1.) Differentiate sound from noise.

Sound is a form of energy, just like electricity and light. Sound is made when air molecules vibrate and
move in a pattern called waves, or sound waves. Think of when you clap your hands, or when you slam
the car door shut. That action produces soundwaves, which travel to your ears and then to your brain,
which says, "I recognize that sound."

Noise means any unwanted sound. Noise is not necessarily random. Sounds, particularly loud ones, that
disturb people or make it difficult to hear wanted sounds, are noise. For example, conversations of other
people may be called noise by people not involved in any of them; any unwanted sound such as
domesticated dogs barking, neighbours playing loud music, portable mechanical saws, road traffic
sounds, or a distant aircraft in quiet countryside, is called noise.


How can we apply noise strategy to a specific situation?

Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the impact
of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors. The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement
are: transportation noise control, architectural design, urban planning through zoning
codes, and occupational noise control. Roadway noise and aircraft noise are the most pervasive sources of
environmental noise worldwide, and little change has been effected in source control in these areas since
the start of the problem, a possible exception being the development of hybrid and electric vehicles.
Social activities may generate noise levels that consistently affect the health of populations residing in or
occupying areas, both indoor and outdoor, near entertainment venues that feature amplified sounds and
music that present significant challenges for effective noise mitigation strategies.


How do we solve problems about noise?

Sound masking is the active addition of noise to reduce the annoyance of certain sounds; the
opposite of soundproofing. Noise control techniques include:
Sound insulation: prevent the transmission of noise by the introduction of a mass barrier. Common
materials have high-density properties such as brick, thick glass, concrete, metal etc.
Sound absorption: a porous material which acts as a noise sponge by converting the sound energy
into heat within the material. Common sound absorption materials include decoupled lead-based tiles,
open cell foams and fiberglass
Vibration damping: applicable for large vibrating surfaces. The damping mechanism works by
extracting the vibration energy from the thin sheet and dissipating it as heat. A common material is
sound deadened steel.
Vibration isolation: prevents transmission of vibration energy from a source to a receiver by
introducing a flexible element or a physical break. Common vibration isolators are springs, rubber
mounts, cork etc.

2.) What is the content of Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Ecological Solid Waste Management
Act and Plastic Pollution Control Act? What are the other Philippine laws and regulations
regarding the environment?

PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8749

The Clean Air Act outlines the governments measures to reduce air pollution and incorporate
environmental protection into its developement plans. It relies heavily on the polluter pays principle and
other market-based instruments to promote self-regulation among the population. It sets emission
standards for all motor vehicles and issues registration only upon demonstration of compliance. It also
issues pollutant limitations for industry. Polluting vehicles and industrial processes must pay a charge.
Any individual, enterprise, corporation or groups that installed pollution control devices or retrofitted its
existing facilities to comply with the emissions standards in the Act can apply for tax incentives of
accelerated depreciation, deductibility of R&D expenditures or tax credits on the VAT of the equipment
and are exempt from real property tax on the machinery or equipment used to comply. It also establishes a
R&D program for air pollution reduction mechanisms and technologies. It bans incineration and smoking
in public places. At the local and municipal levels, governments are allowed to set emission
quotas by pollution source, and the development of recycling programs is encouraged.




PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004
(REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9275)
The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) aims to protect the countrys water
bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and
community/household activities). It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and
minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the stakeholders.
Highlights of the Clean Water Act
How will water quality be managed?
Management of water quality will either be based on watershed, river basin or water resources region.
Water quality management areas with similar hydrological, hydrogeological, meteorological or
geographic conditions which affect the reaction and diffusion of pollutants in water bodies are to be
designated by the DENR in coordination with the National Water Resources Board (NWRB).
How will discharges of wastewater be controlled?
All owners or operators of facilities that discharge wastewater are required to get a permit to discharge
from the DENR or the Laguna Lake Development Authority. Existing industries without any permit are
given 12 months from the effectivity of the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) promulgated
pursuant to this Act to secure a permit to discharge.
How will domestic wastewater be addressed?
The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), in coordination with local government units
will prepare a national program on sewage and septage management not later than 12 months from
effectivity of this Act. A priority list will likewise be prepared which will be the basis for the allotment of
funds on an annual basis by the national government for the construction and rehabilitation of required
facilities.
On the other hand, LGUs are to provide the land including road right of the way for the construction of
sewage and/or septage treatment facilities and raise funds for the operations and maintenance of said
facilities.
The Department of Health (DOH) will formulate guidelines and standards for the collection, treatment
and disposal of sewage as well as the guidelines for the establishment and operation of centralized sewage
treatment system. The MWSS and other agencies mandated to provide water supply and sewerage
facilities are required to connect existing sewage lines, subject to the payment of sewerage service
charges/fees within five years following effectivity of this Act.
All sources of sewage and septage are required to comply with the law.
How will the discharge of wastewater be discouraged?
Anyone discharging wastewater into a water body will have to pay a wastewater charge. This economic
instrument which will be developed in consultation with all concerned stakeholders is expected to
encourage investments in cleaner production and pollution control technologies to reduce the amount of
pollutants generated and discharged.
Effluent trading per management area will also be allowed.
Rewards will also be given to those whose wastewater discharge is better than the water quality criteria of
the receiving body of water. Fiscal and non-fiscal incentives will also be given to LGUs, water districts,
enterprise, private entities and individuals who develop and undertake outstanding and innovative projects
in water quality management.
What safeguards are provided for?
All possible dischargers are required to put up an environmental guarantee fund (EGF) as part of their
environmental management plan. The EGF will finance the conservation of watersheds and aquifers, and
the needs of emergency response, clean up or rehabilitation.
What are the prohibited acts under R.A. 9275?
Among others, the Act prohibits the following:
Discharging or depositing any water pollutant to the water body, or such which will impede natural flow
in the water body
Discharging, injecting or allowing to enter into the soil, anything that would pollute groundwater
Operating facilities that discharge regulated water pollutants without the valid required permits
Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea by vessels
Unauthorized transport or dumping into waters of sewage sludge or solid waste.
Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants listed under Toxic
Chemicals, Hazardous and Nuclear
Wastes Control Act (Republic.Act No. 6969)
Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid required discharge permit pursuant to this Act
Noncompliance of the LGU with the Water Quality Framework and Management Area Action Plan
Refusal to allow entry, inspection and monitoring as well as access to reports and records by the DENR
in accordance with this Act
Refusal or failure to submit reports and/or designate pollution control officers whenever required by the
DENR in accordance with this Act
Directly using booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water supply in such a
way to alter or impair the water quality
Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep, willfully or through grave negligence, prohibited
chemicals, substances, or pollutantslisted under R.A. No. 6969, into water bodies.
Undertake activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating wastewater
treatment/sewerage facilities in violation of P.D.1586 and its IRR.
What are the fines and penalties imposed on polluters?
The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR:
Upon the recommendation of the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB), anyone who commits prohibited
acts such as discharging untreated wastewater into any water body will be fined for every day of
violation, the amount of not less than Php 10,000 but not more than Php 200,000.
Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment of not less than two
years and not more than four years. This also includes a fine of not less than Php 50,000 and not more
than Php 100,000 per day of violation. Failure or refusal to clean up which results in serious injury or loss
of life or lead to irreversible water contamination of surface, ground, coastal and marine water shall be
punished with imprisonment of not less than 6 years and 1 day and not more than 12 years and a fine of
Php 500,000/day for each day the contamination or omission continues.
In cases of gross violation, a fine of not less than Php 500,000 but not more than Php 3,000,000 will be
imposed for each day of violation. Criminal charges may also be filed.
Who should implement the Clean Water Act?
The DENR is the primary government agency responsible for the implementation and enforcement of this
Act, with the support of other government organizations, local government units, non -government
organizations and the private sector.
Towards this end, the DENR will review and set affluent standards, review and enforce water quality
guidelines, classify groundwater sources and prepare a national groundwater vulnerability map, classify
or reclassify water bodies, establish internationally accepted procedures for sampling and analysis,
prepare an integrated water quality management framework and subsequently prepare 10-year
management plans for each water management area.







PHILIPPINE ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003 or the Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
provides the legal framework for the countrys systematic, comprehensive, and ecological solid waste
management program that shall ensure protection of public health and the environment. It emphasizes
the need to create the necessary mechanisms and incentives to pursue an effective solid waste
management at the local government levels.

What are the important features of the Solid Waste Management Act?

a. Creation of the National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC), the National Ecology
Center (NEC), and the Solid Waste Management Board in every province, city and municipality in
the country.
The NSWMC shall be responsible in the formulation of the National Solid Waste Management
Framework (NSWMF) and other policies on solid waste, in overseeing the implementation of solid
waste management plans and the management of the solid waste management fund.
The NEC, on the other hand, shall be responsible for consulting, information, training and
networking services relative to the implementation of R.A.No. 9003.
The Solid Waste Management Board of provinces, cities, and municipalities shall be responsible
for the development of their respective solid waste management plans.
b. Formulation of the NSWMF: 10-year solid management plans by local government units;

c. Mandatory segregation of solid waste to be conducted primarily at the source such as household,
institutional, industrial, commercial and agricultural sources;

d. Setting of minimum requirements to ensure systematic collection and transport of wastes and
the proper protection of garbage collectors' health;

e. Establishment of reclamation programs and buy-back centers for recyclable and toxic materials;

f. Promotion of eco-labeling in local products and services;

g. Prohibition on non-environmentally acceptable products and packaging;

h. Establishment of Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) in every barangay or cluster of barangays;

i. Prohibition against the use of open dumps;

j. Setting of guidelines/criteria for the establishment of controlled dumps and sanitary landfills;

k. Provision of rewards, incentives both monetary and non-monetary, financial assistance, grants
and the like to encourage LGUs and the general public to undertake effective solid waste
management; and

l. Promotion of research on solid waste management and environmental education in the formal
and non-formal sectors.




Plastic Pollution Control

Plastic pollution involves the accumulation of plastic products in the environment that adversely
affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans. Many types and forms of plastic pollution exist.
Plastic pollution can adversely affect lands, waterways and oceans. Plastic reduction efforts have
occurred in some areas in attempts to reduce plastic consumption and promote plastic recycling.
The prominence of plastic pollution is correlated with plastics being inexpensive and durable,
which lends to high levels of plastics used by humans.
Plastic pollution occurs in many forms, including but not limited to littering, marine debris (man-
made waste that has been released in a lake, sea, ocean, or waterway), plastic particle water
pollution, plastic netting and Friendly Floatees. A large percentage of plastic produced each year
is used to make single-use, disposable packaging items or products which will get permanently
thrown out within one year. Often, consumers of the various types of plastics mainly use them for
one purpose and then discard or recycle them.
Per the United States Environmental Protection Agency, in 2011 plastics constituted over 12% of
municipal solid waste. In the 1960s, plastics constituted less than 1% of municipal solid waste.






Other Philippine laws and regulations regarding the environment?

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS OF THE PHILIPPINES
Environmental Laws And Policies
Bio 425/426/427 (Environmental Issues And Policies)
P.D. 984 Pollution Control Law
P.D. 1151 Philippine Environmental Policy
- defines the general policies on he pursuit of a better quality of life for the present and future generations
and mandates the undertaking the environmental impact assessments for all projects, which
may significantly affect the environment.
P.D. 1152 Philippine Environmental Policy
- defines the policy objectives and the strategies for the various aspects of environmental management,
such as air and water quality management, natural source development, land management, and
waste management. It launches a comprehensive national program of environmental protection
and management, with reference to policies and standards of noise, air quality, water quality,
classification of water and waste management.
P.D. 1586 defines the framework for the implementation of the environmental impact assessment as the
mechanism to reconcile the impacts of development projects on society and the physical
environment.
P.D. 389 (P.D. 705) The Forestry Reform Code
- codifies, updates and raises forestry laws in the country. It emphasizes the sustainable utilization of
forest resources.
P.D. 330 & P.D. 953 laws on penalizing illegal cutting of trees
P.D. 953 & 1153 laws on tree planting
P.D. 331- laws requiring all public forests be developed on a sustained yield basis.
P.D. 704 preservation of optimum productivity of fishery resources through conservation and
protection.
P.D. 1015 banning the operation of commercial fishing within a distance of 7 kilometers from the
shoreline.
P.D. 1058 increasing the penalties for illegal forms of fishing.
P.D. 1219 providing for the protection of coral ecosystems.
P.D. 1067 Water Code of the Philippines
- adopts adequate measures to conserve and regulate the use of water in commercial, industrial and
residential areas. It also provides other policy guidelines in water quality and management of
water resources.
P.D. 463 amended the Mining Act of 1936, requires all mining leaseholders to comply with Pollution
Control Laws and regulations and provide for penalties for noncompliance.
P.D. 1198 reinforces this provision for restoration of mined-out areas to this original condition to the
extent possible.
P.D. 1251 imposes fines on tailings and mine wastes and the fund generated is used to pay for the
damages to land, agricultural crops, forests products, aquatic resources and infrastructures
caused by pollution for mining operations.
P.D. 984 The Pollution Control Law
P.D. 1181 (supplements the provision of P.D. 984) providing for the abatement, control and prevention
of vehicular pollution & establishing the maximum allowance emissions of specific air
pollutants from all types of vehicle.
P.D. 600 ( amended by P.D. 979) Water Pollution Control
- prohibits the discharge of oil, noxious liquid substances, and other harmful substances into the countrys
inland and territorial waters.
P.D. 825 prohibits the improper disposal of garbage
P.D. 856 Sanitation Code
- places the responsibility in the local government units for he solid waste management in his area of
production.
P.D. 1144 Control of Pesticides
R.A. 8749 Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
- provides for a comprehensive air pollution control policy
R.A 3720 Food Additives
R.A. 6425 Drugs
R.A 280 Cosmetics
R.A. 7160 Local Government Code of 1991
-provides that local government should share with the national government the responsibility in the
management and maintenance of ecological balance within their territorial jurisdiction subject
to national policies and other pertinent provisions of the code.
R.A. 6969 Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act
- authorizes the DENR to establish a program to regulate, restrict or prohibit the importation,
manufacture, processing, sale, destruction, use and disposal of chemical substances, and
mixture that present unreasonable risk and/or injury to health or the environment.
R.A. 8550 The Fisheries Code of the Philippines
- defines the policies of the state in the protection, conservation and effective management of fisheries
stock as well as identifying allowable fishing methods in Philippine coastal waters.
R.A. 9003 The Solid Waste Management Act of 2001- an act providing for an ecological solid waste
management program, creating the necessary institutional mechanisms and incentives,
declaring certain acts prohibited and providing penalties, appropriating funds therefor, and for
other purposes.
R.A. 9275- also known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 an act providing a comprehensive
water quality management and for other purposes.
R.A. 9729 also known as the Climate Change Act of 2009. - an act mainstreaming climate change into
government policy formulations, establishing the framework strategy and program on climate change,
creating for this purpose the climate change commission, and for other purposes.



3.) What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EI A)?

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible impacts that a proposed
project may have on the environment, consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects.The
purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts when
deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact Assessment
(IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating
and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major
decisions being taken and commitments made." EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a
predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision makers to account for
environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental
studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.
Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental
awareness. EIAs involved a technical evaluation intended to contribute to more objective decision
making. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969, with
enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act. EIAs have been used increasingly around the world.
The number of "Environmental Assessments" filed every year "has vastly overtaken the number of more
rigorous Environmental Impact Statements (EIS)." An Environmental Assessment is a "mini-EIS
designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-
blown Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary

What are the different concepts in solving environmental problems in the Philippines?

General and industry specific assessment methods are available including:
Industrial products - Product environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) is used for identifying and
measuring the impact of industrial products on the environment. These EIAs consider activities related to
extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment; production, use, disposal and ancillary
equipment.
Genetically modified plants - Specific methods available to perform EIAs of genetically modified
organisms include GMP-RAM and INOVA.
Fuzzy logic - EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators.
However many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e.g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality
and social acceptance. Instead information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community sentiment
are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used.

What are the different principles of EI A?

Principle One: Proactive Planning and Decision Tool- the EIA process is a proactive planning tool to
avoid and pre-empt adverse environmental impacts that might be caused or experienced by the proposed
development. An EIA should be linked to the decision making process.

Principle Two: Avoidance, Pre-emption and Prevention of Adverse Environmental Consequences-
the aim of the EIA process is to avoid and prevent adverse environmental consequences of the proposed
project; if adverse environmental impacts cannot be fully avoided, measures should be considered to
reduce and control the possible adverse environmental impacts to within established limits or criteria.

Principle Three: Making Positive Influence on Decision Making at the Earliest Possible
Opportunity and Thinking Proactively about Options and Alternatives- it is important to facilitate
any effort to enhance the environmental performance of the proposed development at the beginning of the
project planning stage rather than at the later stage of the project development. It is often better to pre-
empt adverse impacts at the early stage of the project implementation. Options and alternatives should be
considered when adverse environmental impacts are expected, and in considering alternatives, the
primary consideration is whether applying the precautionary principle, the project is shown to be
environmentally acceptable.

Principle Four: Living Process Throughout the Project Cycle- the EIA process should involve a
course of dynamic actions throughout the project cycle to identify and predict the possible adverse
environmental impacts from the proposed development, to develop measures to avoid, pre-empt, prevent
and reduce environmental problems, and to manage and control environmental impacts to within
established limits or criteria.

Principle Five: Making EIA Recommendations Enforceable - the EIA recommendations should be
sensible, practical and effective, with information about the 5 Ws (ie. what mitigation measures would be
implemented, by whom, when, where and to what requirements) and with clear definition of the
responsibility for implementing the recommended mitigation measures. The recommended measures
should be easy to enforce and can prevent environmental problems from occurring, rather than relying on
remedial measures after problems occur.

Principle Six: Flexibility Amidst Robustness and Transparency, with Public Participation and with
the Ability to Adapt to Changes- the EIA process should be transparent and take into account public
participation, but should be flexible to adapt to changing circumstances without compromising the
environmental requirements.

Principle Seven: Seeking Practical Environmental Outcomes for the Environment and Community-
one of the objectives of the EIA process is to deliver and communicate practical environmental outcomes
for the environment and the community.

Principle Eight: Avoidance of any Late Focus- early focus on major adverse environmental
consequences could save a large amount of efforts or costs that may otherwise arise from expensive or
time-consuming remedial works at a later stage.

Principle Nine: Efficiency Amidst Effectiveness- an effective and efficient approach in carrying out
EIA studies step by step would enhance the productivity of the EIA process.

Principle Ten: Transparent Agreement among Relevant Parties, Clear Expectations of what need
to be done and what the Performance will be, and Explicit Resolution of any Conflicts- agreements,
expectations, performance requirements and any conflict resolutions etc. should be fully communicated
among relevant parties in an open and frank manner to avoid misunderstanding and to enhance better
management of EIA follow up works.

PD 1586 (1978): Philippine EIA System
Establishing an Environmental Impact Statement System including Other Environmental Management
related Measures and for Other Purposes
Centralized the EIS System under the (then) National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC), and
authorized the President and the NEPC to proclaim projects and activities subject to the EIS system;
placed the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB) (created by PD 984) under NEPC

4. What are the major nutritional requirements?

Nutrition is the selection of foods and preparation of foods, and their ingestion to be assimilated by the
body. By practicing a healthy diet, many of the known health issues can be avoided.
[1]
The diet of an
organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the perceivedpalatability of foods.
Dietitians are health professionals who specialize in human nutrition, meal planning, economics, and
preparation. They are trained to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice and management to
individuals (in health and disease), as well as to institutions. Clinicalnutritionists are health professionals
who focus more specifically on the role of nutrition in chronic disease, including possible prevention or
remediation by addressing nutritional deficiencies before resorting to drugs. Government regulation of the
use of this professional title is less universal than for "dietician."
A poor diet may have an injurious impact on health, causing deficiency diseases such as scurvy

and kwashiorkor; health-threatening conditions like obesityand metabolic syndrome; and such common
chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis.
Human nutrition is the provision to obtain the essential nutrients necessary to support life and health. In
general, people can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat and muscle
mass.
Poor nutrition is a chronic problem linked to poverty, poor nutrition understanding and practices, and
deficient sanitation and food security. Malnutrition globally provides many challenges to individuals and
societies. Lack of proper nutrition contributes to worse class performance, lower test scores, and
eventually less successful students and a less productive and competitive economy. Malnutrition and its
consequences are immense contributors to deaths and disabilities worldwide. Promoting good nutrition
helps children grow, promotes human development and advances economic growth and eradication of
poverty.
The five main nutrients that are required by humans are: carbohydrates, dietary fibre, protein, fats and
vitamins and minerals. Imbalance of any of these five nutrients will lead to metabolic complications and
conditions such as Kwashiorkor.




5. What are the different sources of Land degradation?

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a
combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land.
[1]
also environmental degradation is the
gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals activities or
natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, etc. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to
the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
[2]
Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however
human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.
This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation
has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. It is estimated that up
to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.


Sources of Land Degradation:
Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:
Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation
Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting
Inappropriate irrigation
[7]
and overdrafting
Urban sprawl and commercial development
Soil contamination
Vehicle off-roading
Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals
Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and
copses disappear
Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment
Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem
Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics


Effects of Land Degradation
Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublandsto obtain timber,
fuelwood and other productsat a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in semi-
arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe.
Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying
capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It is
a significant factor in Afghanistan. ext of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-
1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight
countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).
Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for instance,
occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure which leads
settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has recovered its fertility,
or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils.
High population density is not always related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practices of the human
population that can cause a landscape to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the land and
make it more productive than it is in its natural state. Land degradation is an important factor of internal
displacement in many African and Asian countries
Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth
and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food
security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and
potential conflict are sewn.




What is biomagnification?
Biomagnification, also known as bioamplification or biological magnification, occurs when
the concentration of a substance, such as DDT or mercury, in an organism exceeds the background
concentration of the substance in its diet.
[1]
This increase can occur as a result of:
Persistence where the substance can't be broken down by environmental processes
Food chain energetics where the substance concentration increases progressively as it moves up a
food chain
Low or non-existent rate of internal degradation or excretion of the substance often due to water-
insolubility
The following is an example showing how bio-magnification takes place in nature: An anchovy eats zoo-
plankton that have tiny amounts of mercury that the zoo-plankton has picked up from the water
throughout the anchovies lifespan. A tuna eats many of these anchovies over its life, accumulating the
mercury in each of those anchovies into its body. If the mercury stunts the growth of the anchovies, that
tuna is required to eat more little fish to stay alive. Because there are more little fish being eaten, the
mercury content is magnified.
Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or
heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic
organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals or humans. The substances become
concentrated in tissues or internal organs as they move up the chain. Bioaccumulants are substances that
increase in concentration in living organisms as they take in contaminated air, water, or food because
the substances are very slowly metabolized or excreted.





What is Organic Farming?
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green
manure, compost, and biological pest control. Depending on whose definition is used, organic farming
uses fertilizers and pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) if they are
considered natural (such as bone meal from animals or pyrethrin from flowers), but it excludes or strictly
limits the use of various methods (including synthetic petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides; plant
growth regulators such as hormones; antibiotic use in livestock; genetically modified organisms;
[1]
human
sewage sludge; and nanomaterials.) for reasons including sustainability, openness, independence, health,
and safety.
Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in
large part on the standards set by theInternational Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella organization for organic farming organizations
established in 1972. The USDA National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) definition as of April 1995 is:
Organic agriculture is an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs
and on management practices that restore, maintain and enhance ecological harmony."
Since 1990 the market for organic food and other products has grown rapidly, reaching $63 billion
worldwide in 2012. This demand has driven a similar increase in organically managed farmland which
has grown over the years 2001-2011 at a compounding rate of 8.9% per annum. As of 2011,
approximately 37,000,000 hectares (91,000,000 acres) worldwide were farmed organically, representing
approximately 0.9 percent of total world farmland (2009).



What are the major types of pesticides?

Pesticides are often referred to according to the type of pest they control. Another way to think about
pesticides is to consider those that are chemical pesticides or are derived from a common source or
production method. Other categories include biopesticides, antimicrobials, and pest control devices.
Chemical Pesticides
Some examples of chemically-related pesticides follow. Other examples are available in sources such
as Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings.
Organophosphate Pesticides - These pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting the enzyme that
regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Most organophosphates are insecticides. They were developed
during the early 19th century, but their effects on insects, which are similar to their effects on humans,
were discovered in 1932. Some are very poisonous (they were used in World War II as nerve agents).
However, they usually are not persistent in the environment.
Carbamate Pesticides affect the nervous system by disupting an enzyme that regulates acetylcholine, a
neurotransmitter. The enzyme effects are usually reversible. There are several subgroups within the
carbamates.
Organochlorine Insecticides were commonly used in the past, but many have been removed from the
market due to their health and environmental effects and their persistence (e.g. DDT and chlordane).
Pyrethroid Pesticides were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrethrin,
which is found in chrysanthemums. They have been modified to increase their stability in the
environment. Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to the nervous system.

Biopesticides
Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants,
bacteria, and certain minerals. For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and
are considered biopesticides. At the end of 2001, there were approximately 195 registered biopesticide
active ingredients and 780 products. Biopesticides fall into three major classes:
(1) Microbial pesticides consist of a microorganism (e.g., a bacterium, fungus, virus or protozoan) as the
active ingredient. Microbial pesticides can control many different kinds of pests, although each separate
active ingredient is relatively specific for its target pest[s]. For example, there are fungi that control
certain weeds, and other fungi that kill specific insects.
The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt.
Each strain of this bacterium produces a different mix of proteins, and specifically kills one or a few
related species of insect larvae. While some Bt's control moth larvae found on plants, other Bt's are
specific for larvae of flies and mosquitoes. The target insect species are determined by whether the
particular Bt produces a protein that can bind to a larval gut receptor, thereby causing the insect larvae to
starve
(2) Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic
material that has been added to the plant. For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal
protein, and introduce the gene into the plant's own genetic material. Then the plant, instead of the Bt
bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the pest. The protein and its genetic material, but not
the plant itself, are regulated by EPA.
(3) Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic mechanisms.
Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are generally synthetic materials that directly kill or inactivate the
pest. Biochemical pesticides include substances, such as insect sex pheromones, that interfere with
mating, as well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps. Because it is sometimes
difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide,
EPA has established a special committee to make such decisions.

6. Explain different alternative methods of pest control.
The use of pesticides to control pests should always be the last resort. Other action can be taken around
homes and communities to control pests. Most of these actions simply relate to clean and healthy living.
Hygiene as a method of pest control
When houses and yards are kept clean, there is no food for pests and nowhere for them to live and breed,
and this in turn means that there are few pests.

Pests can be controlled by practising good hygiene in the following ways:
Clean up after meals. Put food scraps in the bin, and wash and dry plates, cups, glasses, cutlery and
cooking pots after use.
Put all rubbish into the bin
Wrap all food scraps tightly in paper before putting them in the bin
Keep all the benches, cupboards and floors clean and free of food scraps
Regularly clean behind stoves, refrigerators and other household appliances
Keep food in containers with tight-fitting lids
Use the toilet properly. Make sure that all urine and faeces goes into the pedestal pan and that the toilet
is flushed after use. Toilet paper is the only kind of paper that should be flushed down the toilet.
Make sure the toilet is clean and the cistern works correctly
Make sure that all septic tanks and leach drains are well sealed
Make sure that the community rubbish tip is operated correctly with the rubbish being buried regularly
Use flyscreens to stop pests entering the house and seal holes around pipes
There is little point to having a pesticide program to control domestic pests if the relevant hygiene factors
are not addressed as well. The pests will soon return if good hygiene is not maintained.


Biological control methods
Biological control methods can also be used to control pests. These methods include using natural
enemies of the pest and biologically interfering with their ability to breed. Pesticides are not used.

Two examples of biological control methods are:
the use of Australian native fish to feed on mosquito larvae in water bodies
the use of the dung beetle to break down and bury cow faeces so that it is no longer available as a
breeding place for flies
However, biological control methods can go wrong. One such example was the introduction of the giant
cane toad to Queensland some years ago to control cane beetles. It was though the toad would to feed on
the cane beetles and so reduce their numbers. But the toad was not successful in controlling cane beetles.
Instead the poisonous toads multiplied rapidly, and have now become a major environmental pest in
Queensland, the Northern Territory, and are likely to enter the Kimberley region of Western Australia.

There are other areas where biological products have been successfully introduced to control pests. One
such example is the use of BTI to control mosquito larvae. BTI is a larvicide composed of a toxin
producing bacteria. The mosquito larvae are killed when they eat the bacteria. BTI will not kill mosquito
pupae.

BTI comes in liquid and granule form and is added to water bodies. BTI will not be effective if the dose
rate for the amount of water is not correct. The correct method of application is very important to get the
best results.



What are the different problems that arise from the use of pesticides?
Pesticides are the only toxic substances released intentionally into our environment to kill living things.
This includes substances that kill weeds (herbicides), insects (insecticides), fungus (fungicides), rodents
(rodenticides), and others.

The use of toxic pesticides to manage pest problems has become a common practice around the world.
Pesticides are used almost everywhere -- not only in agricultural fields, but also in homes, parks, schools,
buildings, forests, and roads. It is difficult to find somewhere where pesticides aren't used -- from the can
of bug spray under the kitchen sink to the airplane crop dusting acres of farmland, our world is filled with
pesticides. In addition, pesticides can be found in the air we breathe, the food we eat, and the water we
drink.

Pesticides and Human Health
Pesticides have been linked to a wide range of human health hazards, ranging from short-term impacts
such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer, reproductive harm, and endocrine
disruption.
Acute dangers - such as nerve, skin, and eye irritation and damage, headaches, dizziness, nausea, fatigue,
and systemic poisoning - can sometimes be dramatic, and even occasionally fatal.
Chronic health effects may occur years after even minimal exposure to pesticides in the environment, or
result from the pesticide residues which we ingest through our food and water. A July 2007 study
conducted by researchers at the Public Health Institute, the California Department of Health Services, and
the UC Berkeley School of Public Health found a sixfold increase in risk factor for autism spectrum
disorders (ASD) for children of women who were exposed to organochlorine pesticides.
Pesticides can cause many types of cancer in humans. Some of the most prevalent forms include
leukemia, non-Hodgkins lymphoma, brain, bone, breast, ovarian, prostate, testicular and liver cancers. In
February 2009, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry published a study that found that
children who live in homes where their parents use pesticides are twice as likely to develop brain cancer
versus those that live in residences in which no pesticides are used.
Studies by the National Cancer Institute found that American farmers, who in most respects are healthier
than the population at large, had startling incidences of leukemia, Hodgkins disease, non-Hodgkins
lymphoma, and many other forms of cancer.
There is also mounting evidence that exposure to pesticides disrupts the endocrine system, wreaking
havoc with the complex regulation of hormones, the reproductive system, and embryonic development.
Endocrine disruption can produce infertility and a variety of birth defects and developmental defects in
offspring, including hormonal imbalance and incomplete sexual development, impaired brain
development, behavioral disorders, and many others. Examples of known endocrine disrupting chemicals
which are present in large quantities in our environment include DDT (which still persists in abundance
more than 20 years after being banned in the U.S.), lindane, atrazine, carbaryl, parathion, and many
others.
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) is a medical condition characterized by the body's inability to
tolerate relatively low exposure to chemicals. This condition, also referred to as Environmental Illness, is
triggered by exposure to certain chemicals and/or environmental pollutants. Exposure to pesticides is a
common way for individuals to develop MCS, and once the condition is present, pesticides are often a
potent trigger for symptoms of the condition. The variety of these symptoms can be dizzying, including
everything from cardiovascular problems to depression to muscle and joint pains. Over time, individuals
suffering from MCS will begin to react adversely to substances that formerly did not affect them.
For individuals suffering from MCS, the only way to relieve their symptoms is to avoid those substances
that trigger adverse reactions. For some individuals, this can mean almost complete isolation from the
outside world.

Pesticides and Children
Children are particularly susceptible to the hazards associated with pesticide use. There is now
considerable scientific evidence that the human brain is not fully formed until the age of 12, and
childhood exposure to some of the most common pesticides on the market may greatly impact the
development of the central nervous system. Children have more skin surface for their size than adults,
absorb proportionally greater amounts of many substances through their lungs and intestinal tracts, and
take in more air, food and water per pound than adults. Children have not developed their immune
systems, nervous systems, or detoxifying mechanisms completely, leaving them less capable of fighting
the introduction of toxic pesticides into their systems.
Many of the activities that children engage in - playing in the grass, putting objects into their mouth and
even playing on carpet - increase their exposure to toxic pesticides. The combination of likely increased
exposure to pesticides and lack of bodily development to combat the toxic effects of pesticides means that
children are suffering disproportionately from their impacts.

Pesticides and the Environment
Since the publication of Rachel Carsons landmark 1962 book Silent Spring, the impacts of pesticides on
the environment have been well known. Pesticides are toxic to living organisms. Some can accumulate in
water systems, pollute the air, and in some cases have other dramatic environmental effects. Scientists are
discovering new threats to the environment that are equally disturbing.
Pesticide use can damage agricultural land by harming beneficial insect species, soil microorganisms, and
worms which naturally limit pest populations and maintain soil health;
Weakening plant root systems and immune systems;
Reducing concentrations of essential plant nutrients in the soil such nitrogen and phosphorous



7. What are the different major infectious organisms and hazardous agents that cause
environmental diseases?


There are many different types of environmental disease including:

Lifestyle disease such as cardiovascular disease, diseases caused by substance abuse such as
alcoholism, and smoking-related disease

Disease caused by physical factors in the environment, such as skin cancer caused by excessive
exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight

Disease caused by exposure to chemicals in the environment such as toxic metals


Categories of environmental disease

First, there are those caused by the ancient metals: lead and mercury.
Then there are those caused by the other metals: arsenic, phosphorus, and zinc.
The newer metals can also cause environmental disease: beryllium, cadmium, chromium,
manganese, nickel, cobalt, osmium, platinum, selenium, tellurium, thallium, uranium, and
vanadium.

Additionally, there are environmental diseases caused by the aromatic carbon compounds
including : benzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, toluenediisocyanate, phenol,pentachlorophenol, qui
none and hydroquinone.Also included are the aromatic nitro-, amino-, and
pyridiliumderatives: nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene, paramethylaminophenol
sulfate (Metol), dinitroorthocresol,aniline, trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl), hexanitrodiphen
ylamine (aurantia), phenylenediamineand paraquat. The aliphatic carbon compounds can also
cause environmental disease. Included in these
are methanol, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, dimethylnitrosamine, and
the halogenatedhydrocarbons: methyl chloride, methyl bromide, trichloroethylene, carbon
tetrachloride, and the chlorinated naphthalenes. Also included are glycols: ethylene
chlorhydrin anddiethylene dioxide as well as carbon disulfide, acrylonitrile, acrylamide, and vinyl
chloride.

Other important chemical causes of environmental diseases are the noxious gases which can be
categorized as : Simple asphxiants, chemical asphyxiants, and irritant gases. The simple
asphixiants are nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide. The chemical asphyxiants are carbon
monoxide, sulfuretted hydrogen and hydrogen cyanide. The irritant gases are sulfur
dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine, phosgene, and fluorine and its compounds, which
include luroine and hydrofluoric acid, fluorspar,fluorapatite, cryolite, and organic fluorine
compounds.



8. What are the basic Geological principles? How do tectonic plate movements affect condition
for life in earth?

4 Common Geological Principles:
a.) Law of Superposition. Nicolaus Steno, a Danish anatomist, geologist, and priest (1636 - 1686)
observed the changes in a sequence of rock layers while working in the mountains of Italy. Steno's
observations became known as the Law of Superposition which simply stated that in a sequence of
sedimentary rock layers, each layer of rock is older than the layer above it and younger than the rock layer
below it. The Law of Superposition also applied to other geologic events on the surface, such as lava
flows and ash layers from volcanic eruptions.
b.) Law of Crosscutting Relationships. Described by Scotsman James Hutton (1726 - 1997), the Law
of Crosscutting Relationships stated that if a fault or other body of rock cuts through another body of rock
then it must be younger in age than the rock through which it cuts and displaces.
c.) Law of Inclusions. The Law of Inclusions was also described by James Hutton and stated that if a
rock body (Rock B) contained fragments of another rock body (Rock A), it must be younger than the
fragments of rock it contained. The intruding rock (Rock A) must have been there first to provide the
fragments.
d.) Law of Faunal Succession. In 1790, while engineering canals to link Britain's looming industrial
age together, William Smith observed that fossils of invertebrate animals found in the rock layers
appeared in a predictable sequence. From this observation the Law of Faunal Succession was developed
and stated that fossils occur in a definite, invariable sequence in the geologic record.


Effects of Tectonic plate movements in the environment

At the boundaries of tectonic plates you get a lot of emission of various gasses either from hydrothermal
vents at mid-ocean ridges or from volcanoes near plate subduction zones. These gasses typically comprise
things like sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide that can have big impacts on climate and ocean chemistry.
Another major impact on the environment from plate tectonics is mountain building, such as when two
plates collide to form large mountain ranges such as the Himalayas. Big mountain ranges can have huge
affects on weather patterns and precipitation. The Asian monsoons are heavily influenced by the
Himalayan plateau for example. Also, weathering of mountain ranges can alter the atmospheric and ocean
composition due to the chemical processes involved.
9. What are the geological hazards of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis?

Earthquakes effects:






Volcano Eruption Effects:

a.) Collapsing buildings, walls, bridges, falling furniture or objects, shattering glass windows
and mirrors. Debris from collapsing structures is one of the principal dangers during an earthquake
since the impact of large, heavy objects can be fatal to human beings. Earthquakes sometimes cause glass
windows and mirrors to shatter and this is also quite dangerous. Earthquake aftershocks can result in the
complete collapse of buildings that were damaged during an earthquake.
b.) Falling electricity lines. Earthquakes can cause electricity poles to fall and live wires to become
exposed or to start fires.
c.) Ruptured gas lines and spillage of flammable substances. Earthquake-generated fires can
cause widespread destruction after a major earthquake. Escaping gas from broken gas lines and the
toppling of containers with flammable substances (e.g. kerosene, household chemicals, etc.) present a
significant threat of explosions and fires, which can cause death and destruction of property.
Additionally, water pipes are sometimes ruptured during an earthquake and this compounds the problem
of controlling such fires.
d.) Rock slides and/or landslides on mountains and hillsides. During an earthquake, large rocks
and portions of earth high up in the hills can become dislodged and rapidly roll or slide down into the
valleys.
e.) Floods caused by the collapse of dam walls. Earthquakes can cause dam walls to crack and
eventually collapse, sending raging waters into surrounding areas and causing severe flooding.
f.) Tsunamis. A tsunami is a large sea wave or series of waves that can be generated by an
earthquake. Large tsunamis can completely devastate low-lying coastal areas.
g.) Liquefaction. When sediments with a high water content are subjected to prolonged shaking, the
pressure of the water held in pores in the sediment gradually increases eventually, the sediments lose all
cohesive strength and begin to behave as if they were liquids. Building and other structures sink into the
ground or overturn and buried tanks and other cavities rise to the surface. This is known as liquefaction.
Liquefaction occurred during the earthquake of 1692 in Jamaica and was responsible for the destruction
of the town of Port Royal. Over the past few decades, many parts of the Eastern Caribbean have become
increasingly vulnerable to liquefaction because of the increased use of reclaimed land for urban
development.
There is considerable debate on the role that humans play in changing global climate through both the
burning of fossil fuels and the release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases. Some argue that human
interaction poses less of a threat to our atmosphere than do natural processes, like volcanic eruptions. This
places a great deal of importance on understanding the role of volcanic eruptions in affecting global
climate change. Whatever the source, it is apparent that compositional changes in the earth's atmosphere
generate three principal climatic effects:

a.) THE OZONE EFFECT: Intense sunlight in the stratosphere (above 12 km) produces bluish
colored ozone (O3) by naturally breaking down normal oxygen molecules (O2) into two highly reactive
oxygen atoms (O). Each oxygen atom then quickly bonds with an oxygen molecule to form ozone. Ozone
absorbs UV radiation, and in the process ozone is changed back into an oxygen molecule and an oxygen
atom. A balance exists in ozone destruction and production, so that an equilibrium concentration exists in
the stratosphere. This equilibrium has probably existed throughout much of geologic time. Recently,
however, an ozone hole has been detected in the stratosphere over Antarctica, presumably due to the
atmospheric build up of ozone-destroying CFCs by humans. Ozone depletion has resulted in a greater
penetration of ultraviolet radiation on the earth's surface, which is harmful to life on earth because it
damages cellular DNA. The ozone effect does not appear to have a direct influence on global
temperatures.

b.) THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Certain gases, called greenhouse gases (primarily carbon
dioxide and water vapor; but also methane, N2O, and CFCs), allow short wavelength radiation from the
sun (UV and visible light) to penetrate through the lower atmosphere to the earth's surface. These same
gases, however, absorb long wavelength radiation (infrared), which is the energy the earth reradiates back
into space. The trapping of this infrared heat energy by these greenhouse gases results in global warming.
Global warming has been evident since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Most scientists
attribute global warming to the release of greenhouse gases through the burning of fossil fuels.

c.) THE HAZE EFFECT: Suspended particles, such as dust and ash, can block out the earth's
sunlight, thus reducing solar radiation and lowering mean global temperatures. The haze effect often
generates exceptionally red sunsets due to the scattering of red wavelengths by submicron-size particles in
the stratosphere and upper troposphere.


Tsunami Effects:

Tsunamis are large, destructive waves that are caused by the sudden movement of a large area of
the sea floor. Tsunamis are often incorrectly called tidal waves, but unlike regular ocean tides they are not
caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, some are
caused by submarine landslides, a few are caused by submarine volcanic eruptions and on rare occasions
they are caused by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. The December produced the largest trans-
oceanic tsunami in over 40 years, and killed more people than any tsunami in recorded history.
The Krakatau volcanic eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching heights of 125 feet above sea
level, killing thousands of people and wiping out numerous coastal villages.
While tsunami means "harbor wave" in Japanese, a tsunami is actually a series of large waves
created by the sudden movement of the seafloor. The energy generated by the earthquake or other event is
transmitted through the water as a large train of waves, but the movement of these waves is very different
from the movement of waves generated by wind. NASA's Physics behind the Wave explains the structure
of tsunamis. Tsunamis can travel rapidly across oceans, causing destruction far from the location where
they were generated. All oceanic regions of the world experience tsunamis, although tsunamis in the
Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Caribbean tend to be smaller and less destructive than those in the Pacific
and Indian Oceans. About 90 percent of recorded tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean. The reasons for
this lie in the geologic structure of the Pacific basin - the ocean is surrounded by a geologically active
series of mountain chains, deep ocean, trenches, and island arcs, sometimes called "the ring of fire." The
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that occur in the ring of fire are the source of many tsunamis.

The height of a tsunami in the deep ocean is small - usually about 1 foot - and they cannot be seen
or felt by ships at sea. The distance between wave crests can be more than 100 miles. The speed at which
the tsunami travels decreases as water depth decreases. In the deep waters of the mid-Pacific, a tsunami
can reach a speed of more than 500 miles per hour, but in the shallow waters near land the speed drops to
100 miles per hour or less. As tsunamis reach shallow water the height of the waves increases
dramatically, and can reach 100 feet or more. These huge waves can wash far inland, carrying large
amounts of debris, destroying buildings and other structures, causing widespread flooding, and
dramatically altering shorelines. Most tsunamis consist of a series of waves, and the first wave to reach
shore may not be the largest.




10. Evaluate the cost and benefits of using coal, oil and natural gas.

NATURAL GAS
Advantages
Burns clean compared to cola, oil (less polluting)
70% less carbon dioxide compared to other fossil fuels
Helps improve quality of air and water (not a pollutant)
does not produce ashes after energy release
has high heating value of 24,000 Btu per pound
Inexpensive compared to coal
No odor until added

Drawbacks
Not a renewable source
Finite resource trapped in the earth (some experts disagree)
Inability to recover all in-place gas from a producible deposit because of
unfavorable economics and lack of technology (It costs more to recover the remaining natural gas because
of flow, access, etc.)

CRUDE OIL

Advantages
Oil is one of the most abundant energy resources
Liquid form of oil makes it easy to transport and use
Oil has high heating value
Relatively inexpensive
No new technology needed to use

Disadvantages
Oil burning leads to carbon emissions Finite resources (some disagree)
Oil recovery processes not efficient enoughtechnology needs to be developed to provide better yields
Oil drilling endangers the environment and ecosystems
Oil transportation (by ship) can lead to spills, causing environmental and ecological damage (major oil
spill near Spain in late Fall 2002)

COAL
Pros
One of the most abundant energy sources
Versatile; can be burned directly, transformed into liquid, gas, or feedstock
Inexpensive compared to other energy sources
Good for recreational use (charcoal for barbequing, drawing)
Can be used to produce ultra-clean fuel
Can lower overall amount of greenhouse gases (liquification or Gasification)
Leading source of electricity today
Reduces dependence on foreign oil
By-product of burning (ash) can be used for concrete and roadways

Cons
Source of pollution: emits waste, SO2, Nitrogen Oxide, ash
Coal mining mars the landscape
Liquification, gasification requires large amounts of water Physical transport is difficult
Technology to process to liquid or gas is not fully developed
Solid is more difficult to burn than liquid or gases
Not renewable in this millennium
High water content reduces heating value
Dirty industryleads to health problems
Dirty coal creates more pollution and emissions

11. What are the other potential energy sources?

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are
intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels. The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy
source has changed considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Today, because
of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as
"alternative" is highly controversial. In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived, is
that which is produced or recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use,
particularly high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming.

Common types of alternative energy:

a.) Solar energy is the use of sunlight. Light can be changed into thermal (heat) energy and electric
energy.
b.) Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.
c.) Geothermal energy is the use of the earth's internal heat to boil water for heating buildings or
generating electricity.
d.) Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived gasoline substitutes for powering vehicles.
e.) Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to release energy.
f.) Hydrogen is burned and used as clean fuel for spaceships and some cars.


























RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BONI AVENUE, MANDALUYONG CITY






COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE





ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
(FINAL EXAMINATION)










SUBMITTED BY
ESTUESTA, ALLAIN PAUL
CEIT-01-601A
MH 09:00AM-10:30AM