Discrete Mathematics-Mathematical Induction

Applied Discrete Mathematics
Mathematical Induction
William Shoaff
Spring 2008
Outline
1 Introduction to Induction
Outline
2 Induction on Sequences
Outline
2 Induction on Sequences
3 Induction on Sums
Quotation
The concept of “mathematical induction”

should be distinguished from what is usually called
“inductive reasoning” in science.
– Don Knuth “The Art of Computer Programming: Fundamental
Algorithms”
American computer scientist (1938 – )
Inductive reasoning is a logic used for discovery in science


Repeated observation of consistent results leads to a conjecture

The principle of mathematical induction is an axiom in the
theory of natural numbers

Mathematical induction is a template procedure used to
establish facts about enumerable sets

There is a basis for induction, an observation of the fact in
some instance

There is a basis for induction, an observation of the fact in
some instance
And there is a material implication that “if the fact is true in
some instance, then it will be true in the next instance”
Observations: Full Binary Trees
The full binary tree of height h = 0 has 1 node

The full binary tree of height h = 0 has 1 node
The full binary tree of height h = 1 has 3 nodes
2 3
The full binary tree of height h = 2 has 7 nodes
2 3
4 5 6 7
Question
Question
What is the functional relationship between the height h of a

full binary tree and the number of nodes n in the tree?
Question

Question

Observations
Height Nodes
h=0 n=1
h=1 n=3
h=2 n=7
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
The full binary tree of height h has n = 2h+1 − 1 nodes

Hypothesis

This statement is true for h = 0, 1 and 2
Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Height Nodes
0 1 = 2(0+1) − 1
1 3 = 2(1+1) − 1
2 7 = 2(2+1) − 1
To prove the statement for every integer
Hypothesis

Height Nodes
0 1 = 2(0+1) − 1
1 3 = 2(1+1) − 1
2 7 = 2(2+1) − 1
To prove the statement for every integer
show that if it is true for some height h ≥ 0, then it will be
true for height h + 1
Height h, Full Binary Tree Has 2h+1 − 1 Nodes
A full binary tree of height h + 1 is constructed from


1 root node
root

1 root node
A full left subtree of of height h
root
left
subtree

1 root node
A full right subtree of of height h
root
left right
subtree subtree

1 root node
root
height h
left right
subtree subtree

1 root node
root
height 1
height h
left right
subtree subtree
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
If the left and right subtree both have 2h+1 − 1 nodes,

root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
If the left and right subtree both have 2h+1 − 1 nodes,

root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
If the left and right subtree both have 2h+1 − 1 nodes, then
the nodes in the higher tree are
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
(1 root node) + (nodes in left) + (nodes in right)
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1)
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1) = 1 + 2(2h+1 − 1)

root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1) = 1 + 2(2h+1 − 1)

= 1 + (2h+2 − 2)
root
height 1
left right height h

subtree subtree
1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1) = 1 + 2(2h+1 − 1)

= 1 + (2h+2 − 2)
= 2h+2 − 1
Gauss Fools the Third Grade Teacher
There is an often told story, with many variations, of how

young Gauss irritated his third grade teacher

The class was asked to compute the value of the sum
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100

1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100
Almost immediately Gauss answered 5050


1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100
Almost immediately Gauss answered 5050

Perhaps Gauss knew the total would be the number of terms
(100) times the average of the first and last term

1 + 100
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 99 + 100 = 100 = 50(101) = 5050
2
Generalizing the Problem
Consider the more general sum
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1)
The sum has n terms

0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1)
The sum has n terms

The first term is 0, the last term is (n − 1), and their average
is (n − 1)/2
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1)
The sum has n terms

The first term is 0, the last term is (n − 1), and their average
is (n − 1)/2
Is it true that

n−1
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) = n ?
2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
To prove

n−1
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) = n
2
is true for all natural numbers n, show

P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
To prove

n−1
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) = n
2

Basis: For n = 0
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
To prove

n−1
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) = n
2

Basis: For n = 0
The sum on the left is empty, and so equal to 0
0 + 1 + · · · + (0 − 2) + (0 − 1) = 0 (empty sum)
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
To prove

n−1
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) = n
2

Basis: For n = 0
The sum on the left is empty, and so equal to 0
0 + 1 + · · · + (0 − 2) + (0 − 1) = 0 (empty sum)
The right hand side is also equal to 0 for n = 0

0−1
0 =0
2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
Then the next sum is:
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
[0 + 1 + · · · + (n − 1)] + n
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
n(n − 1)
[0 + 1 + · · · + (n − 1)] + n = +n
2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
n(n − 1)
[0 + 1 + · · · + (n − 1)] + n = +n
2
n(n − 1) 2n
= +
2 2
P n(n−1)
Prove k= 2
Induction: Pretend
n(n − 1)
0 + 1 + 2 + · · · + (n − 2) + (n − 1) =
2
for some n ≥ 0
n(n − 1)
[0 + 1 + · · · + (n − 1)] + n = +n
2
n(n − 1) 2n
= +
2 2
n(n + 1)
=
2
Which shows the next sum equals the function
at the next natural number
Inductive Template For Functional Equality
To prove “f (n) = g (n)” is true for all natural numbers n


Basis: Show: both functions map 0 to the same value, that
is,
f (0) = g (0)

Basis: Show: both functions map 0 to the same value, that
is,
f (0) = g (0)
Induction: Show: if f (n) = g (n) for some n ≥ 0, then
f (n + 1) = g (n + 1)
Quotation
The so-called law of induction cannot possibly be a law

of logic, since it is obviously a proposition with a sense.
Nor, therefore, can it be an a priori law.
Ludwig Wittenstein, "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus"

Austrian-British philosoper (1889 - 1951)
Checking Solutions to Algebraic Equations
Pretend you want to check that x = 4 is a solution to the

linear equation
3x − 5 = 7
Pretend you want to check that x = 4 is a solution to the

linear equation
3x − 5 = 7
You can do this by substitiuting 4 for x on the left-hand side
and show the result is the right-hand side
3(4) − 5 = 12 − 5 = 7
√
Pretend you want to check that x = (1 + 5)/2 is a solution
to the quadratic equation
x2 = x + 1
√
x2 = x + 1
√
You can do this by substitiuting (1 + 5)/2 for x in both the
left-hand and right-hand sides and show the results are equal
√
x2 = x + 1
√
The left-hand side is
√ !2 √ √
1+ 5 1+2 5+5 3+ 5
= =
2 4 2
√
x2 = x + 1
√
√ !2 √ √
1+ 5 1+2 5+5 3+ 5
= =
2 4 2
The right-hand side is

√ √ √
1+ 5 1+ 5 2 3+ 5
+1= + =
2 2 2 2
Checking Solutions to Recurrence Equations
The same basic idea can be used to check a proposed solution

to a recurrence equation

Suppose you want to show that mn = 2n − 1 is a solution to
the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1

the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
You can do this by substitiuting 2n − 1 for mn in the left-hand
side and 2n−1 − 1 for mn−1 in the right-hand sides and show
the results are equal

the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
2n − 1

the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
2n − 1
2 2n−1 − 1 + 1 = (2n − 2) + 1 = 2n − 1

There’s is one problem with this


For any constant c, you can show mn = c2n − 1 is a solution
to the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1

to the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
The left-hand side would be
c2n − 1

to the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
c2n − 1
And the right-hand side would be
2 c2n−1 − 1 + 1 = c2n − 1


to the recurrence
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
c2n − 1
And the right-hand side would be
2 c2n−1 − 1 + 1 = c2n − 1

An initial value nails down the solution: If m0 = 0, then

c20 − 1 = c − 1 = 0 forces c to be 1
Induction on The Triangular Sequence
Consider the recurrence for the triangular numbers
tn = tn−1 + (n − 1)
tn = tn−1 + (n − 1)
To show that tn = n(n − 1)/2 solves the recurrence substitute
into the left-hand and right hand sides
tn = tn−1 + (n − 1)
n(n − 1)/2
tn = tn−1 + (n − 1)
n(n − 1)/2
(n − 1)(n − 2) (n − 1)(n − 2) 2(n − 1)
+ (n − 1) = +
2 2 2
(n − 1)(n − 2) + 2(n − 1)
=
2
n(n − 1)
=
2
tn = tn−1 + (n − 1)
n(n − 1)/2
(n − 1)(n − 2) (n − 1)(n − 2) 2(n − 1)
+ (n − 1) = +
2 2 2
(n − 1)(n − 2) + 2(n − 1)
=
2
n(n − 1)
=
2
To complete the induction, establish the basis:

t0 = 0(0 − 1)/2 = 0
Induction on The Mersenne Sequence
Consider the recurrence for the Mersenne numbers
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
or, relabeling subscripts
mn+1 = 2mn + 1
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1
If mn = 2n − 1, then
mn+1 = 2mn + 1 = 2(2n − 1) + 1
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1 = 2(2n − 1) + 1
Which can be rewritten as
mn+1 = 2n+1 − 1
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1 = 2(2n − 1) + 1
mn+1 = 2n+1 − 1
The function 2n − 1 maps 0 to 0 which matches the initial
Mersenne number m0 = 0
mn = 2mn−1 + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1
mn+1 = 2mn + 1 = 2(2n − 1) + 1
mn+1 = 2n+1 − 1
The function 2n − 1 maps 0 to 0 which matches the initial
Mersenne number m0 = 0
Since both the basis and the inductive conditional are both
true, the Mersenne numbers mn can be computed by the
function m(n) = 2n − 1 for all natural numbers n
Induction on The Fermat Sequence
Consider the recurrence for the Fermat numbers
rn = (rn−1 − 1)2 + 1
rn+1 = (rn − 1)2 + 1
rn = (rn−1 − 1)2 + 1
rn+1 = (rn − 1)2 + 1
n
If rn = 22 + 1, then
n
rn+1 = ((22 + 1) − 1)2 + 1
rn = (rn−1 − 1)2 + 1
rn+1 = (rn − 1)2 + 1
n
n
rn+1 = ((22 + 1) − 1)2 + 1
n+1
rn+1 = 22 +1
rn = (rn−1 − 1)2 + 1
rn+1 = (rn − 1)2 + 1
n
n
rn+1 = ((22 + 1) − 1)2 + 1
n+1
rn+1 = 22 +1
n
The function 22 + 1 maps 0 to 3 which matches the initial
Fermat number r0 = 3
rn = (rn−1 − 1)2 + 1
rn+1 = (rn − 1)2 + 1
n
n
rn+1 = ((22 + 1) − 1)2 + 1
n+1
rn+1 = 22 +1
n
The function 22 + 1 maps 0 to 3 which matches the initial
Fermat number r0 = 3
Since both the basis and the inductive conditional are both
true, the Fermat numbers rn can be computed by the function
n
r (n) = 22 + 1 for all natural numbers n
Quotation
MacPherson told me that my theorem can be viewed

as blah blah blah Grothendick blah blah blah, which
makes it much more respectable. I think some
intuition leaks out in every step of an induction proof.
Jim Propp, American mathematician

Induction on Sums
Induction on Sums
P
To prove a summation ak can be expressed as a function
g (·) on the natural numbers,
Induction on Sums
P
Establish a basis for induction, that is, show
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0
Induction on Sums
P
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0
Prove the inductive conditional: If

n−1
X
If ak = g (n),
k=0
then
Induction on Sums
P
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0

n−1
X
If ak = g (n),
k=0
then
Induction on Sums
P
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0

n−1
X
If ak = g (n),
k=0
then
n
X
ak
k=0
Induction on Sums
P
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0

n−1
X
If ak = g (n),
k=0
then
n
"n−1 #
X X
ak = ak + an
k=0 k=0
Induction on Sums
P
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0

n−1
X
If ak = g (n),
k=0
then
n
"n−1 #
X X
ak = ak + an
k=0 k=0
= g (n) + an
Induction on Sums
P
0
X
ak = a0 = g (0)
k=0

n−1
X
If ak = g (n),
k=0
then
n
"n−1 #
X X
ak = ak + an
k=0 k=0
= g (n) + an
= g (n + 1)
Alice Sum Math Induction Proof
The Alice sum formula

n−1
X
1=n
k=0
can be established by mathematical induction


n−1
X
1=n
k=0

Basis: For n = 0

n−1
X
1=n
k=0

Basis: For n = 0
The sum
n−1
X 0−1
X
1= 1
k=0 k=0
is empty and equal to 0


n−1
X
1=n
k=0

Basis: For n = 0
The sum
n−1
X 0−1
X
1= 1
k=0 k=0
is empty and equal to 0

The value on the right hand, n, is 0 too
Induction: Show that


If
n−1
X
1 = n,
k=0
then
n
X
1=n+1
k=0
By computing

If
n−1
X
1 = n,
k=0
then
n
X
1=n+1
k=0
By computing

If
n−1
X
1 = n,
k=0
then
n
X
1=n+1
k=0
By computing
n
X
1
k=0

If
n−1
X
1 = n,
k=0
then
n
X
1=n+1
k=0
By computing
n
"n−1 #
X X
1= 1 +1
k=0 k=0

If
n−1
X
1 = n,
k=0
then
n
X
1=n+1
k=0
By computing
n
"n−1 #
X X
1= 1 +1
k=0 k=0
=n+1
Gauss Sum Math Induction Proof
The Gauss sum formula

n−1
X n(n − 1)
k = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 1) =
2
k=0


n−1
X n(n − 1)
k = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 1) =
2
k=0

Basis: For n = 0 the sum on the left is empty, and so equal
to 0. And the right hand side is 0(0 − 1)/2 = 0 too

n−1
X n(n − 1)
k = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + (n − 1) =
2
k=0

to 0. And the right hand side is 0(0 − 1)/2 = 0 too
Induction: If n−1
P
k=0 k = n(n − 1)/2, then
n
"n−1 #
X X
k= k + n = (n + 1)n/2
k=0 k=0
Zeno Sum Math Induction Proof
The Zeno sum formula

n−1
X
2k = 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n−1 = 2n − 1
k=0


n−1
X
2k = 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n−1 = 2n − 1
k=0

to 0. And the right hand side n is 0 too

n−1
X
2k = 1 + 2 + 4 + · · · + 2n−1 = 2n − 1
k=0

to 0. And the right hand side n is 0 too
Induction: If n−1 k n
P
k=0 2 = 2 − 1, then
n
"n−1 #
X X
k k
2 = 2 + 2n = 2n+1 − 1
k=0 k=0
Sum of the Odd Integers is a Square
The ancient formula

n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1

The ancient formula

n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1

to 0. And the right hand side n is 0 too.
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
Induction: If k=1 (2k − 1) = n2 , then
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
n+1
X
(2k − 1)
k=1
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
n+1 n
" #
X X
(2k − 1) = (2k − 1) + 2(n + 1) − 1
k=1 k=1
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
n+1 n
" #
X X
(2k − 1) = (2k − 1) + 2(n + 1) − 1
k=1 k=1
2
= n + 2(n + 1) − 1
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
n+1 n
" #
X X
(2k − 1) = (2k − 1) + 2(n + 1) − 1
k=1 k=1
2
= n + 2(n + 1) − 1
= n2 + 2n + 1
n
X
(2k − 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2
k=1
Pn
n+1 n
" #
X X
(2k − 1) = (2k − 1) + 2(n + 1) − 1
k=1 k=1
2
= n + 2(n + 1) − 1
= n2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1)2
Sum of Cubes is a Squared Triangular Number
The formula
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1

The formula
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1

to 0. And the right hand side n is 0 too.
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
Induction: If k=1 k = n2 (n − 1)2 /4, then
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n
X
k3
k=1
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n
"n−1 #
X X
3
k = k 3 + n3
k=1 k=1
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n
"n−1 #
X X
3
k = k 3 + n3
k=1 k=1
2
1
= n(n − 1) + n3
2
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n
"n−1 #
X X
3
k = k 3 + n3
k=1 k=1
2
1
= n(n − 1) + n3
2
2

2 (n − 1)
=n +n
4
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n
"n−1 #
X X
3
k = k 3 + n3
k=1 k=1
2
1
= n(n − 1) + n3
2
2

2 (n − 1)
=n +n
4

2 (n + 2n + 1)
=n
4
n−1 2
X
3 1
k = n(n − 1)
2
k=1
Pn−1 3
n
"n−1 #
X X
3
k = k 3 + n3
k=1 k=1
2
1
= n(n − 1) + n3
2
2

2 (n − 1)
=n +n
4

2 (n + 2n + 1)
=n
4
2
1
= n(n + 1)
2
Sum of Fibonacci Numbers
Recall the Fibonacci sequence

~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i
F

~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i
F
Also recall the recurrence for the Fibonacci numbers
fn = fn−1 + fn−2 , n ∈ {2, 3, 4, . . .}, f0 = 0, f1 = 1


~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i
F
Also recall the recurrence for the Fibonacci numbers
fn = fn−1 + fn−2 , n ∈ {2, 3, 4, . . .}, f0 = 0, f1 = 1
Let’s write the sequence using the names of the numbers

rather than their values
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
Consider the sequence of partial sums

~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F

~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
S3
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
S3 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 = 4
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
S3 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 = 4
S4
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
S3 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 = 4
S4 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 = 7
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
S3 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 = 4
S4 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 = 7
S4
~ = h0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . .i

F
~ = hf0 , f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 , f7 , f8 , . . .i
F
S0 = f0 = 0
S1 = f0 + f1 = 1
S2 = f0 + f1 + f2 = 2
S3 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 = 4
S4 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 = 7
S4 = f0 + f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 + f5 = 12
Can you make a conjecture about these sums?

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Basis: For n = 0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Basis: For n = 0
The sum on the left-hand side is empty and so
equal to 0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Basis: For n = 0
equal to 0
The formula on the right-hand side is also equal
to 0
f0+1 − 1 = f1 − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Basis: For n = 0
equal to 0
The formula on the right-hand side is also equal
to 0
f0+1 − 1 = f1 − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0
This establishes the basis for induction
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Induction: Pretend that

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
is true for some n ≥ 0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
Xn
fk
k=0
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
n
"n−1 #
X X
fk = fk + fn
k=0 k=1
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
n
"n−1 #
X X
fk = fk + fn
k=0 k=1
= [fn+1 − 1] + fn
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
n
"n−1 #
X X
fk = fk + fn
k=0 k=1
= [fn+1 − 1] + fn
= [fn+1 + fn ] − 1
n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0

n−1
X
fk = fn+1 − 1
k=0
Then
n
"n−1 #
X X
fk = fk + fn
k=0 k=1
= [fn+1 − 1] + fn
= [fn+1 + fn ] − 1
= fn+2 − 1
Pascal’s Triangle
Pascal’s Triangle
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .
. . . . . . . . . .
Pascal’s Triangle: Sum of Rows
There are many identities that can be found in Pascal’s triangle


Perhaps the most famous one is found by summing values in a
row

row

row
1

row
1 =1

row
1 =1
1 +1

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8
1 +4 +6 +4 +1

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8
1 +4 +6 +4 +1 = 16

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8
1 +4 +6 +4 +1 = 16
1 +5 +10 +10 +5 +1

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8
1 +4 +6 +4 +1 = 16
1 +5 +10 +10 +5 +1 = 32

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8
1 +4 +6 +4 +1 = 16
1 +5 +10 +10 +5 +1 = 32
1 +6 +15 +20 +15 +6 +1

row
1 =1
1 +1 =2
1 +2 +1 =4
1 +3 +3 +1 =8
1 +4 +6 +4 +1 = 16
1 +5 +10 +10 +5 +1 = 32
1 +6 +15 +20 +15 +6 +1 = 64
We can make the conjecture


The sum of values in row n of Pascal’s triangle is 2n for
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
When you notice how a row is computed from the previous
row, it becomes clear why the row sums double

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
When you notice how a row is computed from the previous
row, it becomes clear why the row sums double
Every term, except the first and last 1, is added twice to
generate the next row
Consider row 6 of Pascal’s Triangle
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
It can be used to generate row 7
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Sum adjacent numbers in row 6 yields

1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1+6
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1+6
7
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15
7
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15
7 21
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20
7 21
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20
7 21 35
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15
7 21 35
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15
7 21 35 35
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15 15 + 6
7 21 35 35
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15 15 + 6
7 21 35 35 21
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15 15 + 6 6 + 1
7 21 35 35 21
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15 15 + 6 6 + 1
7 21 35 35 21 7
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15 15 + 6 6 + 1
7 21 35 35 21 7
Adding in the initial and terminal 1 in row 7 shows each term

in row 6 is summed twice when summing row 7
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 1 + 6 6 + 15 15 + 20 20 + 15 15 + 6 6 + 1 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Adding in the initial and terminal 1 in row 7 shows each term

in row 6 is summed twice when summing row 7
To make the preceding argument precise we must name things


We’ll name the rows and columns by the natural numbers


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ···
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
7 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
8 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .
. . . . . . . . . .
Pascal’s Triangle: Binomial Coefficients
n

We’ll name terms in row n, column m by the symbol m
n

n

The symbol m is called a binomial coefficient
n

n

n

The symbol m is read “n choose m”
n

n

n

The symbol m is read “n choose m”
The binomial coefficient “n choose m” can be expressed in
terms of factorials

n n!
=
m m!(n − m)!
Pascal’s Triangle
Pascal’s Triangle
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ···
0

0 0
1 1

1 0 1
2 2 2

2 0 1 2
3 3 3 3

3 0 1 2 3
4 4 4 4 4

4 0 1 2 3 4
5 5 5 5 5 5

5 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6

6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . . . .
Pascal’s Identity
Pascal’s Identity
The relationship between terms in row n − 1 and row n is

called Pascal’s identity
Pascal’s Identity

Pascal’s identity states that

n−1 n−1 n
+ =
m−1 m m
Pascal’s Identity

Pascal’s identity states that

n−1 n−1 n
+ =
m−1 m m
That is, the sum of terms in columns m − 1 and m of row

n − 1 equals the term in column m row n
Pascal’s Identity
Pascal’s Identity
An example of Pascal’s identity is

7 7! 7×6×5
= = = 35
4 4!3! 3×2×1
and
7 7! 7×6
= = = 21
5 5!2! 2×1
Therefore
8 7 7
= + = 35 + 21
5 4 5
Pascal’s Identity
Pascal’s Identity
Another example of Pascal’s identity is

12 12!
= = 495
8 8!4!
and
12 12!
= = 660
9 9!3!
Therefore
13
= 495 + 660 = 1155
9
Pascal’s Triangle Row Sum
Armed with Pascal’s identity, we can use induction to establish

the sum of values in row n is 2n

To sum the elements in row n we write
n
X n n n n n n
= + + + ··· + +
k 0 1 2 n−1 n
k=0

To sum the elements in row n we write
n
X n n n n n n
= + + + ··· + +
k 0 1 2 n−1 n
k=0
Leave the first and last terms alone, but use Pascal’s identity
on the middle terms

n n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1
+ + + +
0 0 1 1 2

n−1 n−1 n
+ ··· + + +
n−2 n−1 n
Collect the terms that appear twice

n n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n
+ +2 +· · ·+2 + +
0 0 1 n−2 n−1 n

n n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n
+ +2 +· · ·+2 + +
0 0 1 n−2 n−1 n
Recognize that the first two and last two terms are equal to 1
and so can be replaced as

n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1
2 +2 + ··· + 2 +2
0 1 n−2 n−1

n n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n
+ +2 +· · ·+2 + +
0 0 1 n−2 n−1 n
Recognize that the first two and last two terms are equal to 1
and so can be replaced as

n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1
2 +2 + ··· + 2 +2
0 1 n−2 n−1
Therefore, if the sum of terms in row n − 1 is 2n−1 , the sum of

terms in row n is 2n
Epigraph
φ is an H of a lot cooler than π.
Stettner, in Dan Brown’s “The Da Vinci Code”

Cassini’s Identity
Theorem (Cassini’s Identity)

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0
Interpret Cassini’s identity as stating the area of a rectangle

with sides Fn−1 and Fn+1 is plus or minus one the area of a
square with sides Fn

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Arithmetically, multiply every other Fibonacci number and
subtract the square of the number in the middle

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Arithmetically, multiply every other Fibonacci number and
subtract the square of the number in the middle
The result alternates between −1 and +1
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
3 · 1 − 22
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
3 · 1 − 22 = −1
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
3 · 1 − 22 = −1
5 · 2 − 32
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
3 · 1 − 22 = −1
5 · 2 − 32 = 1
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
3 · 1 − 22 = −1
5 · 2 − 32 = 1
8 · 3 − 52
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ...
Fn 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 . . .
0 · 1 − 12 = −1
2 · 1 − 12 = 1
3 · 1 − 22 = −1
5 · 2 − 32 = 1
8 · 3 − 52 = −1
Lewis Carroll’s Favorite Trick
Cassini’s identity is the basis of an absurdity attributed Lewis

Carroll
Lewis Carroll’s Favorite Trick
Cassini’s identity is the basis of an absurdity attributed Lewis

Carroll
Cut the 8 × 8 square along the lines indicated below and
arrange the pieces into a 5 × 13 rectangle to conclude that
64 = 65.
Inductive Proof of Cassini’s Identity
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0
Replace Fn−1 by Fn+1 − Fn in the left-hand side of Cassini’s

proposed identity to obtain
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = Fn+1 (Fn+1 − Fn ) − Fn2

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = Fn+1 (Fn+1 − Fn ) − Fn2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn+1 Fn − Fn2
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = Fn+1 (Fn+1 − Fn ) − Fn2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn+1 Fn − Fn2
2
= Fn+1 − Fn (Fn+1 + Fn )
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = Fn+1 (Fn+1 − Fn ) − Fn2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn+1 Fn − Fn2
2
= Fn+1 − Fn (Fn+1 + Fn )
2
= Fn+1 − Fn Fn+2
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = Fn+1 (Fn+1 − Fn ) − Fn2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn+1 Fn − Fn2
2
= Fn+1 − Fn (Fn+1 + Fn )
2
= Fn+1 − Fn Fn+2
2
= −(Fn Fn+2 − Fn+1 )
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0

Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = Fn+1 (Fn+1 − Fn ) − Fn2

2
= Fn+1 − Fn+1 Fn − Fn2
2
= Fn+1 − Fn (Fn+1 + Fn )
2
= Fn+1 − Fn Fn+2
2
= −(Fn Fn+2 − Fn+1 )
2
= −(Fn+2 Fn − Fn+1 )
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0
Thus if
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0
Thus if
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n
Then
2
Fn+2 Fn − Fn+1 = (−1)n+1
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n , for n > 0
Thus if
Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n
Then
2
Fn+2 Fn − Fn+1 = (−1)n+1
Since F2 F0 − F1 = 1 · 0 − 1 = (−1)1 , the basis for induction is
true, so Cassini’s identity holds for all n.
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that every

positive integer greater than 1 can be written as a (unique)
product of primes

product of primes
As a basis 2 is prime, hence a product of primes

product of primes
Pretend that for some n ≥ 2, every integer k = 2, 3, . . . , n
can be written as the product of primes

product of primes
Consider n + 1

product of primes
Consider n + 1
If n + 1 is prime, then it is the product of primes

product of primes
Consider n + 1
If n + 1 is composite, then n + 1 = ab where 1 < a < n + 1
and 1 < b < n + 1

product of primes
Consider n + 1
If n + 1 is composite, then n + 1 = ab where 1 < a < n + 1
and 1 < b < n + 1
Therefore, by the inductive assumption, a and b are the
product of primes, and so n + 1 is the product of primes
The Fundamental Theorem of the Sum and Difference
Calculus
Define the falling factorial power nm by
nm = n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)
Calculus
nm = n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)
The following identity is true

n−1
X n−1
X
m k m−1 m = k(k − 1) · · · (k − m + 2) = nm
k=0 k=0
Calculus
nm = n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)
The following identity is true

n−1
X n−1
X
m k m−1 m = k(k − 1) · · · (k − m + 2) = nm
k=0 k=0
As a basis for induction, when n = 0 the left-hand side equals

the right-hand side
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n
m k m−1
k=0
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n n−1
X
m−1
m k =m k m−1 + mnm−1
k=0 k=0
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n n−1
X
m−1
k=0 k=0
= n + mnm−1
m
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n n−1
X
m−1
k=0 k=0
= n + mnm−1
m
= [n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)] + [m(n(n − 1) · · · (n − m +

Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n n−1
X
m−1
k=0 k=0
= n + mnm−1
m
= [n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)] + [m(n(n − 1) · · · (n − m +

= n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 2)[(n − m + 1) + m]
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n n−1
X
m−1
k=0 k=0
= n + mnm−1
m
= [n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)] + [m(n(n − 1) · · · (n − m +

= n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 2)[(n − m + 1) + m]
= (n + 1)n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 2)
Calculus
Pretend
n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Then
X n n−1
X
m−1
k=0 k=0
= n + mnm−1
m
= [n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 1)] + [m(n(n − 1) · · · (n − m +

= n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 2)[(n − m + 1) + m]
= (n + 1)n(n − 1) · · · (n − m + 2)
= (n + 1)m
Calculus
The fundamental theorem of the sum and difference calculus is

n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Calculus
The fundamental theorem of the sum and difference calculus is

n−1
X
m k m−1 = nm
k=0
Notice the analogy with the fundamental theorem of calculus

Z
m x m−1 dx = x m
Exponential Beat Powers
The exponent 2n grows faster than the polynomial n2


Prove n2 ≤ 2n for all n > 3

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Pretend n2 ≤ 2n for some n ≥ 4

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2


For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2
Therefore

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2
Therefore

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2
Therefore
(n + 1)2

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2
Therefore
(n + 1)2 = 2n2

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2
Therefore
(n + 1)2 = 2n2
≤ 2 · 2n

For n = 4 we have 42 = 1624
Notice that
(n + 1)2 ≤ 2n2 , when n > 3
since
0 ≤ 2n2 − (n + 1)2 = n2 − 2n − 1 = (n − 1)2 − 2
Therefore
(n + 1)2 = 2n2
≤ 2 · 2n
= 2n+1
Induction Over Products
Q
Define the product notation ak by
n−1
Y
ak = a0 a1 · · · an−1
k=0
Q
n−1
Y
ak = a0 a1 · · · an−1
k=0
Prove by induction that

n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
Q
n−1
Y
ak = a0 a1 · · · an−1
k=0
Prove by induction that

n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
For a basis, let n = 2, and find

2
Y 1 1 2+1
1− 2 =1− 2 =
k 2 2·2
k=2
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
n+1
Y
1
1− 2
k
k=2
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
n+1
Y n
"Y #
1 1 1
1− 2 = 1− 2 1−
k k (n + 1)2
k=2 k=2
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
n+1
Y "Y n #
1 1 1
1− 2 = 1− 2 1−
k k (n + 1)2
k=2 k=2

n+1 1
= 1−
2n (n + 1)2
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
n+1
Y "Y n #
1 1 1
1− 2 = 1− 2 1−
k k (n + 1)2
k=2 k=2

n+1 1
= 1−
2n (n + 1)2

1 1
= (n + 1)2 −
2n (n + 1)
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
n+1
Y "Y n #
1 1 1
1− 2 = 1− 2 1−
k k (n + 1)2
k=2 k=2

n+1 1
= 1−
2n (n + 1)2

1 1
= (n + 1)2 −
2n (n + 1)
2
1 n + 2n
=
2n (n + 1)
Pretend that
n
Y 1 n+1
1− 2 = for n ≥ 2
k 2n
k=2
for some n ≥ 2
Then notice that
n+1
Y "Y n #
1 1 1
1− 2 = 1− 2 1−
k k (n + 1)2
k=2 k=2

n+1 1
= 1−
2n (n + 1)2

1 1
= (n + 1)2 −
2n (n + 1)
2
1 n + 2n
=
2n (n + 1)
n+2
=
2(n + 1)

Discrete Mathematics-Mathematical Induction

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Applied Discrete Mathematics

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A full binary tree of height h + 1 is constructed from

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left right height h

left right height h

If the left and right subtree both have 2h+1 − 1 nodes,

left right height h

If the left and right subtree both have 2h+1 − 1 nodes,

left right height h

left right height h

left right height h

left right height h

left right height h

1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1) = 1 + 2(2h+1 − 1)

left right height h

1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1) = 1 + 2(2h+1 − 1)

left right height h

1 + (2h − 1) + (2h+1 − 1) = 1 + 2(2h+1 − 1)

There is an often told story, with many variations, of how

There is an often told story, with many variations, of how

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Almost immediately Gauss answered 5050

Consider the more general sum

Consider the more general sum

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The sum has n terms

Consider the more general sum

The sum has n terms

is true for all natural numbers n, show

is true for all natural numbers n, show

is true for all natural numbers n, show

is true for all natural numbers n, show

The right hand side is also equal to 0 for n = 0

To prove “f (n) = g (n)” is true for all natural numbers n

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The so-called law of induction cannot possibly be a law