
How
many
tons of ice did they get if 1
cubic foot of ice weighs
about 56j
pounds?
2 Mrs.
Cunningham
bought 75
pounds of ice.
Dick meas-
ured the
piece and
found it was 10
inches X 12
inches X
18
inches
He
figured the
weight of the ice and told
his mother
it
was not full
weight.
How
much
underweight
was the ice?
3 The
coalbin in Mr.
Cunningham's
new
house was 15
ft.
long
and 6 ft. wide and was
filled to a depth of
2
ft. How
many
cubic feet of coal were in the bin? If 1
cubic
foot of coal
weighs 63
pounds, how
many tons were in the bin? How
much
did Mr.
Cunningham
have to pay the
former
owner of the
house
for the coal if he
paid $5.50
a ton?
4.
The bin in
problem 3 can be filled to a depth of
6
feet.
How
many
tons will it hold, when
full?
5. A
water
tank is 12 ft. long, 2 ft. deep,
and
3
ft. wide,
inside
measurements.
How
many
gallons of water
will it
hold if 1 cubic foot
equals l\
gallons?
6 A
classroom
is 36 ft. long, 28 ft. wide, and 11
ft.
high
How
many
pupils will this room
accommodate
if each
pupil
should have 231 cubic feet?
240
Problem Helps. Telling Hon to
241
Solve Problems
1. If
you know
the cos1 of an article and
want
to find
out how many of them you can buy for a certain amount,
what would you do?
2. How do you find the circumference of a circle if the
radius is known? Write a formula.
3. How do you find the radius of a circle if the diameter
is known? Write a formula.
4. How do you find a per cent of a number?
5. What measurements would you need to take to find
the capacity of a rectangular bin? How would you find the
volume? Write a formula.
, 6. What would you need to know and how would you
thWi proceed to find how many revolutions the wheels of an
automobile make in going a mile?
7. If you know the interest and the principal, how do
you find the amount? Write a formula.
8. If you know the principal and the amount of the inter-
est for one year, how do you find the rate of interest? Can
you write a formula?
9. Mr. McCoy is a dealer in used automobiles. He bought,
repaired, and sold a used Ford. What would you need to
know, and how would you proceed, to find what per cent
of the selling price he made as profit?
10. The length and width of a rectangle are known in
feet. How would you find the number of square inches in
the area? The number of square yards?
11. Harry wanted to find the area of a circular flower bed.
He measured the diameter. How did he find the area?
12. How would you find the number of cubic yards in a
bin if you knew the number of cubic feet?
13. How do you find the radius of a circle if the circumfer-
ence is known?
242
Problem
Test
Solve
each of the
following
problems and check.
1. Thomas is a
member
of his high school
baseball team.
He
made 12 safe hits last season
and hit safely 2
times out
of every
5 times at bat. How
often was he at bat?
2. Mr.
Cunning-
ham's
cistern is built
in the
basement. It
is
rectangular in shape
and is 10 feet long, 8
feet wide, and 6 feet
deep.
How many bar-
rels of water will it
hold if 1 barrel
equals
31|
gallons?
3. One
day Dick
measured
the
water in the cistern. He
took a pole and
lowered it into the
cistern
until the end
touched the
bottom.
The pole was wet to a depth of 20
inches.
How
many
gallons of water
were in the cistern?
4. The
Busy Bee Store held a July
Clearance
Sale during
which they
offered a 20%
discount on
everything
in the store.
During
the sale
Mrs.
Conners
bought the
following:
suit,
original
price, $37.50;
rug,
original
price, $125;
curtains,
original
price, $12.50;
hat, original
price, $7.50.
Find the total
amount she
paid.
5. Carpet is sold by the
linear yard.
Fractional
parts of
a linear
yard can be
bought, but split widths cannot be pur-
chased.
Find the cost of carpeting a room 14
ft. by 20
ft.,
with
carpet 27 inches wide and costing $3.50
a linear yard,
running
the carpet
the long way of the room. How much
would it cost if the carpet is run the short way?
Draw a dia-
gram for each way.
6. Boy scouts
should be able to estimate
weights with an
error of not more than 25%
of the true weight.
Dick estimated
the weight of an iron bar to be 30
pounds. What was his
per cent of error if the true weight of the bar was 25
pounds?
a
Problem Test, Continued
243
Solve each of the following problems and check.
1. A hollow brass tube is 12
inches long. The end is lj inches
square, outside measurements. The
opening is also square and 1 inch on
each side. What will the tube
weigh if 1 cubic inch of brass weighs
.3 lb.? Can you work this problem
in more than one way?
2. Mr. Peters paid $1.25 a cubic yard for an excavation
30 ft. wide, 45 ft. long, and A\ ft. deep. He sold the dirt for
45^ a cubic yard. How much did the excavation cost him
if the volume of dirt expanded 33
J
%
in digging?
3. John Bowers & Company use gas in their factory. Last
month they burned 27,000 cubic feet. Find the cost accord-
ing to the schedule below if they took the discount.
Readiness-to-serve charge $1.00 per month
First 1,000 cu. ft. per month 1.20 per thousand
Next 4,000 cu. ft. per month 1.15 per thousand
Next 15,000 cu. ft. per month 1.00 per thousand
All over 20,000 cu. ft. per month 85 per thousand
Discount of
5^
per 1000 cubic feet for prompt payment.
4. How much does it cost to run an electric waffle iron for
1 hour if the iron uses 500 watts per hour and current costs
7^
per kilowatt hour?
5. Mr. Owens sells electric vacuum cleaners and receives
15%
of the selling price as his commission. What must his
sales amount to in a week if he is to earn $45 a week?
6. Mr. Jones owned a cow that yielded 8950 pounds of
milk in one year, 3.6% of which was butterfat. His separator
removed about 96%
of the butterfat from the milk. How
many pounds of butterfat did he obtain from this one cow in a
year? What was this worth if he received an average price
of 21
j
a pound for the butterfat?
244
Diagnostic Tests in the Fundamental
Processes
LOCATING YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Work these
examples and check. Work as fast as you can
without hurrying.
1.
2.
a.
Diagnostic Tests in IVrr*iitaf;*
245
LOCATING
Vol K DIFFICULTIES
Work these ex
without hurrying.
1. a.
Write 23.7
as a per
cent.
e.
Write 850%
as a whole
or mixed
number.
imples and check. Work as f.t-t
ae you can
2. a.
Write the
common
fraction
equivalent
of
83%.
e.
Write .0985
as a per
cent.
1>.
32 is what
%
of 40?
f.
Find 73.4%
of $39.12.
(Nearest
cent)
b.
8.7 is what
per cent of
9.3? (Nearest
tenth of a
per cent)
f.
Write
212j%
as a w
r
hole or
mixed number.
c.
Write the
%
equivalent
off*
if.
Change
^
to a per cent.
c.
Write 7.3%
as a
decimal.
f-
r
-
d.
Writ,-
L69%
as a decimal.
h.
Find the whole,
if 47.6% of it
equals S7.49.
(Nearest cent
d.
Find the whole,
if 300% of it
equals SI 74.
h.
3
Find 6.27% Write
If
as a
of $92.18. percent.
(Nearest cent)
OVERCOMING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Then
turn to the Practice Tests (pages 307 to
340)
for further practice as
suggested below.
la

40 le

38 2a

37 2e

40
lb

43 If

42 2b

43 2f

38
lc

37 lg

41 2c

39 2g

42
Id

39 lh 44 2d

44 2h 44
MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS
Take Improvement Test Number Four. Record your score on
your Score Card. Did you improve? Find the class average and
bring your graph up to date.
246
Chapter Test
1. Name one standard unit for each of the following:
Length.
Area or surface. Volume.
Capacity. Weight,
2. Name each of the figures given below.
3. State two facts about the opposite sides of a parallelogram.
4. Name each of the angles given below.
5. Write a formula for each of the following
a. Area of rectangle
b. Perimeter of rectangle
c. Area of square
d. Area of
parallelogram
6. Write a formula for finding
each of the following
e. Area of triangle
f. Area of trapezoid
g.
Volume of rectangular solid
h. Volume of a cube
a. Area of a circle, when the radius is known.
b. Diameter, when the radius is known.
c.
Radius, when the diameter is known.
d.
Circumference,
when the diameter is known.
e.
Circumference, when the radius is known.
f. Diameter, when the
circumference is known.
g.
Radius, when the
circumference is known.
Chapter Test, Continued 247
7. Write true or false on your paper for each of the following
statements.
a.
All rectangles are parallelogram
-
1>. All parallelograms are rectangles.
c. AH rectangles are squares.
d.
All squares are rectangles.
e. Alt rectangular
solids are cubes.
f. A
cube is a rectangular solid.
8. How many
cubic inches arc there in a cubic foot? How
many cubic feet in a cubic yard?
IsJZ.
\
9. Eugene wished to find the
\ area of the trapezoid shown a1 the
\ left. He measured the bases and one
5*
\ of the sides. His solution is shown
\ below.
23 ft.
\
6
A
=
JX12
(15+23) ^XJ^X38
= 228 sq. ft.
Was
Eugene's solution correct? Why?
10. The bottom of a clothes boiler has parallel sides and
semicircular ends (half a circle) as
shown in the figure. How many square
inches of material does it contain it
it is 21 inches long and 13 inches wide?
Use7r
=
^.
11. A tin ring for the bottom of a cake pan is 8 inches in
diameter and has a hole in the center 2 inches in diameter.
Find the number of square inches of tin. (Find the number
of square inches of tin there would be if there were no hole in
the center. Then find the number of square inches of tin that were
cut out of the center to form the hole. Use iv
=
^L
f
L
.)
12. Copy the following and fill the blanks.
a. 5X2+3=
b.
5(2+3)
=
c. 2X3+3X4
=
Roosevelt
McKinley
o
Washington
o
o
w
Adams
Wilson
Jefferson
| | | | | |
|
T
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
|
Z II A r I E R
8
Picturing lumbers. Qrapks
-ttES^asnjr
*
You have probably heard the old saying that "Seeing is
believing." Most people find it easier to understand number
facts and relations when they are illustrated by pictures like
those on the opposite page. They are called bar graphs.
1. Mr. Anderson, superintendent of schools in Williams-
town, made the first graph, showing the number of pupils in
his elementary schools. Which school has the largest number
of pupils? Which has the smallest? How does the graph tell
this?
2. The numbers following the school names show that
there are approximately twice as many pupils in Adams School
as in the Jefferson. Does the graph show this? How?
3. Make similar comparisons for the McKinley and Adams
Schools. The Roosevelt and Jefferson. The McKinley and
Wilson. The McKinley and Jefferson.
4. How many pupils does one small square represent?
Five squares?
5. Agnes found the second graph in her geography. How
many millions of square miles are there in each continent?
6. Which is the largest continent? The smallest?
7. Asia is how many times as large as North America?
8. Compare the area of South America with that of Africa.
Europe with Africa. North America with Europe.
9. How many square miles does the height of a square
represent?
10. Bring to class as many examples of bar graphs as you
can find.
249
Directions for
[Making liar
Graphs
7. The unit in which the scale numbers arc
expressed
should always be below or opposite
the scale numbers. The
unit in the first graph on page 250 is
a square mile. Wh.n 1
the unit in the second graph? In each graph on page 248?
a. The graph will be more useful if the number
represented
by each bar is given. This may be placed within
the bar as
shown in the second graph on page 250. On a horizontal bar
graph it is often placed to the left of the bar. On a vertical
bar graph it may be placed directly above the bar.
Problems. Making Bar Graphs
Make bar graphs to represent the following. You will find
it convenient to use graph paper which is ruled in squares.
1. On an arithmetic test Alice worked 8 examples cor-
rectly, Jane 9, Louise 6, Agnes
10, John 4, Harry 7, Robert
8,
Henry 10, and Tom 9. Let one square represent one example.
2. Louise Baker's final grades were: arithmetic
95, geogra-
phy 87, reading 72, spelling 80, history 65, manual training
97. Let one square represent a grade of 10. Why?
3. In 1875, Captain Webb of England swam the English
Channel in 21 hours 45 min-
utes. In 1926, Gertrude
Ederle of the United States
swam it in 14 hours 31 min-
utes. In 1927, Venceslas
Spacek of Bohemia swam it
in 10 hours 45 minutes.
4. Recent American men's
speed records for a mile are:
swimming, 21 min. 35.6 sec;
walking, 6 min. 28 sec;
running, 4 min. 12 sec; skating, 2 min. 41.2 sec; riding a
bicycle, 2 min. 2 sec.
5. Make at least one original bar graph. Choose your own
subject and furnish the required information.
1,500,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
S2SJ35L

20Z281:
i I
1911 1915
1919 1923 1927
GROWTH IN
MEMBERSHIP OF BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
1943
Picture Graphs
Sometimes
pictures are used instead of bars, to make the
graph more interesting. Two kinds are shown on this page.
1. In the graph at the top of the page, the heights of the
scouts show the relative sizes of the membership. Read from
the graph the total membership for each year shown.
2. The graph below shows that there were almost 14,500
aliens
naturalized in Chicago in 1932. How many
individuals does each
figure represent?
Explain the rest of the graph.
1932 A
SSIA
384,000,000 bu.)
ITED STATES
8,000,000 bu.)
NADA
1,000,000 bu.)
)IA
1,000,000 bu.)
GENTINA
6,000,000 bu.)
\NCE
1,000,000 bu.)
STRALIA
3,000,000 bu.)
254
line Graphs
00 CO
6 r^
00 00
o> en
CNJ CO
CO CO
Years
ENROLLMENT IN
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOLS OF
WILLIAMSTOWN,
1930-41
Mr. Anderson wanted
to picture the changes in
the number of pupils in
his elementary
schools
from 1930 to 1941. He
decided to draw a line
graph as shown at the
side.
1. The graph shows
that there were about
660
pupils enrolled in the
elementary
schools of Wil-
liamstown in
1930-31. Can
you estimate the enroll-
ment for each of the other
years shown?
1938
several
rural districts
2. During the summer
of
decided to buy busses and
transport
their
pupils to
Williams-
town.
What effect did this have on the
enrollment?
3. A
glance at the graph
shows
that the line, as a whole,
rises as it goes from left to right.
What
does this show about
the change in enrollment in the
Williamstown
schools?
4. If the enrollment had
decreased,
what would have been
true about the line? Can you find
any
years when there was
a decrease?
5. For which years was
there no change in enrollment?
How does the graph show this?
6. A line graph is used to show
changes.
This graph pictures
the changes in enrollment
from year to year. For which year
was the change the greatest?
7. Which of the words, rising,
descending,
horizontal
belongs
in each blank below?
a. A decrease is shown by a
line.
b. No change is shown by a
line.
c. An increase is shown by a
line.
I sing Lino
Graphs in
School
255
1. Agnes made a score of
('>()'
j
oil
a spelling test, Monday. From
the
graph read her scores on each of the
other days.
2. In general, did Agnes' score in-
crease or decrease during the week?
How much?
3. On which days did Agnes' score
improve over the preceding day?
Decrease? How can you tell this from
the graph?
4. How much did her
prove on Friday?
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
90
80
60
40
20
Directions for Making Line (riapli-
259
5. He then placed the horizontal scale numbers on the
map and wrote a statement below explaining wh.it
they repre-
sent. Read these numbers. What do they represent?
6. Next he started with the first year, 1912. His history
book stated that there were 838,172 immigrants during thai
year, so he moved his pencil up along the vertical line above
1912 until he came to the line marked 800,000. He then
moved the pencil about one third of the di tance bel
the line marked 800,000 and the line representing 900,000
and made a dot. What does this dot represent?
7. The history
7
book gave 1,197,892 as the number of im-
migrants in 1913; 1,218,480 in 1914; 326,700 in 1915. Do
you see how Edward located the points for these numbers?
8. After Edward located all of the points, he drew a straight
line from the first point to the second, from the second to
the third, and so on.
Problems. Making Line Graphs
Make line graphs to represent the following facts. If possi-
ble, use graph paper ruled in squares.
1. Agnes' report card shows the following monthly grades
in arithmetic: 85, 78, 81, 89, 95, 87, 90, 98, 94.
2. Ty Cobb was the champion batter of the American
League for twelve years. His records for these years were:
1907, 358; 1908, 350; 1909, 354; 1910, 377; 1911, 385; 1912,
420; 1913, 410; 1914, 390; 1915, 370; 1917, 383; 1918, 382;
1919, 384.
3. Miss Smith's class recorded the temperature for one
spring day as follows: 9 A.M.,
71; 10 A.M.,
74;
11 A.M.,
76;
12 noon,
80; 1 P.M.,
82; 2 P.M.,
82;
3 P.M.,
78;
4 P.M.,
72.
4. Make at least one original line graph. Choose your own
subject.
5. Bring examples of line graphs to class. Explain and
criticize.
1,391
59.3%
WHAT DO
24 HOURS
RACES OF PEOPLE
IN THE UNITED STATES
WHERE MY
MONEY GOES
B
23%
C
40%
D
21%
:.
GIRLS
16
59.3
%
BOYS
li
40.7 %
DISTRIBUTION OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE
SEVENTH YEAR OF THE HOWARD SCHOOL
Making Rectangle Graphs
There were 16 girls and 11 boys in the seventh year of the
Howard School. Louise Henderson represented this by a
rectangle
graph. She drew her rectangle 3
inches long. Since
the girls formed
f
of the class, she took
Jf
of 3
inches and
found it was 1.78 inches approximately. Since this is just a
little more than
If
inches, she made the part of the rectangle
which represents the girls
If
inches long.
Draw rectangle graphs to represent the following facts.
1. Robert Sousa spent his allowance last week as follows:
moving pictures, 20^;
candy, 10^;
ice cream cone,
5;
saved,
15^.
Make your rectangle 5 inches long.
2. In a recent, year about 46.3% of the farms in the United
States were operated by full owners, 10.4% by part owners,
.9%
by managers, and 42.3% by tenants.
3. Make a rectangle graph showing the per cent of boys
and girls in your class.
4. Make a rectangle graph showing the distribution of the
enrollment in your school by grades.
5. Make an original rectangle graph. Choose your own
subject for this graph.
6. Find a rectangle graph in a newspaper or magazine.
262
The Meaning of
ingle
Dick Cunningham road about
angles in his
Boy Seoul
Handbook. He had trouble
understanding, so his
Bcoutmaster
had Dick go through the exercises given below.
1. Face east. Turn to your left until you face north.
Through what part of a complete revolution have you
turned?
One fourth of a complete revolution is called a right angle.
2. Face east. Turn to your left until you face between
east and north. Have you turned through more or less than
a right angle? What is such an angle called? (Page 213)
3. Face east. Turn to your left until you face west. What
part of a complete turn have you made? One half of a com-
plete revolution is called a straight angle.
4. Face east. Turn to your left until you face in a direc-
tion between north and west. Have you turned through more
or less than a right angle? More or less than a straight angle?
What is such an angle called? (Page 213)
5. The two lines marking the boundaries of the turning,
or angle, are called the sides. OX and OY are the sides of the
first angle below. Read the sides of the other angles.
6. The point about which the turning takes place is called
the vertex. Where is the vertex of each angle in problem 5?
7. The first angle in problem 5 is read Angle XOY, or Angle
YOX. The letter at the vertex is read in the middle. Read the
other angles.
8. Which angle in prob. 5 is a right angle? Acute? Obtuse?
D 90 80

,o
<?
^
B

A
Measuring Angles. A New Unit of Measure
You have learned that in measuring distances, areas, and
volumes, we must have a unit of measure which must be the
same kind of quantity as that being measured. The same is
true in measuring angles. The unit used in measuring angles
is a small angle called a degree. It is equal to
fa
of a right
angle. The sign

is used for degree.
1. The figure shows a right angle divided into 90 equal
angles, each of which is
1, or 1 degree. The sides of some of
the angles are not drawn clear to the vertex, as they would
be too close together. Find the following angles on the figure:
10 30 45 60 90 57 13 1 8 79
2. How many degrees are there in angle AOB in the figure?
AOC? AOD? BOC? BOD? COD?
3. How many degrees are there in a complete revolution?
In a straight angle? In an acute angle? An obtuse angle?
264
Using a Protractor to Measure Angles
In measuring distances it is convenient to have a straight
rule with units of distance marked along the edge. In measur-
ing angles it is convenient to have a circular rule with degrees
marked along the edge. Such a rule is called a protractor. It
may be a complete circle, a half circle, or a quarter circle. The
half circle form shown above is the commonest.
To measure an angle, such as angle AOB above, place the
protractor with the center (marked by arrow) on the vertex
of the angle. Turn the protractor until one side of the angle
passes through
0.
Note where the other side of the angle
crosses the protractor. The angle AOB contains
35.
1. Edward Thompson measured the angle AOB and said
it contained 145.
Do you see what mistake he made?
2. Draw a number of angles on a piece of paper. Make
some less and some greater than a right angle. Measure them
with a protractor.
3. Using a protractor, draw an angle of
15, 30, 45, 82,
135, 168.
265
u*
jjBHf
WEIGHT OF
PUPILS IN
WASHINGTON
SCHOOL
Making
Circle
Graphs
The pupils of the
Washington
School were given a physical
examination.
Twenty per cent were
underweight, 15%
were
overweight,
and the rest were normal.
Eugene
Sanders made
a circle graph to show these facts. He
proceeded as described
below.
Study and
explain,
a. He drew a circle.
_2o_
X
360 =
|X360
=72
3^X360
=
2
3
oX360
=54
With his
protractor he drew an angle equal to 72, with
the vertex at the center of the circle.
Next to this he drew an angle equal to
54.
Why
did Eugene take
-flft
of
360?
&
of
360?
Draw a circle graph to illustrate the data given in prob-
lem 3,
page 253.
3. Make circle
graphs to show the
following
facts.
In
1930-31 the United States
produced 1,932,000
bales
of cotton;
India, 4,033,000;
Egypt, 1,715,000;
China,
2,250,000;
Brazil, 455,000;
Russia, 1,550,000.
Of the
12,049,000
radio sets in the
United States in one
year, it is
estimated
that 1,371,000
were on farms.
Make an
original circle graph.
Choose
your own subject.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1.
2.
a.
b.
4.
266
Choosing the Type <>f Graph 267
The kind of graph to be used depends on the nature of the
facts to be pictured. The graphs you have studied may t>e
used for many purposes, the most important being:
a. To show the changes in some quantityhow it increa
e
and decreases. The line graph is best for this purpose,
but the bar and picture graphs are also used.
b. To show the relative sizes of two or more quantities.
The bar and picture graphs are best suited for this.
c. To show how the different parts of some whole compare
in size with the whole and with each other. Circle and
rectangle graphs show this best.
1. The topics given below might be pictured graphically.
Which type of graph would you use to represent each? Could
you use more than one kind for any of them?
a. To show the changes in the number of airplanes manu-
factured in the United States each year for the last ten
years.
b. To compare the number of airplanes manufactured in
the United States last year with the number manufac-
tured in Great Britain.
c. To show what part of the total number of airplanes
manufactured in the world last year were made in the
United States, in Great Britain, and in the rest of the
world.
2. Name three sets of facts that might be pictured by a
circle graph. A line graph. A picture graph. A bar graph.
A rectangle graph.
3. Make a brief statement telling for what each type of
graph mentioned in the preceding
question may be used.
Can any be used for more than one purpose?
4. According to a recent survey 25%
of accidents to chil-
dren occur at home, 20% in school, 20%
on school grounds.
8%
on way to and from school, and 27%
in other places.
Illustrate with a graph. What type might you use? Which
do you prefer? Give your reasons.
268 Making Graphs
IS THE WORLD GETTING SMALLER?
Draw a graph to illustrate each of the following. Choose the
type
y
u think most suitable.
1. In 1519, Magellan sailed around the world in 1083 days.
Since then the following records have been made for circling
the globe, by different routes:
Charles Fitzmorris (1901) 60

days
J. W. Sayre (1903)
54i
days
Henry Fredericks (1903) 54 days
Col. Brunlay-Campbell (1907) 401 days
Andre Jaeger-Smith (191 1)
39f
days
J. H. Mears (1913) 36 days
E. S. Evans and L. Wells (1926) 28} days
Capt. Collyer and J, H. Mears (1928) 23* days
Graf Zeppelin, dirigible balloon (1929) 20 days
Wiley Post, in monoplane Winnie Mae (1933) .... 7| days
Howard Hughes, in Lockheed monoplane (1938) . . 3| days
Capt. James W. Chapman, Jr., in Army plane (1941) 5 days
2. The first American ship to use steam in crossing the Atlantic
was the Savannah, a sailing vessel with auxiliary steam. She
crossed in 1819 in 26 days, during 18 of which she used steam.
The principal steamship records since then are:
Great Western (1838) 10} days
Persia (1856) 9 days
Scotia (1866) 8 days
Arizona (1880) 7\
days
Alaska (1882) 6| days
Etruria (1888)
6 days
Majestic (1891) 5f
days
Lucania (1894) 5$
days
Lusitania (1909) 4} days
Rex (1933) 4} days
Queen Mary (1938)
3f
days
3. Times for transatlantic airplane flights:
Lindbergh 33 hr. 30 min.
Chamberlin and Levine 42 hr. 31 min.
Byrd, Neville, Acosta, Balden 46 hr. 6 min.
Williams and Yancey 30 hr. 30 min.
Amelia Earhart Putnam 14 hr. 56 min.
Mattern and Griffin 18 hr. 40 min.
Felix Wilkus 23 hr. 15 min.
Howard Hughes 16 hr. 38 min.
American-built bomber (1942) 6 hr. 40 min.
Making Graphs
269
CAUSES OF AUTOMOBILE
ACCIDENTS
The number of
persons injured
and killed by automobiles greatly
increased in the years preceding
World War
II. A knowledge of
the causes of accidents will help you to avoid them.
Select facts
from the tables below to make three graph8.
1. Actions of Pedestrians Resulting in Deaths and Injuries.
Crossing at intersection:
With signal
Against signal
No signal
Diagonally
Crossing between intersections
Waiting for, getting on or off streetcar
Getting on or off other vehicle
Children playing in street
At work in road
Hiding or hitching on vehicle
Coming from behind parked car
Walking on rural highway
Miscellaneous
Total
Pedesl riane
Killed
190
740
2,150
210
3,950
40
140
650
500
120
890
2,270
650
12,500
Per
<
!en1
1.5
5.9
17.2
17
31.6
.3
1.1
5.L'
4.0
1.0
7.1
18.2
5.2
100.0
Pedeatriani
[njured
i:;.::mo
:il,">r.o
18,210
3,490
74,630
1,460
3,190
34.S50
7,840
3,490
38,910
11,330
13,060
290,400
< '.lit
5 3
1 1 ,9
16 B
i 2
25.7
.5
1.1
12.0
2.7
1.2
13.4
3.9
4.5
100.0
2. Actions of Drivers Resulting in Deaths
270 Problem Helps. Telling How to
Solve Problems
1. How do you find the area of a square? Write a formula.
2. How do you find the area of a triangle? Write a
formula.
3. If you know the rate of interest, the principal, and
the time, how do you find the interest? Write a formula.
4. If you know the principal and the amount of interest
for one year, how do you find the rate of interest?
5. What is a trapezoid? How do you find its area? Write
a formula.
6. How do you find per cent of increase? Of decrease?
7. How do you find the diameter of a circle if the circum-
ference is known? Write a formula.
8. How do you find the diameter of a circle if the radius
is known? Write a formula.
9. What measurements would you need to take to find
the number of cubic inches in a box in the shape of a cube?
How would you find the volume? Write a formula.
10. If you know the length and width of a rectangular
field, in rods, how do you find the number of acres? If the
length and width are in feet, how would you proceed?
11. The drive wheels of
a railroad engine are mak-
ing 200 revolutions a min-
ute. What else would you
need to know, and how
would you proceed, to find
the speed of the train?
12. If you know what
an automobile cost and what it is now worth, how do you
find the per cent of depreciation?
13. If you know the number of games won by a ball team
and the number lost, how do you find what per cent of the
number played was won?
Problem Helps.
Choosing the Facts
^ on NohI
In each problem one or more facts arc
given that
.'ire
not
needed in the solution of the problem.
Decide which facts
you need and solve the problem. Check.
1. Mrs. Sanders used
two gas burners for 5 hours
in canning 12 quarts of
beans. Each burner con-
sumed 6 cubic feet of gas
per hour. How much did
the gas cost at $1 per thou-
sand cubic feet?
2. A $1700 note, due in
90 days with interest at
6%,
is paid in 30 days. Find
the amount paid.
3. The McManns expect to spend 20% of their income for
rent, 25%
for food,
20% for clothing, and 20% for all other
expenses. What should their income be to justify $50 a month
for rent?
4. During one month a farmer sent 8000 pounds of milk
to a creamery. The milk contained 304 lbs. butterfat and
tested 3.8 per cent butterfat, on the average. How much
did he receive if he was paid 21^ a pound for the butterfat?
5. Mr. Smith sells automobiles. He receives a commission
of 10% on his sales. The car he sells has a 6 cylinder, 60
horsepower engine, and a 116 inch wheel base. It sells for
$950. How much does he receive on each car he sells?
6. A driveway 50 ft. long and 8 ft. wide is to be covered
with crushed stone to a depth of 10 inches. Find the cost
at $2 a square yard.
7. The bases of a trapezoid are 6 ft. and 12 ft. Each of
the other sides is 5 ft. The altitude is 4 ft. Find the area.
*
Problem Helps. Supplying
the Missing Facts
In each problem below one or more needed facts are missing.
Look up the facts needed, or have your class agree on probable
figures, and solve the problems.
Check.
1. In 1935,
Campbell drove an automobile at Salt Lake,
Utah, at the average speed of 484.94 kilometers an hour.
This is equivalent to how many miles an hour?
2. The light in the lighthouse at Fire Island, N. Y., can
be seen at a distance of 19 nautical miles in clear weather.
This is how many statute miles?
3. On June 30, the Brown's gas meter read 57,890
cubic
feet. What was their bill for June at $1.10 per thousand
cubic feet?
4. In 1933, Gar A. Wood drove his motorboat, the Miss
America X, at an average speed of 72.98 knots an hour. This
was how many statute miles an hour?
5. Mr. McAndrews owns a store. Last year his sales totaled
$12,239. The goods he sold cost him $7,813.
Find his profit
for the year.
6. A note for $2500,
with interest at
7%,
is paid 30
days
before it falls due. Find the amount due.
272
Problem Helps. Making
Problems 273
Enough data are given in each list
below to enable you to
find one or more facts that arc not
given. Make
one
problem out of each list. Solve each of your
problems and
check.
1. The pupils of the Longfellow School held a sch<x)l fair
one Friday afternoon. The seventh grade pupils gave a play.
The fair lasted 3 hours and 15 minutes, and the play took 45
minutes. They could seat 50 pupils at each performance, and
they charged
5^
admission.
2. A farmer shipped five steers to Chicago. They weighed
1280 lb., 1135 lb., 1076 lb., 1217 lb., and 1179 lb. when shipped.
The shrinkage in weight due to transportation was 3.2%.
The farmer sold them at
4j^
a pound.
3. Mr. Owen drove his automobile 79 miles in
2\ hours.
4. A farmer had a bin full of potatoes. The bin was 4 ft.
by 8 ft. by 5 ft. A bushel occupies about
\\
cubic feet.
5. A train makes the trip from Buffalo to New York, a
distance of 398 miles, in 11 hours and 45 minutes. Of this
time 15 minutes is taken up in making stops.
6. Mr. Mason paid $1725 for an automobile and drove it
42,000 miles during the first year. He spent $85.50 for tires,
$57.40 for repairs, and $630.64 for gas and oil. At the end of
the year he sold the car for $650. The money invested in the
car could have been loaned at
6% interest.
7. A field is 125 rods long and 70 rods wide. A strip 4 feet
wide all around the field next to the fence is not cultivated.
8. The side of a square field is 100 rods long.
9. Five years ago Mr. West paid $4500 for a house and lot
in Smithville. Since then property in Smithville has increased
about 20% in value.
10. In a recent year there were approximately 45 million
automobiles registered in the entire world. Of these 30 million
were in the United States.
11. Mr. Simmons sold $1500 worth of goods in December.
His sales in January were 15% less than in December.
274
Problem Test
1. Draw a picture graph
to show the relative heights
of the following: Empire
State Building, New York,
1248 ft. ; Chrysler Building,
New York, 1046 ft.; Eiffel
Tower, Paris, 1000 ft.;
Great Pyramid, Egypt,
480 ft.
2. Last summer The
Busy Bee Store held a July
Clearance Sale during
which they offered a 25%
discount on everything in the store.
Following are the original
prices of the things Mrs. Conners bought during the sale: suit,
$37.50; rug, $125;
curtains, $12.50;
hat, $7.50. Find the total
amount she paid.
3. Copy the following table and complete. Use x
22
7
'
Radius
12 ft.
Diameter
Circumference
Area
5 mi.
88 yd.
4. In 1920,
there were 20,092,000
horses on farms in the United
States,
while' in 1940,
there were only 10,616,000.
Find to the
nearest tenth of a per cent, the per cent of decrease. How do you
account for this decrease?
5. Mr. Norris sells furniture at such prices that 65%
of the
selling price equals the cost. At what will he sell a chair that
costs him $8.25? Draw a diagram.
6. Mr. Simmons owns a store. The expenses of running the
store average 25%
of the sales. At what must he sell an article
which costs him $8.50, in order to make a profit of
10%
of the
selling price? Draw a diagram.
Diagnostic Tests in
iln* Fundamental
Processes
275
LOCATING YOUR DIFFH IULTIES
Work as fasl as you can
Work these examples and check
without hurrying.
1. a.
2. a.
e.
3
v

270 Diagnostic Tests in Percentage
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Work these examples and check. Work as fast as you can
without hurryin
Chapter
IVsi 27"
Write the numbers 1 to 12 on a piece of paper. After the e
numbers write the words, or numbers, which
belong in
) 1 it-
corresponding blanks below.
1. Bar and picture graphs are used to show the relative
of two or more quantities.
id
2. Circle and rectangle graphs show how different parts
of a whole compare in size to each other and to the
(2)
3. Line graphs are used to show how a quantity
(3)
How it or
(4) (5)
4. The lengths of the great ocean steamships of recent
years were: Majestic, 915 feet; Berengaria, 884 feet; Bremen,
899 feet; Rex, 880 feet; Europa, 890 feet; Leviathan, 908
feet; Olympic, 852 feet; Aquitania, 869 feet; Normandie, 981
feet; Queen Mary, 975 feet. To illustrate these facts, I would
draw either a graph, or a graph.
(6) (7)
5. For safe driving you should know how quickly you can
stop your car. In the graph below, each black car represents
one car length you travel after you decide to stop and before
you place your foot on the brake. Each white car represents
one car length you travel after you apply the brakes. The
graph shows that when driving 30 miles an hour, you travel
car lengths while thinking and more while applying
(8)
(9,
the brakes, or car lengths before you stop.
(10)
20
4p 4Cp C=>
30
mm
0K+
C^ C^> >
50^^ ** * *2p C=> C^> C^> C^? C^? C=^ ^p C=S
'Miles per hour
DISTANCE REQUIRED FOR STOPPING AN AUTOMOBILE
6. The graph above is called a graph.
(id
7. Every graph should have a title. The title of the graph
above is .
(12)
c ii a p r E it
Using geometry
One afternoon Dick Cunningham stopped to watch a sur-
veyor making a map of a city lot. To locate a large tree in
the proper place on his map, the surveyor measured the dis-
tance and direction of the tree from the corner of the lot.
In measuring direction, he used an instrument called a transit.
This is a telescope mounted over a circular protractor on a
tripod. A transit is used to measure angles in surveying.
The angle is measured on the protractor, and the telescope
enables the surveyor to see a greater distance.
The surveyor first placed the transit over the corner of the
lot A, as shown above, and sighted through the telescope at
the tree B. Next he turned the telescope and sighted along
the edge of the lot at a pole C. He then read on the protractor
the angle through which the telescope had turned. This
angle measured the difference in the directions of B and C
from A. Whenever it is necessary to determine direction or
differences in direction, we must measure some angle. Most
work in surveying is based on the measurement of angles and
distances.
Angles and other geometrical figures such as squares,
rectangles, parallelograms,
triangles, and circles are used in
architecture, landscape
gardening, engineering, art, and in-
dustry. In this chapter you will learn how to construct these
figures and some important facts about them. You will find
these facts useful in many ways.
279
JUUDp
"DDpr
LJLJUUL
|U!
Joan
DODO
~1DI
a
JDDOI
LCioririp
inr-inr"
Making Geometrical Designs
Thousands of years ago the Babylonians, Egyptians, and
others used geometric forms and patterns in decorating floors,
walls, vases, cloth, and other articles. Today geometric forms
are even more widely used for decorative purposes.
Many designs can be made by the use of paper ruled in
squares. Secure several sheets ruled in squares about an
eighth of an inch on a side.
1. The first design illustrated above shows a popular old
quilt pattern, called the Double Irish Chain. Find examples
of other old quilt patterns using geometric figures.
2. Can you find any other examples of designs using
squares, rectangles, and triangles? Examine wallpapers, lino-
leums, tile floors, towels, tablecloths, luncheon sets, lace
embroidery, bedspreads, curtains, carpets, baskets, book
covers, and so on. You will also find many illustrations in
magazines. Bring as many examples as you can to school.
Copy on squared paper some of the designs you find.
3. Make at least one original design using squares, rec-
tangles, and triangles. Make your design for some definite
purpose, such as a border for a book, or a linoleum pattern.
280
I
.
^
\
Making Geometrical Designs
Simple geometric designs can be made with squared paper; hut
before you can make one like the cathedral window above, you
must know how to make geometrical const ructions with drawing
instruments. You will need:
A straightedge and rule to be used in drawing straight lines and
measuring distances.
A pair of compasses to be used in drawing circles.
A protractor to be used in measuring angles.
A draftsman's triangle to be used in drawing perpendiculars.
1
1
)
1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
I
1
282
Vertical
Angles
AN IMPORTANT
GEOMETRICAL
FACT
Study this page and the next and you will discover two im-
portant facts about
angles that are often used by carpenters,
engineers, and many other people. If you have forgotten about
angles, review pages 213 and 263.
1. Draw three straight lines through the same point, as
shown in the figure. Meas-
ure each of the six angles
formed. Add as a check
to your
measurements. What
should the sum equal? Did
it come out exactly correct?
Why?
2. Draw a straight line as AB. Draw three other lines
meeting it at some point as
C. Measure each of the
four angles formed. Add as
a
cheek on your measure-
ments. What should the sum
equal? Why?
3. Draw two
intersecting
straight lines as in the figure.
Measure angles a and b.
What do you find? Meas-
ure angles c and d. What
do you find about
these
angles?
4. Angles such as a and b, or c and d, in problem
3,
are
called vertical angles. Make a statement
about the sizes of
two vertical angles.
5. Verify your statement by drawing
another pair of inter-
secting lines and measuring the vertical angles.
Vertical angles are equal.
The Sum
of the Angles of a Triangle 283
One of the most important
facts about
triangles ha to do
with the sum of the three
angles. You ran discover wli.n
the sum is by studying this pa.u*
Draw a large triangle on paper. Measure each
of the three
angles and add. Draw at least two other
triangles of diffi
sizes and shapes and find the sum of the three
angles of each.
What do you find about the sum?
If your triangles were carefully drawn and your measure-
ments accurate, the sum of the three angles of each
triangle
was about
180.
It is proved in geometry that this sum is
exactly
180. This is one of the most important facts in
geometry, being frequently used by architects,
surveyors,
carpenters, and other practical men.
1. A straight line is what part of a complete revolution?
How many right angles equal a straight angle? How many
degrees?
2. Draw a large triangle on paper and cut it out. Tear
off the three corners and put the three angles together so as
to get their sum. What kind of angle does the sum seem to
be? Test it with the edge of your ruler. Draw another triangle
of a different size and shape and repeat the experiment. Is
the sum always the same?
3. Make a general statement concerning the sum of three
angles of a triangle. Compare your statement to the one at
the bottom of the page.
4. Two angles of a triangle are as given below. Find the
third angle in each triangle.
a. 112, 51.
b.
75, 27.
c.
60, 60.
d. 50, 50.
e. 30, 60.
f. 45, 45.
g.
37,
81.
h. 128, 23.
i. 40, 50.
j.
30, 30.
k. 110, 40. 1. 70,
50.
The sum of the three angles of any triangle is 180, or a
straight angle.
284
Problems.
Using the Angle Sum
1 Dick
Cunningham
watched a surveyor
measuring
the
three
angles of a
triangular
field. After he had measured
angle A and angle B, Dick said he
knew how to find angle C
without
measuring. He said that angle C was
46. Was he right? How did he get
"\
this result?
2. The surveyor told Dick that he always
measured all
three angles in order to check on his
measurements.
What
was his method of checking?
3. Draw a triangle and measure the angles.
Check by
adding. Can you expect the sum to be exactly
180? Why?
4. If one angle of a triangle is a right angle, the triangle
is a right triangle. How many degrees are there in the sum
of the other two angles?
What kind of angles are they?
5. Could a triangle have angles of the following
sizes?
Why?
48, 63, 69
c
b.
78, 81, 32
c
c.
57, 95,
20
6. How many right angles can there be in a triangle?
How many obtuse angles? Why?
7. Two lines
intersect, as shown
below. Angle a is equal
to
37. What is the sum of angle a and
angle b?
Without
measuring, find angle
b.
What is the sum of angle b and angle
c?
Without
measuring,
find angle c.
Find
angle d in the same way.
How
can you check your
results?
What
ought to be true about angle a and
angle c? Angle b and angle d?
8. How
many degrees are there in
angle a, in the figure at the left? In
angle c? Why? In angle b? Why? In
angle d? Why?
Check.
Bisecting a I
me
285
Tc
In the construction of many
designs u is
necessary
to
find
the mid-point of a line or to divide it into two
equal
p
This is called
bisecting the line.
Method
1. Measure the line and divide
the length by
'1.
Measure this distance from either end. If the line is
5 in.
'
the mid-point will be 2\ in. from
either end.
Method 2. To bisect the v . >
line AB draw an arc, or part
of a circle, with A as a center
and a radius longer than half
of AB. Which arc is this in
the figure? With B as center
and the same radius, draw the
A
arc of a second circle. This
will cut the first arc at C and
D. Draw a straight line through
C and D. The point E, where
this line meets the line AB,
is the mid-point of AB.
I. Draw a straight line 9 inches long. Bisect, using Method
1. Check with your compass. To do this, set one point of
the compass on one end of the line and the other on the center.
Move compass to the other end of the line. Are the two
parts equal?
2. To construct this design accurately,
you must first bisect the radius of the
circle. Do you see how the design was
constructed? Draw a circle and construct a
similar design about twice as large.
3. Edgar Jones wanted to bisect the side of a square. He
found that the side was a little more than 3<r inches long.
Could he bisect it accurately by the first method?
4. Draw three lines of different lengths without measuring.
Bisect each by the second method. Check by using your
compass to see if the two parts are equal.
4- ^-- %k~:
&
^

-:^:;
.-i
\
OfN/NC/ HALL
Scale: ^
inch
^ too feet
i
\ 7
\
Reading
Scale
Drawings
Dick
spent two weeks in a boy scout camp last summer.
From
an
illustrated
map of the camp he found the distance
of his tent from the flagpole. Do you know how he did this?
A map is a scale drawing.
The real distance is represented
by a
shorter
distance
on the map.
What real
distance does
J
inch on the map of the camp
represent?
What distance
would
|
inch
represent?
1 inch? lj
inches?
1.
Measure the dotted line from Dick's tent to the flag-
pole on the map. What was the real
distance?
2. Find the distance from the flagpole to each of the other
points given on the map.
3. How
far was Dick's tent from the
dining hall? From
the spring?
From the gate?
4. On an
automobile map of Michigan,
\
inch represents
10 miles. How far is it from Detroit to
Lansing, the capitol
of the state, if the distance on the map is
8j
inches?
5. On a large map of Ohio, 1 inch represents 13
miles. Find
the
actual distances between
cities if the
distances on the
map are:
Cleveland to Toledo, 7 in.;
Columbus to Toledo,
8J-
in.;
Columbus to Cincinnati,
7f
in.; Toledo to
Cincinnati,
14 in.;
Cleveland to Columbus,
9j
in.
6. Get a map of your state. Find the scale.
This is
usually
given on the map. Measure the
distances
between
the prin-
cipal cities and find these distances in miles.
28G
J
Making Scale Drawings
Plans of rooms and buildings, as well as maps, are scale
drawings. On such plans and maps, shapes and directions
are the same as the real object pictured, but distances are
reduced in size according to some scale.
1. In drawing a map, using
\
inch to represent 100 miles,
how long would you make the distance between two points
on the map if the actual distance is 200 miles? If it is 500
miles? 750 miles?
2. Dick made a scale drawing of his schoolroom, using
\
inch to represent 5 feet. The room was a rectangle 20 feet
by 30 feet. How long was his drawing? How wide?
3. Make a scale drawing of Dick's schoolroom. Choose
your own scale. Use your protractor or a draftsman's triangle
to make the right angles.
4. Measure your schoolroom and make a scale drawing.
Use a scale so that the finished drawing will be fairly large
(about 10 inches long). Draw the principal articles in the
room on your map, to scale and in the proper places.
5. A surveyor measured two
sides and an angle of a triangular
field and made the rough sketch
shown at the right. Make a
scale drawing, using
\
inch to
represent 100 feet. From your
drawing, find the length of the
third side of the field.
287
Locating
Points
Dick read a book about a hunt for buried treasure. The
boy in the story found an old scrap of paper giving directions
for finding gold hidden by pirates. The directions read:
"Stand at the foot of the large elm tree and face the high rock.
Turn
40
to the left and walk straight ahead. Stand at the
foot of the rock and face the elm. Turn
60
to the right and
walk straight ahead. Dig where the two paths meet. It is 500
feet from the elm to the rock."
1. Dick made a scale drawing showing the location of the
treasure. Can you make such a drawing?
2. Dick and his friends played a game which they called
"Buried Treasure."
They chose one of their group to be the
pirate who buried the treasure and wrote a set of directions
for finding it similar to those given above. The first to find
the treasure became the pirate. Play this game at home or
on the school grounds.
Estimate the angles as
accurately
as you can.
288
y&
Locating Points on Maps
and Plans
In locating objects in map making, surveyors often use
the method described on page 288. Make scale drawings or
maps of the following fields. Choose your own scale.
1. A rectangular field, 40 rods by 85 rods, the long sides
running north and south. North on your map should be at
the top. From the southwest corner of the field the lines of
sight to the various objects in the field make the following
angles with the south side of the field: to walnut tree, 85;
to maple tree, 68;
to large stone, 60;
to spring,
43.
From
the southeast corner the lines to the same objects make the
following angles with the south side of the field: to walnut
tree, 45;
to maple tree, 82;
to stone,
25;
to spring,
76.
2. A lot is shaped like the figure at the right.
AB is 170 feet and BC is 60 feet. Angle A is
75
and Angle B and Angle C are each right
angles. From A the lines of sight of the different
trees on the lot make the following angles with
AD: to oak tree,
70;
to elm tree,
65; to maple
tree,
40.
From D the lines of sight make the
following angles with AD: to oak tree,
20;
to
elm tree, 75;
to maple tree,
85.
3. If possible, make a scale drawing, or
map, of some field or lot near your school.
289
Dividing the Circle into Six Equal Parts
.J
Many beautiful designs can be
made by dividing a circle into six
equal parts. The method is illustrated
in the figure at the left.
A is any point on the circumfer-
ence. The arc cutting the circle at
B is drawn with A as a center and a
radius equal to AO, the radius of the
circle. Arcs at C, D, E, F, and A
are drawn in the same way. If your
work is well done, the last arc will
cut the circle at A.
1. The six-sided figure, ABCDEF,
in the figure above, is called a regular hexagon. Construct a
regular hexagon in a circle with a radius of lj inches.
2. The figures at the
left show the method of
constructing a
six-pointed
star.
Construct such a
star, starting
with a cir-
cle 4 inches in diameter.
3. Use your compasses and construct a design
similar to
the
church window at the top of the page.
Dividing
a Circle into Three
Equal Tarts
291
Can you divide
a circle
into three
equal parts?
Agnes did it
by first
dividing the circle
into six equal
parts and taking
every other point of division.
1. Can you make a
design
similar to
the one at the left? Start
by drawing a
large circle and
dividing it
into three
equal
parts. When you have finished,
erase all
but the heavy lines in the drawing you
have made.
2. Copy this design for a circular win-
dow. When you have finished,
erase all
but the heavy lines, as you did in exercise
1. Make your drawing about twice as
large as the one in the book.
Drawing
an Equilateral
Triangle
A triangle whose sides are all equal
in length is called an equilateral tri-
angle. The method of constructing
such a triangle is shown at the right.
The two arcs through C are drawn with
a radius equal to AB and with A and
B as centers.
1. Draw equilateral triangles whose
sides are each lj inches, 2 inches,
2\
inches.
2. Can you copy the designs at the
right? Make them about twice as
large as those in the book.
3. The three angles of an equi-
lateral triangle are all equal. What is
the sum of the three angles? How
many degrees are there in each angle?
Check with your protractor.
292
Drawing
Perpendiculars
STRAIGHT
EDGE
Two lines
that meet at right
angles are said to be
perpen-
dicular to each other.
Method 1. To draw a
perpendicular to the line AB
at C,
place a
straightedge
along
AB.
Place a drafts-
man's
triangle as shown in
-^.the
figure.
Draw CD. If
_Jyou
do not have a drafts-
man's
triangle,
you can eas-
ily
make one by
following
the
directions
given in prob-
lem 1 below.
Method
2. Lay a pro-
tractor on AB as shown in
B
the
figure.
Make a mark on
the
paper at D
opposite
90. Remove
the
protractor
and
draw a line
through C and D.
1 Draw a straight
line on a piece of
cardboard. At one
end
draw a second
line
perpendicular
to
the first.
Use your
protractor.
Locate a point on each
side of the
right angle
and 4 inches
from the
vertex.
Draw a
straight
line
through
these
points.
Cut out the
right
triangle
formed
If you do
not have a
draftsman's
triangle,
you may
use this,
this is
called a
45
right
triangle.
Why?
2. Draw a square 3 inches
on each side,
triangle to draw the angles.
3. Draw a
rectangle 5
inches by 2^
inches.
4. Make a scale
drawing
showing
the
floor plan of a room 12 feet by 16 ft. with
a rug 9 ft. by 12 ft.
5. Draw a square
about 4
inches on
each side and copy the design at the right.
Use a
draftsman's
I>riw in^
Perpendiculars
USING COMPASSES
AND
STRAIGHTEDGE
Julia is studying
geometry in the senior
high school. She
learned how to draw a
perpendicular by
using her com]
Her method is given below.
With C as a center and any
convenient radius, draw two arcs
cutting AB at E and F. With
E and F as centers, and a radius
greater than EC, draw two arcs
intersecting at D. Draw a line
through C and D.
C
E F
drawing
perpendiculars,
by using a draftsman's
1. Practice on this method of
Check the accuracy of your work
triangle or a protractor.
2. Julia's brother Ned wished
to measure the distance from the
point P to the line AB. He
measured the distance PC. Was
this right? Why?
3. Julia told Ned that the dis-
tance from a point to a line al-
a
'
B
ways means the shortest distance,
and must be measured on the perpendicular, PD. Measure
PC and the length of the perpendicular. Which is longer?
4. Draw a straight line, AB. At D, any point on AB, draw
a perpendicular to AB. Mark any point, P, on the perpen-
dicular. Draw several other lines from P to AB. Measure
the distance from P to AB, along the perpendicular. Along
each of the other lines. What do you find?
The shortest distance from a point to a line is the perpen-
dicular distance.
294
Bisecting an Angle
MAKING A
30-60
RIGHT ANGLE
The
construction of many beautiful designs, and many
other practical
problems depends on dividing an angle into
two equal parts. This is called
bisecting the angle. Two
methods are given below.
Method 1. Measure the angle
with your
protractor. Divide
by 2. Make a mark on the
paper opposite this division on
the
protractor (D in figure).
Remove
protractor and draw a
line through this point and the
vertex (BD in figure).
Method 2. With B as a
center and any convenient radius
draw an arc cutting the sides
of the angle at M and N. With
M and N as centers, and a
radius greater than half the dis-
tance between M and N,
draw
arcs intersecting at D. Draw a
line through B and D.
1.
Draw several angles.
Bisect each. Use the first method
on about half of them and the second on the rest.
2.
Construct an angle of
45
by bisecting a right angle.
3. On a piece of cardboard B
draw an
equilateral
triangle 5
inches on each side. How many
degrees are there in each angle?
Bisect one of the angles, as angle
BAC in the
figure.
4. Cut out triangles
ADC and
ADB. How many
degrees are in
A
angle a?. Why?
In angle b? Why?
In angle c? Why?
Save
these
triangles and use them as
draftsman's
triangles. These
are called
30-60
right triangles.
Dividing a
Circle into
4, 8, and 12 295
Equal Parts
Many beautiful designs are made
by dividing a circle
into
4, 8,
and 12 equal parts. To divide a circle
into 4 equal parts,
draw any diameter and then draw a line perpendicular
to it
through the center.
How would you divide a circle into 8 equal parts? Into 12
equal parts?
1. Copy the following designs. Erase the dotted lines
when you have finished.
Dividing a Circle into Five Equal Parts
THE FIVE-POINTED STAR OF OLD GLORY
The stars on the United States flag are five-pointed. To
draw such stars, you must divide a circle into five equal parts.
This cannot be done easily with compasses but can be done
approximately by using a protractor.
A
If a circle is divided into five equal
parts, each angle at the center will be
i
of 360, or
72.
Draw any radius as
OA. With your protractor draw angle
AOB equal to
72.
Draw angle BOC
equal to 72, and so on.
1. Divide a circle into five equal
parts. Draw lines to join alternate
points, making a five-pointed star, as in
the figure.
296
Drawing
Parallel Lines
You have
learned that two lines which are everywhere the
same
distance
apart are called parallel lines. Many
designs
and
constructions
depend upon knowing how to draw
parallel
lines.
I
|c d
Method 1.
Parallel
lines can be drawn
with a
straightedge
and
draftsman's
tri-
angle as shown in the
first figure.
Method
2. Dick
drew
parallel lines by
using two
draftsman's
triangles as shown in
the second
figure. The
distance
between
the
parallel lines can be
changed by
sliding one
triangle
along
the
other.
Method
3. To
draw a line
through P
(third figure)
parallel
to AB, draw any line
through P
crossing
AB at C.
Measure the
angle BCP
(40 in the
figure).
Move the cen-
ter of the
protractor to P, and locate
point D so angle DPti
is equal to angle BCP.
Remove
protractor and
draw a line
through D and P.
1.
Reproduce
the border
designs
shown
below.
Make an
original
border design, using
parallel lines.
Important Farts about
Parallel Lines 29:
Agnes and Dick
made a list of all of the importanl fad
they knew about parallel lines. They
discovered the second
fact given below from the first
method of drawing parallel
lines given on page 296.
Dick's teacher told
him that pairs of angles
such as angle a and
angle b, and angle c
and angle d, are called
alternate interior angles.
Do you see why they
are called alternate
angles? Why they are
called interior angles?
Dick's teacher said that line EF is called a transversal.
Why? Study the second and third methods of drawing parallel
lines. What can you discover about alternate interior angles
formed by a transversal cutting two parallel lines?
1. Draw two parallel lines by Method 1. Draw any trans-
versal and measure the alternate interior angles. Are they
equal?
2. Use the third method to draw a line through a given
point parallel to a given line.
3. Construct a parallelogram with sides 2 inches and 3
inches long and one angle equal to 50 degrees.
4. If angle a at the top of this page is 30, how large is
angle b? Why? Angle c? Why? Angle d? Why? Can you
find the size of each of the other angles? How can you check
your results?
a. Parallel lines are the same distance apart at all points.
b. If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they
are parallel.
c. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, the alter-
nate interior angles are equal.
298
Problem
Helps. Telling How to
Solve
Problems
1. How do you find what per cent one number is of
another?
2. How do you find the whole when you know the value
of some part of it?
3. How do you find the area of a rectangle? Write a
formula.
4. How do you find the perimeter of a rectangle? Write
a formula?
5. What is a parallelogram?
How do you find its area?
Write a formula.
6. How do you find the circumference of a circle if the
diameter is known? Write a formula.
7. How do you find the area of a circle? Write a formula.
8. How do you find the radius of a circle if the circum-
ference is known? Can you write a formula?
9. If you know the diameter of an automobile wheel,
how would you find the number of revolutions it makes in
going a mile?
10. A cement walk, four feet wide, is to be
N
built
around a rectangular park. Tell how
to find the area of the walk, if the length
and
width of the park are known.
11. In order to determine the directions
of A and B from 0, a surveyor measured
angle 1 and angle 2. He then measured a
third angle as a check. Can you tell what
angle he
measured and how he checked?
12. A
moving picture
producer wished to know the ap-
proximate
number of words in a book. He counted the num-
ber on each of 10 pages and found the average
number of
words on a page. How did he do this? What else did he need
to know, and how did he find the
approximate number of
words in the book?
Problem
Helps.
Choosing the Facta
^ on Need
299
In each problem one or more facts are given 1h.it are not
needed to solve the problem. Decide which facts you need and
solve the problems. Check.
>
1. A street a mile long
and 40 feet wide is to be
paved with concrete 12 in.
thick, at a cost of $2.75 a
square yard. There is to be
a curb on each side, 8 in.
high, costing 60^ a foot.
Find the total cost.
2. Mr. Smith, Mr. Jones,
and Mr. Brown shared the
cost of an automobile trip.
Mr. Smith furnished the car
and paid only half as much
as each of the others, who
paid equal amounts. How much did each have to pay if they
drove 475 miles and used 25 gal. gasoline at 17^ a gallon and
3 qt. oil at 3Q a quart?
3. Mr. Cox bought a car for $977. At the end of one year
he sold it for $425. He received $200 cash and took a note
for 90 days, with
6% interest, for the balance. The deprecia-
tion was what per cent of the original price?
4. A man starts at 8 A.M. on an automobile trip of 210
miles and plans to reach his destination in 6 hours. He drives
110 miles the first 3 hours; then stops half an hour for lunch.
How many miles must he average an hour for the rest of the
trip in order to reach his destination on time?
5. Mary took a trip with her father. They drove 312 miles
in 8 hours the first day; 240.2 mi. in 7 hours the second day;
189.7 mi. in 6 hours the third; 203.4 mi. in
4
J
hours the fourth;
125.8 mi. in 3 hours the fifth; and 323.6 mi. in 8 hours the
last day. Find the average number of miles they drove a day.
to the nearest tenth of a mile.
300 Problem Helps. Supplying the Missing
Facts
In each of the following problems one or more facts are
missing that are needed in solving the problem. Look up
the facts needed, or have your class agree on probably figures,
and solve the problems. Check.
1. Mary gained 7 lb. in weight last year. Find the per
cent of increase.
2. John worked 12 problems correctly on an arithmetic
test. What was his mark expressed as a per cent?
3. Mrs. Monroe's refrigerator will hold a cake of ice 12
inches by 12 inches by 18 inches. How many pounds will it
hold?
4. Find the cost of running an electric washing machine
for one hour at 8j a kilowatt hour.
5. A train makes the trip from Washington to Boston in
11 hours 25 minutes. Find the average number of miles per
hour to the nearest tenth of a mile.
6. An agent sold a used automobile for Mr. Adams and
mailed him a check for $245 in payment. For how much did
he sell the car?
7. On April 1, the Atkins' gas meter read 91,270 cubic
feet. On May 1, it read 95,100 cubic feet. Find the amount
of their bill for April.
8. A grocer bought 150 bushels of potatoes at $1.00 a
bushel. He sold them at 3^ a pound. He much did he make
or lose?
9. It is estimated that the people of the United States
spend $1,000,000,000 a year at the movies. How much a week
is this for a family of five persons?
10. Mr. Cummings sells groceries on commission. Last
year his sales totaled $27,840. What was the amount of his
commissions for the year?
Problem Helps.
Making Problems
301
Enough information is
given m
each
list
of data
below to
enable you to find one or more tacts that arc not
given. Make
one good problem out of each list. Solve each of your prob-
lems and check.
1. Helen read this advertisement: "Make extra money
by taking subscriptions for our magazine at SI a year. We
pay 12% commission. Last
month, by working in her
spare time, Mrs. Barnes
earned
$24."
Helen made
a problem out of this. Can
you?
2. A farmer sent 8300
lb. milk to a creamery dur-
ing one month. It tested
3.9% butterfat, on the aver-
erage. He was paid 27^ a
pound for the butterfat.
3. The table at the right gives the
average number of pounds of tea and
coffee consumed by each person in the
United States in 1910, 1920, and 1930.
4. A train goes 317 miles from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh
at the average speed of 40 miles an hour while moving. The
total time lost on stops amounts to 39 minutes.
5. An old quarry 75 ft. long, 50 ft. wide, and 20 ft. deep is
to be filled. Dirt is bought at 45^ a cubic yard. It is found
that the dirt in settling shrinks
\
of its volume.
6. A train is scheduled to make the trip from Boston to
Cleveland, a distance of 668 miles, in 17 hours and 12 minutes.
A total of 32 minutes is lost in making stops.
7. A doctor travels about 20 miles a day visiting patients.
He used to drive a horse and average 8 miles an hour. He
now drives an automobile and averages 30 miles an hour.
Year
302
Problem Test
Solve each of the following and check.
1. Mrs. Vaughn is planning a trip to Europe. On the map
the distance from Paris to Rome measures
2\
inches. The
scale on the map states that
\
inch represents 100 miles.
How far is it from Paris to Rome according to her map?
2. Mr. Grimes is using a map which does not give the
scale to which it is drawn. In order to determine this, he
measures the distance between
Louisville and Kansas City,
which he knows is about 550 miles, and finds it is about
2f
inches. To what scale is the map drawn?
3.
Margaret drew a map, using
\
inch to represent 100
miles. How far apart should she place two points if the dis-
tance between them is known to be 375 miles?
4. A magazine took a vote among its readers as to their
likes and dislikes in radio programs. There were 78 who
voted that they liked tenors and 52 who voted that they
did not. What per cent of those voting on this question liked
tenors? Illustrate
graphically.
5. A walk 4 feet wide is to be built along the border of a
rectangular grass plot that is 80 feet by 110 feet. The walk
is to be built on the grass plot. How many square feet of con-
crete will there be in the walk? Draw a figure. Check.
6. Common brick are usually 8"x4"x2".
In estimating
how many bricks it will take to build a wall, it is customary to
allow 22 bricks for each cubic foot. Show that this is approxi-
mately correct. Add
\
inch to each dimension of the brick to
allow for the mortar.
7. Allowing 22 bricks per cubic foot, how many bricks are
needed for a wall 30 ft. long, 6 ft. high, and 1 ft. thick?
8. How many bricks are needed for a foundation 16 inches
wide and 7 feet high for a building 30 feet by 40 feet? Allow
22 bricks to the cubic foot. Count the corners only once.
9. How many packages of seed will it take to plant a cir-
cular bed, 8 feet in diameter, if one package plants 10 sq. ft.?
Problem Test
303
Solve each of the following problems and check.
1. In one year there were 598 students participating in
athletics at Harvard University. The next
year
there
were
937. Find the per cent of increase. Illustrate graphically
.
2. The size of sheets of tin is 20 inches by 28 inches. How
many circular discs for can bottoms, each 4 inches in diameter,
can be cut from a sheet? What per cent of the tin is \va
Draw a figure before trying to solve the problem.
3. Mrs. Norris bought an electric washing machine. How
much did it increase her electric bill if she ran it four days
a month, three hours on each day? The machine used 200
watts an hour, and the current cost
7^ a kilowatt hour.
4. Mrs. Norris also bought an electric iron. Find the
increase in her bill, due to the iron, if she used it 4 days a
week,
2\
hours each day. The iron used 600 watts an houi
and the current cost 7^ a kilowatt hour.
5. Mrs. Norris bought A\ yards dress goods at $2.50 a yard,
f
yard trimming at $3.75 a yard, a pattern for $1.50, and
thread, buttons, and a buckle for 60^. It took her 12 hours to
make the dress. How much did she earn an hour if she could
have bought a similar dress ready-made for $20?
6. An excavation 12 inches deep is being made for a street
850 ft. long and 30 ft. wide. How many cubic yards of earth
must be removed?
7. The dirt in problem 6 is to be hauled away in trucks
each of which holds 10 cubic yards. How many truck loads
must be hauled if the dirt expands

in digging?
8. Grindstones when turned at too high a speed tend to fly
apart or "burst." Experiments show that it is not safe to turn
a grindstone, made of a certain kind of stone, so that a point
on the circumference moves more than 3600 feet per minute.
What would be the highest number of revolutions per minute
that it would be safe to turn a grindstone 4 feet in diameter
and made of this material?
.04
Diagnostic Tests in the Fundamental
Processes
LOCATING YOUR DIFFICULTIES
Work these examples and check. Work as fast as you can
without hurrying.
1.
Diagnostic Tests in Percentage
LOCATING Vol i; DIFFICULTIES
Work these examples and
check. Work
as fast BS
you
CftX)
without hurrying.
1.
2.
a.
Write .1982
as a per
cent.
e.
Find
37i%
of 92.
a.
Find 18.6%
of $2.87.
(Nearest
cent)
e.
Write 13.97
1>.
875 is what
'
,
of 1027
?
(Nearest tenth
of a per cent)
f.
Find the whole
if 85.1% of it
equals $74.39.
(Nearest cent)
b.
Write
166f%
as a whole or
mixed number.
f.
Change
m
as a per
cent.
Write
the
per
cent
equivalent
off.
Change
137
to fl
2
to ^
per cent.
c.
Find the
whole if
33%%
of it
equals 89.7.
g-
Write .9%
as a
decimal.
d.
Write 7.:.'
; as
a decimal.
h.
Write 1-200%
as a whole
or mixed
number.
d.
Write the
common frac-
tion equiva-
lent of 90%.
h.
$2.50 is what
per cent of
to nearest
hundredth of
a per cent.
OVERCOMING
YOUR
DIFFICULTIES
Study your errors carefully and note the trouble spots. Then
turn to the Practice Tests (pages 307 to
840) for
further practu
suggested below.
la

40 le 42 2a

42 2e

40
lb

43
If 44 2b

38 2f

41
lc

37 lg

41 2c

44
2g

39
Id

39
lh 38
2d 37 2h 43
MEASURING YOUR PROGRESS
Take Improvement Test Number Four. Record your score on
your Score Card. Did you improve? Find the class average
and bring your graph up to date.
306
Chapter Test
Write the numbers from 1 to 16 on a piece of paper. After these
numbers write the words, or numbers, which belong in the cor-
responding blanks below.
1 . A rotation, or turning, is called an
2. The unit used in measuring angles is called a
3. A degree is one of a right angle.
4. On a certain map one-half inch represents 100 miles.
Two cities are 3 inches apart on this map. These cities are
really miles apart.
(4)
5. Harry draws a map so that one-fourth inch on the map
represents 100 miles. City B is 150 miles from City A. Harry
makes them . inches apart on the map.
(5)
6. When a line, or angle is divided into two equal parts,
it is said to be
(6)
7. A triangle whose sides are all equal is called an
triangle.
8. Two lines that make right angles with each other are
said to be to each other.
(8)
9. Vertical angles are
(9)
10. The sum of the three angles of any triangle is always
equal to . degrees.
(10)
11. Angle 1
= 80.
Angle 2
=

(in
Angle 3
=

(12)
Angle 4
=
.
12. If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are
13. Angle a
=
.
(15)
14. Angle a and angle b are called
angles.
(16)
-?*
PRACTICE
TESTS
308 Suggestions for Using the Praetiee Tests
DOES PRACTICE MAKE PERFECT?
This book has pointed out some of the common trouble
spots in the fundamentals. Many pupils have individual
difficulties, points that bother them even though they do not
cause most people trouble. You should watch your practice
work carefully to locate and overcome your difficulties. If
there are any points in the Practice Tests which you do not
understand, or have forgotten, be sure to ask your teacher to
explain before you start practice.
There is an old saying that "Practice makes perfect." Like
many other such sayings, this one is only partly true. Practice
makes perfect only
if
it is correct practice. If you are repeating
the same kind of error, over and over again, continued prac-
tice will do more harm than good. Never practice on a process
you do not understand.
No matter how careful you are you will sometimes makes
mistakes. You should form the habit of checking each step
before starting the next. Be sure you are right; then go ahead.
This safety-first
rule will enable you to correct most of your
errors as soon as they are made.
Try to form the habit, in all of your practice, of working
just as fast as you can without hurrying. Haste makes waste.
If you hurry, you are liable to make errors. Accuracy must
come first. If you always work as fast as you can, with comfort,
your speed will gradually increase without loss of accuracy.
Do not copy the examples in the Practice Tests unless the
directions tell you to do so. Place a piece of paper under the
first row of examples and write your solution on the paper.
Fold over and continue.
Practice makes perfect only if it is correct practice.
Safety first! Be sure you are right; then go ahead. Work
as fast as you can with comfort. Haste makes waste.
Practice IVsi
Number 1
309
THE 1(H) BASIC ADDITION
FACTS
Write the results
on a folded
paper. Also
practice giving the
results
mentally. Note the trouble Bpota for extra practice.
2
310
Practice Test Number 2
HIGHER DECADE ADDITION FACTS
Write the sums on a folded paper. Also practice giving them
mentally. Think the left figure of
the result first.
Note the trouble
spots and make similar examples for extra practice.
14
Practice Teal Number 4 :,ii
CARRYING
Write the results
on a folded paper. Check. Watch the tens
when the sum of a column is more than 9. Make similar examples
for further practice, if needed.
37
312
Practice Test Number 6
THE 100 SUBTRACTION FACTS
Write the results on a folded paper. Also practice giving them
mentally. Note the trouble spots for extra practice.
476759
12 9 10 3
_JLJLAJL-L
-_
13 11 13
2 12 8 12 11
5 6
_
6
__L___Z --
957876
16
864
6
AJLJLJL-Q-JL

10 10 12 2 11 15 13 12
7 6
_8j__4_l__9_8_7__3J7_5
379934
11 8 10 7
J_J^_9_5_0__2J__5_1
14 15 11 9 10 17 18 10 1 5
A JL JL -1 J*.

8 8 11 9 10 11 7 15 6
_2._9_Ji-ii-J._H
_- -1
15 10 14 9 14 14 17 12 3 9
_i__.__-i_-__--

485516
13 8 13 9
____J-J>_-___-
-i-
13 10 11 2 12 16 16 14 4 8
8642897713
Practice makes perfect only if it is correct practice.
Practice Tesl Number 7
MINUEND I 1
< :
l RE SMALLEB THAN 81 BTB Ml
Write the results on a folded
paper. Check. Make
examples for further practice, if needed.
71
28
825619
257382
735192
351899
825
273
753
:;sd
875649
281952
591386
278197
725
639
876
382
761
287
721571
365793
218978
159183
628751
395214
968325
283187
313
;.\D
similar
938
ST:.
592876
27819S
417288
385529
Practice Test Number 8
ZEROS IN THE MINUEND
Write the results on a folded paper. Check. Make similar
examples for further practice, if needed.
90
314
Practice
Test
Number 9
FEWER
FIGURES IN THE
SUBTRAHEND
a. Write the results on a folded
paper. Check. Make similar
examples for further
practice, if needed.
27
\.
Practice Teal Number II
315
THE 100 MULTIPLICATION I \
rS
Write the results on a folded paper. Also practice giving
thom mentally. Notice
the trouble spots for extra practice.
4
3 1
6
3 5 2
6
316
Practice
Test
Number 12
ADDING TO
THE
PRODUCT
a. Write the results on a folded
paper. Also
practice
giving
them
mentally.
Make
similar
examples
for further
practice,
if needed.
-^
6X9+1
Practice Test Number L3 .U7
PLACING PARTIAL PRODUCTS
Do not copy
the examples. Work on folded paper. Check
each step. Be sure each
partial product is in the right
place.
Make similar examples for further practice,
if needed.
234
318
Practice
Test
Number 15
THE 90
DIVISION
FACTS
Write the results on a folded
paper. Also practice giving them
mentally.
Note the trouble spots for extra practice.
1)0
Practice Test Number 16
Blfl
DIVISION
FACTS WITH
REMAINDERS
Do not copy. Write
the
(plot nut-
and remaindere on B folded
paper. Also practice
giving 1 1nn) mentally. Make -mnl:,
amples for further
practice, if
needed.
2)9
320
Practice
Test
Number 18
CORRECTING
THE TRIAL QUOTIENT
The trial quotients are given. Multiply and write the product
on a folded paper. Subtract
mentally. Write C on your paper
if the trial quotient is correct, S if it is too small, and L if it is
too large. Note the trouble spots for extra study.
3
Practice Tesl Number 20
32]
MIXED PRACTICE IX
DIVISION
Copy these examples and divide, ('heck eaeh step. M.ik<-
similar examples for extra practice, if aeeded.
a. Short division:
8)7569 6)8198 7)3557
'.'.-,7870
7)9685
b. Long division
:
38)36905 67)39564 73)58997 47)47950 71)4900
28)5725 89)62907 59)17807 37)29699 43)42876
Practice Test Number 21
FINDING THE LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR
Find the L.C.D. Do not work the examples. Write the L.C.D.
on a folded paper. Check. Note the trouble spots for extra study.
25.35^^5.4. 3
3686 10 678
2. 2. 1 l 3.
_2_
5
___
2 3 4 9 4 15 8 15
5. 2 5
3 3. l 7 2
8 3 6 10 8 20 15 9
i 3.
3
1 1 1 3 7 .
2 4 4 8 6 1 5 10 1 5
7 2 3 5 3. 1 3 4
12 15 14 9 4 7 10 15
2.1_3_i2__5___
3 5 10 6 5 6 6 12
3 JL5.335._7_1
T02 64 8 8 12 2
13. l
15.13.2
24 12 26245
4
1
2 2
_5_
2 1 1
5 6 3 3 12 3 8
_$_
Work as fast as you can with comfort. Haste makes waste.
322
Practice Test Number 22
CHANGING THE DENOMINATOR
Write the numbers that belong in the blanks on a folded paper.
Check. Make similar examples for extra practice, if needed.
1
2
Practice
r
IVst
Number 21
323
CHANGING
IMPROPER FRACTIONS TO WHOLE OR
MIXED
NUMBERS
Write the results
on a folded paper. Be sure the fractions in
the results are in lowest terms. Check. Make similar
examples
for further practice, if needed.
4
-5
324
Practice Test
Number 26
SUBTRACTING
FRACTIONS
AND MIXED
NUMBERS
Copy the examples on a large sheet of paper and subtract.
Check. Make similar examples for further practice, if needed.
a.
Practice Test Number 27
CANCELLATION
Copy the examples and carry out the indicated operations.
Watch for opportunities to cancel. Check. Make similar
examples
for further practice, if needed.
3
v
2 5 . 3 4
v9n
2. 3
3
v
3
4
X
3 8~4 5*
/u
3~2 5
X
5
n
3.
5\/4
3.. 3. 3
v
in 4.2
y

4
-jX^- 4

5
4XI/
5

3
Sj^S-
19^.6
4
V
3
4^.2.
2-Vfl
F~5
Hi-f 9X2
3--f
3XO
4X
4 8
.
6 12
?
4

<*
2-4
8-7-5
3X2
5^8
g"1
"^
8X2
3.3.

2 5
v
^ 6.2
2.4
4-7-4 O3
T6
X
5 T~T
5~5
Practice Test Number 28
CHANGING MIXED NUMBERS TO IMPROPER
FRACTIONS
Write the results on a folded paper. Also practice giving them
mentally. Check. Make similar examples for further practice, if
needed.
34
326
Practice
Test Number 29
MULTIPLICATION
OF
FRACTIONS AND MIXED
NUMBERS
Copy and multiply. Be sure to use the shortest method. Check.
Make similar examples for further practice, if needed.
|
X
f
4X32J 4X4J
1|X| 5JX135
3X4|
3X
12^X8 2jx3i
2X84
4X27| 8X5i
fX
T
7
5
3JX1J
9X18^
8JX237
12X57J
6X75 8Xf
57X8J
3|xli
36X7 9X2f
8^X56
7X
5X132 439X2J
ljxl2 lfX85
5jx8j
Practice Test
Number 30
DIVISION OF
FRACTIONS
AND
MIXED
NUMBERS
Copy and divide.
Check. Make similar examples for
further
practice,
Practice Test Number
.'11
327
ADDITION
OF DECIMALS
a. Add. Write the results on ;t folded
paper.
similar examples for further practice, it needed.
32.7 .384 327.8
8.3 .756 564.1
19.8 .829 380.5
32.9 .568 761.7
b. Copy and add. Watch the decimal points,
similar examples for further practice, if needed.
1. 238.4 and 25.9 7.
2. .5, .7 and .9 8.
3. 5.8 and .39 9.
4. .001, .005 and .002 10.
5. 2.37, 85 and 7.2 11.
6. .726, .8 and .07 12.
Check.
Make
.973
.85
.8761
.9
Check. Make
239.2, 78 and 96.7
27,834.2, 84.86 and 236.07
.029, 37.2, 8.97 and 91.789
.32, .7, .938 and .2857
.81, .756, 3.8 and 7.894
87.3, 9.57, .47 and 156.8
Practice Test Number 32
SUBTRACTION OF DECIMALS
a. Subtract. Write results on a folded paper. Check. Make
similar examples for further practice, if needed.
.3897 12.75 7.00 .3504
.2958 8.5 .28 .0179
Watch the decimal points
b. Copy and subtract
Make similar examples for further practice, if needed.
1. 8.72 from 32.45 8. 18.2 from 39.05
2. .27 from .29 9.
3. .003 from .009 10.
4. 2.85 from 7
11.
5. 32 from 75.9
12.
6. 98.2 from 100
13.
7. .389 from 7.1 14.
279.2
181.7
Check.
.389 from 2
28.756 from 75.027
.986 from 2.3
$.16 from $1
$3 from $5.28
$1.96 from S10
Safety first. Be sure you are right, then go ahead.
328 Practice Test Number 33
MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS
Copy and multiply. Watch the decimal point. Be sure to
supply zeros when needed. Check each step. Make similar
examples for further practice, if needed.
.09
.07
Practice Test Number .'J5 329
SHORT METHODS IN MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING
DECIMALS
a. Write the results on a folded paper.
Also practice giving
them mentally. Check. Make similar examples for farther
practice, if needed.
.84-r-lO
8.9 -r- 100
1000X87.28
10X8.567
89.12-7-1000
100 X.28
1000X8.2
10 X$17.75
$9-hl00
$7-7-10
$27-7-1000
c. Give the results for each of the following to the nearest cent.
Use common fractions, as 25c
1
equals
\
of a dollar. Make similar
examples for further practice, if needed.
10X2.79
56.8-7-100
7-t-IOO
10X52.1
7.56-7-100
10X3.78
.37-7-10
10 X$7.25
100X3.8
1000 X.
7 18
100 X.568
.3-7-100
1000 X.
9
9.5-t-IOO
100 X.056
10X185
b. Give the results to the nearest cent.
$.27-*-
10
$.85-7-10 $17.25-7-100
L75-7-100
$2.50-7-10 $45-7-100
17-t-IO
$38-5-10 $8.50-7-100
72.9-t-IO
89 -t- 1000
.7-7-10
100 X.37
100
X.7568
1000X87.9
751-f-lOO
100 X$2.50
2400X25^ 9X$.66 50X8^
330
Practice Test Number 36
FINDING
APPROXIMATE
RESULTS WITH
DECIMALS
a. Write the approximate value of each of the following as
indicated. Check by going over your result a second time. Make
similar examples for further practice, if needed.
1. To nearest cent.
$4,754
$.832
$2,875
$17,296
2. To nearest tenth.
8.723
.89
6.35
5.97
.06
3. To nearest thousandth.
.8971
7.0096
.39752
1.0003
b. Copy and carry out the indicated operation. Check by
going over each step and by estimating the result. Make similar
examples for further practice, if needed.
1. Give the results to the nearest hundredth.
$18,257
719)839
6.82)398.7
39.848
8.694
7.89
872.6
+
5.735 X8.37
-897
2. Find the following
Practice Test Number 37
33]
PER CENT AND COMMON
FRACTION EQUIVALENTS
Write the results
on a folded
paper. Also practice giving
them mentally. Note the
trouble spots lor
further study.
a. Give the common fraction equivalents.
33% 16% 80% 00%
86%
90% 75% 25%
12j% 40%
8j% 70% 10% 50%
37i'
;
83j% 62j% 87^% 20% 30%
b. Give the per cent equivalents of each of the following
common fractions.
2
3 113
5 TO 3 4 8
2 17 9 1
3 8 8 TO 5
JL.
1 i
4 7
10 2 6 5 10
3 3
i
5 5
5 4 T2 6 8
c. Give the common fraction or per cent equivalents.
66
% |
10%
i
40%
f
62
1 %
i
80%
|
90%
f
25%
%
12
J%

70%
J
20%
A
33
J
%
A
87
J
%
^
50%
^
8%
i 10f% TO

3
/O 8
iU
3
/O 4
>%
f
30%
i
37
1 %
f
60%
>
83
\% %
Work as fast as you can with comfort Haste makes waste.
332
Practice Test Number 38
WRITING LARGE PER CENTS AS WHOLE OR MIXED
NUMBERS
Write the results on a folded paper. Also practice giving them
mentally. Check. Make similar examples for further practice,
if needed.
4
334
Practice Test Number 43
FINDING WHAT PER CENT ONE NUMBER IS OF
ANOTHER
Use a folded paper. Make similar examples for further practice,
if needed.
a. Write on your paper the per cent that belongs in each blank.
For the first one think,
"8
is -&,
or
J,
or 50%
of
16." Then
write 50%
on your paper.
8 is %
of 16
10 is
%
of 5
9 is %
of 12
20 is
%
of 4
16 is %
of 20
12 is
%
of 8
12 is
%
of 36
9 is
%
of 9
2 is %
of 12 18 is
%
of 24
6 is
%
of 9
24 is
%
of 18
15 is
%
of 20 5 is
%
of 2
b. Find the following mentally.
3 is what
%
of 24?
7 is what
%
of 56?
19 is what
%
of 19?
25 is what
%
of 5?
12 is what
%
of 48?
15 is what
%
of 45?
Write the results only. Check.
What
%
of 36 is 6?
What %
of 27 is 54?
What
%
of 8 is 20?
What
%
of 18 is 12?
What
%
of 5 is 15?
What %
of 6 is 9?
c. Estimate the following and write your estimate on the
paper. Then find the result to the nearest tenth of a per cent.
Check.
6 is what
%
of 13?
What
%
of 112 is 139?
29 is what
%
of 7?
What
%
of 807 is 4?
35 is what
%
of 37?
What
%
of 39 is 21?
7 is what %
of 60?
What
%
of 22 is 87?
78 is what %
of 103?
What
%
of 91 is 18?
32 is what %
of 58?
What
%
of 7
is 10?
Practice makes perfect only if it is correct practice.
Praotirr IVst NiihiImt II 335
FINDING THE WHOLE WHEN A PEB CENT OF IT
IS KNOWN
Use a folded
paper. Make similar examples for further practice,
if needed.
a. Find the whole number in each of the following mentally.
Cheek. Write the results only.
2
\%
of a number
=
12
16%
of a number = 7
300% of a number
= 37.")
50%
of a
number = 25
33^ %
of a number
=
45
37^%
of a number = 18
700%
of a number
=
82 40%
of a number = 80
75%
of a number
=
42 250% of a number
= 35
1000% of a number
=
375
66f
%
of a number
= 24
b. First write on the paper your estimate of the whole. Then
find it to the nearest cent. Check.
17%
of a number
=
$3.25
9.7%
of a number
=
$7.15
32.8%
of a number
=
$2.50
73.7% of a number
=
$9.60
212%,
of a number
=
$12.50
c. Find the whole number, N.
results to nearest cent.
75%
of N
=
$12.50
66%of N
=
$8.75
200% of N
=
$9.27
37j%of N
=
$10
300% of N
=
$25
80% of N
=
$9.75
16f%
of N= $22.50
.7%)
of a number
=
$2.85
85.2% of a number
=
$6.25
8.5%
of a number
= $7.10
145% of a number =$8.36
65.7%
c
of a number
=
$15.95
in each of the following. Give
72.3% of N
=
$75
7.9% of N
=
$5.25
217% of N
=
$80
.4%
of N
=
$5.10
62% of N
=
$17.50
57.8% of N
=
$6.35
19% of N= $8.49
Safety first. Be sure you are right; then go ahead.
336
Practice Test Number 45
CHANGING THE UNIT IN DENOMINATE NUMBERS
Write the results on a folded paper. Check. Make similar ex-
amples for further practice, if needed.
a. Changing to smaller units.
3 hr.
= min.
5 lb.
= oz.
7 ft.
= in.
4T.= lb.
7 bu.= pk.
b. Changing to larger units.
(Express results as common
fractions or mixed numbers)
90in.=_
28ft.=_
12oz.
=
_
40 min.
=
39pt.=_
ft,
yd.
lb.
_hr.
qt.
Practice Tesl Number 17
337
CHANGING
DENOMINATE
NUMBERS
PROM TWO
UNITS
TO ONE
Write the results on a folded paper. Check.
Make similar
examples for further
practice, if
Deeded.
a. Changing to smaller
unit.
338
Practice Test Number 48
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF DENOMINATE
NUMBERS
Work on a folded paper. Check. Make similar examples for
further practice, if needed.
a. Add:
5 lb. 4 oz. 8 ft. 9 in. 6 bu. 3 pk. 4 mo. 21 da.
7 lb. 9 oz. 5 ft. 8 in. 2 pk. 2 mo. 19 da.
3 gal. 1 qt. 7 yd. 2 ft. 2 min. 25 sec.
5 gal. 2 qt. 3 yd. 2 ft. 50 sec.
4 ft. 3 in. 5 qt. 1 pt. 8 lb. 12 oz.
3 ft, 3 in. 3 qt. 1 pt. 8 oz.
b. Subtract.
5 mo. 21 da. 5 yd. 1 ft.
2 mo. 8 da. 2 yd. 2 ft.
3hr.
lhr.
Practice Teal Number 49
MULTIPLICATION OF DENOMINATE NUMBERS
Work on a folded paper. Check. Make similar examples foi
further practice, if needed.
a. Use two units.
3 ft, 2 in. 2 min. 17 sec. 5 lb. 7 oz. 2 wk.
3 da.
4 6 3T,
3 min. 18 sec. 2 yd. 2 ft. 4 bu. 3 pk. 2 yr. 7 mo.
5 4 3 2
b. Change to smaller unit before multiplying. Change result
back to two units.
4 yd. 1 ft. 5 qt. 1 pt. 1 ft. 7 in. 1 lb. 10 oz.
4_ 7_ 2_ 3_
c. Change to larger unit before multiplying. Change result
back to two units.
4 ft. 6 in. 2 hr. 45 min. 5 lb. 6 oz. 7 gal. 3 qt.
3 4
4_
2
d. Find the areas of the following rectangles. Change to
smaller unit before multiplying.
1. 2 ft. 7 in., by 1 ft. 5 in. 3. 12 ft. 3 in., by 15 ft. 4 in.
2. 3 yd. 2 ft., by 4 yd. 1 ft. 4. 1 yd., by 11 in.
e. Find the areas of the following rectangles. Change to
larger unit before multiplying.
1. 2 ft. 6 in., by 2 ft. 6 in. 3. 1 yd. 4 in., by 1 yd. 8 in.
2. 3 ft. 3 in., by 4 ft. 4. 7 ft., by 9 in.
Work as fast as you can with comfort. Haste makes waste.
340
Practice Test Number 50
DIVISION OF DENOMINATE NUMBERS
Work on a folded paper. Check. Make similar examples for
further practice, if needed.
a. Use two units.
3)9 lb. 12 oz. 3)5 ft. 8 in. 5)12
hr. 15 min. 3)14
gal. 2
qt.
2)3
yd. 10 in. 3)7 qt. 1 pt. 2)3 yr. 117 da. 5)8
min. 10 sec.
b. Change to
smaller unit before dividing. Change result
back to two units.
2)5 bu. 2 pk. 5)7 qt. 1 pt. 6)7 hr. 12 min. 10)8
ft. 10 in.
c. Change to larger unit before dividing. Change result
back to two units.
3)7
qt. 1 pt. 10)12
min. 40 sec. 8)10 yd. 2 ft. 4)2
lb. 8
oz.
d. Change to smaller unit before dividing.
1. 8 ft. 9in.-J-l ft. 9 in.
2. 3 lb. 4oz.-s-l lb. 10 oz.
3. 1 min. 15 sec. -s- 30 sec.
4. 5bu.
2pk.^-2pk.
5. 2 hr. 15 min.-r-5 min.
e. Change to larger unit before dividing.
1. 4 qt. 1 pt.-^l qt. 1 pt.
2. 6 yd. 2 ft.^-1 yd. 2 ft.
3. 5 hr. 30 min. ^2 hr. 45 min.
4. 7 lb. 8 oz.-i-12oz.
f. Choose your own method.
1. 5 yd. 2 ft.
-5-
2
3. 3 1b. 4oz.-^5
2. 8 ft. 8 in.-^4
4. 4 qt. 1 pt.-^l qt. 1
pt.
Practice makes perfect only if it is correct practice.
Score
Card
341
IMPROVEMENT TEST NUMBER ONE
WHOLE NUMBERS
Trial
342
Tables of Reference
LENGTH
Common or
English
System
12 inches (in.)
= 1 foot (ft.)
3 feet
=1 yard (yd.)
5
J
yards
=
1 rod (rd.)
16feet=l
rod
320 rods
=
1 mile (mi.)
1760 yards
=1 mile
5280 feet
=1 mile
Mariner's
6 feet
=
1 fathom
120 fathoms
=1 cable length
5280 feet
=
l statute
mile
6080 feet
=
l nautical
mile
3 nautical
miles
=
1
league
1 knot
=
a speed of
1 nautical mile per hour
Conversion
Table
1 nautical
mile
=
1.1515
statute miles*
1 statute
mile
=
0.8684
nautical
miles*
CAPACITY
Liquid
2 pints (pt.)
= 1 quart (qt.)
4 quarts
=1 gallon (gal.)
8 pints
=
1 gallon
231 cu. in.
=
1 gallon
1 cu. ft.
=
l\ gallons*
Dry
2 pints (pt.)
= 1 quart (qt.)
8 quarts
=
1 peck (pk.)
4 pecks
=
1 bushel (bu.)
32 quarts
=
1 bushel
64 pints
=
1 bushel
2150.42 cu. in.
=
1 bushel
\\
cu. ft.
= 1 bushel*
Miscellaneous
35 cu. ft.
=
1 ton of hard coal*
500 cu. ft.
=
1 ton of hay*
128 cu. ft.
= 1 cord of wood
3 teaspoons (t.)
=
j
1 tablespoon (T.)f
All
16 tablespoons
= ^measures
1 cup (c.) I
level
2 cups
= l pint
)
TIME
60
seconds (sec.)
=
1 minute
(min.)
60
minutes =1 hour (hr.)
24 hours
=
1 day (da.)
7 days
=
l week (wk.)
30 days
=
l month (mo.)*
*Approximate.
12 months
=1 year (yr.)
365 days=l
common
year
366 days=l leap year
360 days
=
l year in computing
common
interest.
100 years
=
1 century
Table of References 343
WEIGHT
Avoirdupois
16 ounces (oz.) =
l pound (lb.)
100 pounds
=
1 hundredweight (cwt.)
2000 pounds =
1 ton (T.)
2240 pounds=l long ton
Miscellaneous
1 pt. water weighs 1 lb.*
1 gal. water
"
8j
lb.*
leu. ft. water
" 62
\
lb.*
1 cu. ft. ice
1 bbl. flour
1 bale cotton
57
J lb.*
196 lb.*
500 lb.*
Weights of a Bushel
(Most States)
Barley 48 lb.
Com (shelled) 56 lb.
Corn (on cob) 70 lb.
Oats 32 lb.
Rye 56 lb.
Wheat 60 lb.
Apples 48 lb.
Potatoes 60 lb.
Weights of a Cup
(In Pounds)
Sugar
J*
Flour
J*
Lard Butter
J*
COUNTING
12 units
=1 dozen (doz.)
12 dozen
=
1 gross (gro.)
20 units
=
1 score
!*
2
*
Approximate
AREA OB SI i:i \<
E
(
!ommom ob English System
I 1 1 square inches (sq. in.)
=
1 square foot (sq. ft.)
9 square feet
=
1 square yard (sq. yd.)
3O5 square
yards
=
1 square rod (sq.
rd.)
160 square rods= 1 acre (A.)
43,560 square feet
=
1 acre
640 acres
=
1 square mile
(sq. mi.)
LAND MEASURE
5j
yd. =
164
ft
-
=
l rod
(
rd
-)
320 rd.
=
1 mile (mi.)
160 sq. rd.
=
1 acre (A.)
640 A.
=
1 sq. mi.
VOLUME
Common or English System
1728 cubic inches (cu. in.)
=
1 cubic foot (cu. ft.)
27 cubic feet
=
1 cubic yard
(cu. yd.)
ELECTRICAL
1000 watts
=1 kilowatt
746 watts
=
1 horse power
ANGLES AND AR<
>
60 seconds (")
=
1 minute (')
60 minutes
=
1 degree ()
90 degrees
=
1 right angle
180 degrees
=
1 straight angle
360 degrees
=
1 complete revolution
INDEX
Addition, how used, 8;
avoiding
errors in, 9, 10;
checking, 11;
test in, 12: totals from tables,
13;
tricks of, 19; 100 basic facts,
309.
Accounts,
personal, 128, 130;
fam-
ily, 129, 130; savings, 161;
postal savings, 162.
Altitude, drawing, 230; of tri-
angle, 230.
Angle, bisecting, 294; measuring,
264.
Angles, recognizing, 213; meaning
of, 263;
protractor, 265; verti-
cal, 282; sum of angles of tri-
angles, 283; using angle sum,
284.
Approximate results, finding, 73.
Areas,
rectangles, 214, 215, 216;
squares, 217;
parallelograms,
222, 223;
triangles, 225, 226;
trapezoids, 228, 229;
circles,
235, 236.
Arithmetic in the home, personal
accounts, 128, 130; family ac-
counts, 129, 130;
personal bud-
get, 131; family budgets, 132,
133, 134; how banks serve us,
134; doing business with a bank,
135;
paying bills by check, 136;
writing and cashing checks, 137;
bills and statements, 138; re-
ceipts, 139;
postal money orders,
140; bank drafts, express and
telegraph money orders, 141;
buying, 142, 143;
buying at
sales, 144, 145; gas used in home,
146, 147, 148, 149; electricity
used in, 150, 151, 152, 153;
water used in, 154, 155.
Averages, finding, 33.
Automobile, cost of running, 170.
Bank, how serves us, 134; doing
business with, 135; drafts, 141;
savings accounts, 160.
Bills, and statements, 138.
Bisecting, a line, 285; a circle, 290,
291, 295; an angle, 294.
British, unit of measure, 207.
Buying, in larger quantities, 142,
143; at sales, 144, 145; war
bonds, 163; a home, 164, 165;
installment, 167, 168.
Budgets, personal, 131; family,
132, 133, 134.
Cancellation, time saved by, 53.
Chapter Tests, 1: 37; 2: 57; 3:
85; 4: 125; 5: 177; 6: 201; 7:
246-247; 8: 277; 9: 306.
Checking, two ways of, 187; a
new method of, 188; by starting
with answers, 189;
problems,
190, 191, 192, 193.
Checks, paying bills by, 136;
writing and cashing, 137; travel-
ers', 172.
Circles, drawing, 231; circum-
ference and diameter of, 232;
formulas for circumference and
diameter of, 233; finding cir-
cumference and diameter of,
234; area of, 235; finding area
of, 236;
graph, 260; reading
graph, 261; making graph, 266;
dividing, 290, 291, 295.
Circumference, 231; and diameter,
relation between, 232.
Commissions, meaning of, 93.
Compound numbers, avoiding er-
rors in, 80, 81; test on, 81; using
in problems, 82.
Cubes, 237; volume of, 239.
Decimal, system of numbers, 60,
61, 62.
Decimals, meaning of, 59; frac-
tions, 60; reading, 61, 63, 108;
writing, 62;
avoiding errors in
addition and subtraction of, 65;
avoiding errors in dividing, 66;
checking, 67; test in, 68; to
common fractions, 70; fractions
to decimals, 71; common and
decimal fractions, 72, 74, 75;
ratios, 76; in problems, 79;
from per cents, 105; using, 106;
as per cents, 109;
placing deci-
mal point, 114.
344
Denominate numbers, 80,
.si
82:
teal in,
81, 208.
Denominator, Least Common,
44,
46, 47.
Diameter, 231.
Diagnostic Tests, in addition,
L2;
in subtraction,
17; in whole
numbers, .
r
>.
r
); in multiplication,
24; in division,
32; in common
fractions, 49, 50, 56, 122; in
decimals,
68; in fundamental
processes,
84, 121, 175, 199,
244, 275, 304; in percentages,
123, 176, 200, 245, 276, 305; in
denominate
numbers, 208.
Diagrams, using in problem solv-
ing, 183; using in problems, 184,
185, 186.
Distances, errors in measuring,
210; estimating,
211, 212.
Division, how used,
28; avoid-
ing errors in,
29, 30; checking,
31; test in, 32; by 10, 100, 1000,
69; 90 division facts, 318.
Drawing
instruments,
281, 296.
Electricity, how measured, 150;
cost of, 151, 152; used in home,
153.
Estimating, distances,
211, 212.
Express, money orders, 141.
Formula, circumference and diam-
eter, 233; area of rectangle,
216;
area of square, 217; area of
trapezoid, 228; interest,
158,
159.
Fractions, history of,
39; two
meanings of, 40; third meaning
of, 41; comparing,
42; six prin-
ciples of, 43; checking,
44; avoid-
ing errors in adding and sub-
tracting,
46; avoiding errors in
adding and subtracting
mixed
numbers, 47; avoiding errors in
multiplying and dividing,
48;
tests in,
49, 50, 56; in problems,
51, 52; decimals to fractions,
70;
fractions to decimals,
71; com-
mon and decimal,
72; ratios,
76;
types of problems in,
78; chang-
ing to per cents, 110, 111.
Gas and electric bills, fifirurine
149, 151.
Geometrical designs,
280, 281, 290.
Geometry, using, 279; making
geometrical designs, 280-281.
Graphs, lor impro\ emenl
le.sts. fi,
bar,
249; directions lor
making
bar,
250-251; making bar,
251;
picture,
252, 2.
r
>.'{;
line,
using line,
265; reading line,
256-257;
directions lor
making
line,
258, 259; making line,
259;
circle,
260; making circle, 266;
rectangle,
260; making
red
angle,
262; reading circle and
rectangle,
261; choosing,
267;
making, 268-269.
Hexagon, regular in circle, 290.
Home, methods of paying for, 164,
165.
Improvement
Tests, directions for
taking,
5; 1: Whole Numbers,
7; 2: Common Fractions,
45;
3: Decimal Fractions,
64; 4:
Percentage,
124.
Installment plan, buying on, 167,
168, 169.
Interest, how to figure, 156; for-
mula, 158, 159; on savings ac-
counts, 161; on money loaned,
166; finding rate of, 167.
Least Common Denominator,
44,
46, 47.
Map making, scale drawings,
286,
287, 288.
Meaning of tv, 233.
Measure of capacity, British units,
207.
Measurements, practical,
203; us-
ing, 204; units of,
205; span,
thumb width, pace, 206; stand-
ard units, 207; exact and ap-
proximate, 209; errors in, 210.
Meters, how gas is measured,
146;
reading, 147; checking gas bill,
148; figuring gas bill,
149; how
electricity is measured,
150;
figuring cost of, 151; cost of
lights,
152; in the home, 153;
water bill, checking a, 154;
cost of, 155.
Money orders, postal, 140; bank
drafts, 141; express,
141; tele-
graph, 141.
Mortgage, giving, 164,
345
Multiplication, how used, 20;
avoiding errors in, 21; checking,
22, 23; test in, 24; short methods
of, 25, 26; using, 27;
cancella-
tion, 53; by, 10, 100, 1000, 69;
100 basic facts, 315.
Numbers, reading and writing
large, 2, 3.
Parallel lines, 220, 221; drawing,
296; facts about, 297.
Parallelogram, area of, 222, 223.
Per cent, working with, 87; writing
hundredths, 88; of numbers us-
ing decimals, 89; as common
fractions, 90; of numbers using
common fractions, 91;
meaning
of, 92; in commissions, 93;
ratios, 94, 112;
problems in, 95,
108, 113; increase and decrease,
96, 97; large, 98, 99;
expenses
and profits, 100; in problems,
101; finding the whole, 102, 103,
107; finding the selling price,
104; as decimals, 105, 106; frac-
tions to, 110, 111;
estimating,
114, 115.
Perpendiculars, drawing, 292; us-
ing a compass and straightedge,
293.
Postal money orders, 140.
Postal savings accounts, 162.
Practice Tests, directions for using,
308;
addition of whole numbers,
309-311;
subtraction of whole
numbers, 312-314; multiplica-
tion of whole numbers, 315-317;
division of whole numbers,
319-
321; Least Common Denomina-
tor, 322;
fractions, 322-326; deci-
mals, 327-330; per cents, 331-
335;
denominate numbers,
336-
340.
Problem Helps, how to solve prob-
lems, 270, 298;
choosing facts,
271, 299; supplying missing
facts, 272, 300; making prob-
lems 273, 301.
Problems, steps in solving, 80;
facts in, 181; help for the solu-
tion of, 182; using diagrams in,
183; checking, 187, 188, 189,
190, 191, 192, 193; how to solve,
194; missing facts in, 195;
choosing the facts, 196;
making,
197.
Problem Tests, 36, 54, 83, 120,
173, 174, 198, 242-243, 274, 302,
303.
Protractor, 265.
Promissory notes, how used, 157.
Radius, 231.
Ratios, finding, 76; in per cents,
94, 112.
Receipts, 139.
Rectangles, recognizing, 213; find-
ing area of, 214, 215; formula
for area of, 216;
perimeter of,
218, 219; graph, 260; reading
graph, 261; making graph, 262.
Rectangular solids, meaning, 237;
volume of, 238.
Round numbers, 116; in multipli-
cation, 117; in division, 118; in
problems, 119.
Savings accounts, at bank, 160;
postal, 162.
Scale drawings, reading, 286, 288;
making, 287; locating on, 289.
Score Card, 341.
Selling price, 182.
Solids, volume of, 237, 238, 240.
Solving problems, process to use,
34;
telling how, 35, 241.
Square, recognizing, 213;
formula
for area of, 217;
perimeter of,
218.
Standard units, 207.
Statements, and bills, 138.
Subtraction, how used, 14;
avoid-
ing errors in, 15, 16; test in, 17;
comparing numbers by, 18;
100
basic facts, 312.
Tables, 13.
Table of References,
342-343.
Trapezoid, area of, 228, 229;
formula for area, 228.
Travelers' checks, 172.
Triangle, right, 224; area of, 225;
area of any, 226; finding area of,
227; altitude, 230; sum of angles
of, 283; using angle sums, 284;
equilateral, 291.
Vacation, figuring cost of, 171.
Volumes, of rectangular solids,
237, 238, 240; of a cube, 239.
Whole numbers, review, 1-3; test
in, 55; finding value of, 77;
in
per cents, 102, 103, 107.
346