6 strength of composite materials

The stiffness analysis of composite material is performed on three level on micromechanics level
macromechanics of lamina and macromechanics of laminate. The strength analysis of composite materials
was done on microstructure level as well. Moreover the stiffness analysis and micromechanics strength
analysis lay basis for the determination of actual strength. What remains to be determined is the allowable
strength of the composite materials. The methods establish the strength allowables of composite materials
are classified in two:
- Lamina strength
- Laminate strength
Lamina strength
The strength of a lamina is assessed with failure theories and criteria. For a laminate the strength is related
to the strength of each ply. Several failure theories have been proposed to study the strength of lamina up
to failure so that to determine the ultimate allowable strength. The failure theories are based on normal
and shear strength of unidirectional lamina. On the contrary the failure theories of lamina is somehow
different from the conventional failure theories that depend on the principal strength and maximum shear
strength. The failure theories of lamina are based on the materials principle axes w.r.t the global axis
loading direction. A unidirectional lamina have five fundamental strength parameters.in the direction of
materials principal axis:
1 Ultimate longitudinal tensile strength
2 ultimate longitudinal compressive strength
3 ultimate transversal tensile strength
4 ultimate transversal l compressive strength
5 Ultimate in-plane shear strength
The failure theories are based on firstly by transforming the loading or stress in to the materials principal
direction and compare the stress to the strength parameters whether to tell material has failed or not. The
failure theories commonly used to calculate the ultimate strength of unidirectional lamina in arbitrary
direction covering a multiracial stress conditions are:
- Maximum stress failure theory
- Maximum strain failure theory
- Tsai-Hill failure theory
- Tsai-Wu failure theory
- Hoffman Failure theory
- Puck failure theory
Maximum stress failure theory
This theory relates the maximum normal stress and maximum shearing stress in the materials principal axis
to the ultimate strengths of a unidirectional lamina. Failure is detected if any of these stress is equal or
exceeds the ultimate strength of the unidirectional strength parameters. Assume a stress loading in global
axes system and the stresses are transformed in to the materials axes and the lamina is anticipated to be
failed if:

C T
1 1 1
- < < Eq.

C T
2 2 2
- < <

Ult Ult
12 12 12
- < <
Each stress component is compared to the corresponding stress and no interaction of stress components
with each other. In the normal strength parameter the negative sign denotes a compressive and the
positive a tensile. The allowable shear stress in other than the principal materials axis system depends on
the sign of the shear stresses. This is due to the opposite sign of shear stress applied in the principal axis of
material and the limiting factor are the two different tensile stress and compressive stress applied
perpendicular to the fiber direction. The one with the lower value is chosen to be the limiting factor.
Maximum strain failure theory
This theory relates the maximum normal strain and maximum shearing strain in the materials principal axis
to the ultimate strains of a unidirectional lamina. Failure is detected if any of these strain is equal or
exceeds the ultimate strains of the unidirectional strain parameters. Assume a stress/strain loading in
global axes system and the strains are transformed in to the materials axes and the lamina is anticipated to
be failed if:

C T
1 1 1
- < <

C T
2 2 2
- < <

Ult Ult
12 12 12
- < <
The maximum strain failure theory is similar to the maximum stress failure theory assuming that no
interaction between the strain components. But the failure predicted using the maximum strain failure
theory is different than the maximum stress failure theory due to the local strain in a lamina that considers
the Poisson ratio effect in the tensile and compressive stress condition. However the shearing strain is not
affected by Poisson ratio as a consequence, the prediction made by the two theories are the same.
Tsai-Hill failure theory
The Von-Mises distortion energy failure theory is adapted to a unidirectional lamina based on distortion
theory and lamina is consider fail if:

( )
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 12
T 2 T Ult
T
1 2 12
1

- + + <1

(
( ( (
(
( ( (
(



Tsai-Hill failure theory is different than the maximum stress/strain failure theories in which the interaction
between the strength parameters of unidirectional lamina is assumed to be exist. Moreover Tsai-Hill theory
does not distinguish between the compressive and tensile strength in the equation. The Tsai-Hill equation
can be modified to include the compressive strength in the failure theory as seen:

2
2 2
1 1 1 2 12
1 2 2

- + + <1
X X X Y S
( ( | || |
( (
( | | (
( (

\ .\ .

Where:

T
1 1 1
C
1 1 1
T
2 1 2
C
2 1 2
T
2 2
C
2 2
Ult
12
X = if > 0
X = if < 0
X = if > 0
X = if < 0
Y= if > 0
Y= if < 0
S =

The Tsai-Hill failure theory is unified in nature and it hardly indicate the failure mode unlike the maximum
stress and strain failure theories do. But one can assess the failure mode by calculating the ratio of
1 2 12
1

, ,
X Y S
(
( (
(
( (


and one of the maximum ratio is considered as failure mode.
One of remarkable features of Tsai-Hill failure theory is that it is suitable for failure prediction of glass fiber
epoxy than any other failure theories.
Tsai-Wu failure theory
Tsai-Wu failure theory is based on the total strain energy failure theory applied to a lamina in a plane stress
state. With Tsai-Wu failure criterion, it is possible to distinguish between the compressive and tensile
strength of lamina. The Tsai-Wu failure theory equation is:

2 2 2
1 1 2 2 6 12 11 1 22 2 66 12 12 1 2
H +H +H +H +H +H +2H <1
The coefficient H is determined using the five strength parameter of unidirectional lamia where:

1
T C
1 1
1 1
H = -



11
T C
1 1
1
H =



2
T C
2 2
1 1
H = -



22
T C
2 2
1
H =



6
H =0

( )
66
2
Ult
12
1
H =

The last H
12
coefficient is determined from experimental result of biaxial failure stress and substitute the
values in equation 38. Up on application of biaxial load on the lamina the value of H
12
could differ from the
type of loading condition.
Case 1 an equal biaxial load along the principle material axis directions and shear stress is equal to zero
then the H
12
equation is
( ) ( )
2
12 1 2 11 22
2
1
H = 1- H +H - H +H
2
(


It is possible to combine any loading condition to yield different H
12
equation based on the direction and
combination of loading in biaxial stress system.
Case 2 lamina at 45 w.r.t the global axis loaded uniaxial along the x-direction of the global axis. The failure
stress is used to compute the failure at local axis system, in turn using this relations the coefficient H
12
is
determined for this scenario as follows:

( )
( )
1 2
12 11 22 66
2
H +H
2 1
H = - - H +H +H
2

There are empirical relations that define the coefficient H
12
. These are:

( )
12
2
T
1
1
H = - from Tsai-Hill failure theory

( )
12
T C
1 1
1
H = per Hoffman criterion
2


( )( )
22
T C T C
1 1 2 2
1 1
H = - according to Mises-Hencky criterion
2


This failure theory also accounts for the interaction of the failure stresses. It is also invariant under rotation,
possibility transforming with the known transformation tensor laws and symmetry properties similar to
those of the stiffness and compliance.
Hoffman failure criterion
The Tsai-Hill failure equation is modified by Hoffman to account for the difference with strength in tension
and compression by adding a linear terms to the Tsai-Hill equations. The Hoffman failure criterion is:

2 2 2
c t c t 1 1 2 2 12
1 2
2
c t c t c t c t c t 12
X +X Y +Y
- + - + + + =1
X X X X Y Y X X Y Y S

The Hoffman failure theory has a good agreement with glass/epoxy experimental failure data. The Hoffman
failure theory account for interaction between the failure modes. When using the Hoffman failure theory a
single failure criterion is used to predict failure of lamina with different tensile and compressive strength.
Puck failure theory
The difference between fiber dominated failure and matrix dominated failure is approach using Puck failure
theories for a fiber dominated failure mode either in tension or compression is given by:

C T
1 1 1
> >
The matrix dominated failure mode is given by:

2
2 12
2
T C C C Ult
2 2 2 2 12
1 1
+ - + > 1
+
( (
( (


Laminate strength analysis
Laminated composite plate under in-plane loading exhibit deformation response, like ductile plate under
in-plan loading but with different response than isotropic material. Similar to the methodology to predict
the stiffness of laminate, the prediction of laminate strength is done in a similar manner using CLT,
constitutive equations and failure theories. The basic block for the analysis starts from the micromechanics
analysis then on the lamina level then final on macro scale laminated plate.
Now in this section the aim is to present a prediction methodology that is based on the strengths of
materials and the interaction between the lamina stresses and failure modes. Fundamental to this
approach is that the stiffness in the lamina level is analyzed beforehand input for the laminate analysis. Due
to the anisotropic nature of composite materials the failure modes that occur needs different analysis
approach. For example a failure of one layer does not necessarily mean failure of the entire laminate. It
could take applied loads despite the decrease in stiffness due to failed plies.
Due to the various characteristics of composite laminates it is difficult to determine a strength criterion in
which all failure modes and the interactions are properly accounted for. Most of the strength criteria for
composite laminate depends on the strength in the lamina principal material direction which are not
coinciding with lamina principal stress direction. The co-ordinate mismatch is the complications that
characterize even a macroscopic strength criterion for laminates. The lamina thermal properties, thickness,
and orientations are important in determining the directional characteristics of the laminate strength. The
stacking sequence affect the bending and bending extension coupling stiffness related to the strength.
Nevertheless, a continuing effort must be made to define strength criteria that enable the accurate
prediction of composite laminate strengths. Therefore a commonly used and interactive failure and
strength prediction method is a progressive laminate strength and failure analysis which will be discussed in
this report.
Progressive laminate failure analysis
In order to analyze the laminate strength, at first the lamina stress field is expressed in terms of the
unknown loads (moments and forces) applied to the laminate and then in each lamina principal material
axis using the CLT approach. The load variable is increased incremental until the first lamina fails under a
certain selected failure criterion of lamina and this phenomenal is called first-ply failure. Now the load at
which the first-ply failed could be assumed as the ultimate strength of the laminate depending on the
severity and magnitude of the failure load and mode. But in progressive failure analysis the process
continues as follows. The stiffness of the failed laminate is degraded to zero. After the degradation process
new laminate stiffness is computed. Then lamina stresses are recalculated using the new stiffness matrix
and the same applied load and check for any lamina failure for the increased stress condition. If no lamina
fails under the new condition in the cycle the load can be increased again until another lamina fails, and the
loop is repeated. But in each loop the increased stresses caused by the failure of laminas are verified not to
cause simultaneously progressive failure of all laminas at the same load. When such failure happen the
laminate is said to have suffered gross failure. Fig (667) illustrates the flow chart diagram of the progressive
failure analysis.