Data Communication and Network Protocol

Data Communication Circuits:

The block diagram of data communication network. It consists of primary source, a
transmission medium and destination. The primary source is the source of the
information and secondary destination is the user of the information.
Block diagram of data communication network
Primary host: Normally it is a mainframe computer. It is connected to many local
terminals. The data is given from host to DTE or vice versa.
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE): It is the interface between user computer and DCE
or modem.
Data Communication Equipment (DCE): Normally it is modem. It converts digital
signals to analog signals. The terminal euipment is interfaced to transmission medium
through DEC.
Parallel Transmission
Consider for e!ample, the data is coded using "#CII code with 8
th
$%#&' bit used as
parity bit. Then each character, symbol or number will have eight binary digits. (hen
data transmission is reuired, all the bits of byte are transmitted simultaneously on
separate wires. This is called parallel transmission. It is shown in )ig. below. Thus as
shown in figure, there are eight wires for eight bits. *arallel transmission is used for short
distance data transmission. )or e!ample parallel transmission takes place when printer is
connected to parallel port of the computer.
Advantaes o! Parallel Transmission
+. Due to parallel connecting wires, the data transfer is very fast.
,. Comple!ity of parallel transmission is less, since all lines are transmitted separately.
-. It is possible to isolate anyone line for testing or other purpose, without any intelligent
hardware or software.
Disadvantaes o! Parallel Transmission
+. Cost of parallel transmission is more, since separate hardware connection is reuired
for every bit.
,. *arallel transmission is not suitable for longer distances.
Applications
+. *rinters and processor to processor communications use parallel transmission.
,. %ost of the short distance communications.
"erial Transmission
In serial transmission, the bits of the byte are transmitted serially one after another. The
bits stored in the register shifted towards .#& at every clock pulse. Thus whenever clock
pulse is received bit at .#& position is transmitted on the line. This is shown in figure
below. #erial transmission can take place on single connecting wire between transmitter
and receiver. "s shown in below figure, the digital bits form a digital waveform. This
transmission is suitable for long distance transmission. #erial transmission takes place on
serial port of the computer.
Advantaes o! "erial Transmission
+. It reduces the number of wires reuired for connecting the two systems.
,. #erial transmission is most economical way of transmission.
Disadvantaes o! "erial Transmission
+. #erial transmission is slow, since all the information is transmitted serially.
,. Comple!ity of serial transmission is more, since more bits for synchroni/ation are
reuired.
Applications
+. .ocal area networks use serial transmission.
,. Communication with system located at long distance.
"erial Transmission
In serial transmission, the bits of the byte are transmitted serially one after another. The
bits stored in the register shifted towards .#& at every clock pulse. Thus whenever clock pulse is
received bit at .#& position is transmitted on the line. This is shown in )ig. 0.+.-. #erial
transmission can take place on single connecting wire between transmitter and receiver. "s
shown in above figure, the digital bits form a digital waveform. This transmission is suitable for
long distance transmission. #erial transmission takes place on serial port of the computer.
Serial transmission
Advantaes o! "erial Transmission
1. It reduces the number of wires reuired for connecting the two systems.
,. #erial transmission is most economical way of transmission.
Disadvantaes o! "erial Transmission
+. #erial transmission is slow, since all the information is transmitted serially.
,. Comple!ity of serial transmission is more, since more bits for synchroni/ation are reuired.
Applications
1. .ocal area networks use serial transmission.
,. Communication with system located at long distance.
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, the transmitter sends data with its own timing clock which is
not known to the receiver. 1Thus transmitter and receiver does not operate at same clock signal.
Normally start bit is used at the beginning of the byte and stop bit is used at the end of the byte. The
start and stop bits help the receiver to identify starting and ending instants of the byte. The start and
stop bits have different durations and patterns so that they can be recogni/ed easily at the receiver.
The asynchronous mode of data transmission is simple to implement, but determining sampling
instants is comple!. The timing errors tend to be more in this mode.
"ynchronous Transmission
In the synchronous mode, the transmitter and receiver operate at common clock signal. 2ence
the timing errors are minimum in synchronous mode of transmission. There are no start and stop bits.
The bytes are transmitted as a block continuously. )ig. 0.+.0 shows block wise synchronous
transmission.
Synchronous transmission
The transmitter sends dock along with the data. The receiver recovers this dock and uses
it to detect the data bits. The beginning of the block is indicated by flag bits in the receiver. The
synchronous transmission is also3called coherent transmission. It is little comple! but number of
errors are reduced. The selection of synchronous or asynchronous transmission depends upon the
type of application.
#auds
The &aud $&d' indicates the rate at which changes occur in a signal over a given period
of time. &aud is the unit of signaling speed or modulation rate. The baud rate is obtained by
taking the reciprocal of the shortest signaling element. The relationship between baud rate and bit
rate can best be e!plained with following e!ample.
Example 4.1.1 : Fig. 4.1.5 shows the signal which is encoded in 4 levels and transmitted over a
channel.
Determine the baud rate and bit rate.
Baud rate for 4-level modulation
Solution: The bit rate can be obtained very easily. "s shown in the above figure, eight bits are
transmitted in one second period. 2ence bit rate will be,
&it rate = Number of bits transmitted per second
4 5 bits6sec.
Now observe that each level of the encoded signal combines two successive bits. 2ence the
encoded signal changes level after two bits. (e know that baud rate is the rate at which encoded
or modulated signal changes its levels. 2ence baud rate for the signal of )ig. 0.+.7 will be half of
the bit rate, since it changes level after two
&aud rate 4 0 bauds.
Transmission $odes
The data can be e!changed in the following three ways,
+. The data can be transferred in both directions simultaneously.
,. The data can be transferred in both directions, but transfer can take place in only direction at a
time.
-. The data transfer can be only in one direction.
)or this type of e!change standard terminology is used in data transmission and data
communications as shown below in table 0.+.+.
Table 4.1.1 : Directional caabilities
The bandwidth reuirement of the channel changes according to data e!change
capability. (e will see more about this further.
Review Questions
1. !hat do "ou mean b" s"nchronous and as"nchronous data transmission 8 !hat are their advantages and
disadvantages 8
#. !hat are the advantages of transmitting binar" code e$uivalent of an analog signal on a transmission
channel% Discuss limitations of such digital transmission.
&. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of arallel transmission over serial transmission.
Data Communication Codes
(e know that digital data is represented by binary 191 and 1+1 levels. "ll the machine level
data is digital. &ut when we use computers for variety of applications: letters, numbers, symbols
etc. are used. #uch letters or symbols are normally represented by group of binary digits. #uch
bits are normally 7 to 5. The bits follow a well defined pattern to represent a particular symbol.
#uch patterns are called codes. )or e!ample, a 7;bit code can represent ,
7
4 -, different symbols.
" 53bit code can represent ,
5
4 ,7< symbols. There are two code sets commonly used. These
codes are =3bit "#CII code and 5 bit E&CDIC code.
A"C%% Code
The "merican #tandard Code for Information Interchange $"#CII' is defined by
"merican National #tandards Institute $"N#I'. It uses =3bits to represent every symbol. Thus
"#CII code represents ,
=
4 +,5 various symbols. Table 0.,.+ shows the "#CII code set.
Ta&le '()(* A"C%% code set
The bit numbering scheme is shown in top left corner of the table. The "#CII code for
the particular symbol can be obtained by reading the he!adecimal co3ordinates from the above
table. )or e!ample the letter 1 E1 has the co3ordinates of $column > 0, ?ow > 7'. 2ence the "#CII
code will be,
Table 4.2.2
Thus the "#CII code for other symbols can be determined. The symbols like C? 6
$Carriage ?eturn' and .) $.ine )eed' are used for basic operation of printers and displays. The
symbols "C@ $"cknowledgement' and N"@ $Negative "cknowledgement' are used for error
control. The symbols #TA $#tart of Te!t' and ETA $End of Te!t' are used for transferring block
of data characters. %any other symbols and their meanings are listed in Table 0.,.-.
Table 4.2.3 Control symbols used in ASCII code set
The "#CII code uses = bits. Normally the 5
th
bit at %#& position is used for parity
coding. This bit is also called parity bit. The value of this parity bit depends upon the type of
parity coding used. )or e!ample if even parity coding is used then, the parity bit is taken such that
number of is in the "#CII code are 1even1.
Example 4.2.1 : 'eresent the following message b" (S)** code. +se even arit" for 8
th
bit in
,SB.
,essage: B-..4&
Solution: The table 0.,.0 shows the "#CII code for each character in given message.
Table 4.2.4
E#CD%C Code
E!tended &inary Coded Decimal Interchange Code $E&CDIC' 3 is an 5 bit code. It has
,7< possible combinations, but all the combinations are not defined in the code. There is no
parity bit for error checking. Table 0.,.7 shows the code set for E&CDIC code. Bbserve that there
is difference in bits numbering of E&CDIC code and "#CII code. The E&CDIC code is not same
for all the devices.
Ta&le '()(+ E#CD#C Code
The E&CDIC code can handle graphic and control characters. This code is more suitable for
data processing applications since it is compatible with &CD oriented data processing euipment.
Baudot Code
This is one of the first code developed and used for teleprinter. This code uses 7 bits. 2ence
there are ,
7
= -, distinct symbols. &y using the shift arrangement, the number of symbols can be
doubled to <0. This can be done using letters $. T?#' and figures $)IC#' control characters. Table
0.,.< shows the baudot code. The baudot code is normally transmitted asynchronously. The baudot
code is used in telegraph communications on the keyboard, printer and paper tape reader.
+ = %ark 4 *unch 2ole
o 4 #pace = No *unch 2ole
Table 4.2.6 Baudot Code
Ote! Codes
There are some other codes like morse code, &CD code, 2ollerith code, Numeric
code etc.
Binar" )ode Decimal /B)D0 This is one of the earlier code developed for data
processing. It is shown in Table 0.,.=. #ince it does not support characters and symbols, it is
suitable only for numeric information. To represent the number greater than D, other four bit
groupings are used. )or e!ample 0D is represented in &CD as 9+99 +99+.
1umeric )odes: These numbers are suitable for representating numeric data. The number values
are represented using binary digits. The binary number system is also one of the numeric code.
Table 0.,.= lists various types of Numeric codes.
Table 4.2." #ume!i$ $odes
,orse )ode: the ,orse code consists of dots and dashes in articular se$uence to reresent
characters2 numbers and secial characters. This code is normall" used for telegrah". The
number of dots and dashes for ever" s"mbol are different in length.
E!!o! Cont!ol
(hen the data is transmitted from one place to another, errors are introduced. These errors
are introduced due to noise in the channel. There are two methods to detect and correct these errors
i) Forward acting error correction and ii' Error detection with retransmission.
!pe" of Error #ontrol
i. Forward acting error correction
In this method, the errors are detected and corrected by proper coding techniues at the receiver
$decoder'. The check bits or redundant bits are used by the receiver to detect and correct errors. The
error detection and correctionE capability of the receiver depends upon number of redundant bits in the
transmitted message. The forward acting error correction is faster, but over all probability of errors is
higher. This is because some of the errors cannot be corrected
ii. Error detection wit$ retran"mi""ion
In this method, the decoder checks the input seuence. (hen it detects any error, it discards
that part of the seuence and reuests the transmitter for retransmission. The transmitter then again
transmits the part of the seuence in which error was detected. 2ere note that, the decoder does not
correct the errors. It Fust detects the errors and sends reuests to transmitter. This method has lower
probability of error, but it is slow.
T%pes o& E!!o!s
There are mainly two types of errors introduced during transmission on the data> random errors and
burst errors.
i) ?andom errors> These errors are created due to white Caussian noise in the channel. The
error generated due to white gaussian noise in the particular interval does not affect the performance
of the system in subseuent intervals. In other words, these errors are totally uncorrelated. 2ence they
are also called as random errors.
ii) &urst errors> These errors are generated due to impulsive noise in the channel.9
These impulse noise $bursts' are generated due to lightning an switching transients. These noise
bursts affect several successive symbols. #uch errors are called burst errors. The burst errors are
dependent on each other in successive %me""age intervals.
'(,(, Parity Codin
4.'.'.1 (!in$iple o& Ope!ation
This is the most simplest coding. " parity bit is added so that number of +1s can be made even
or odd. )or e!ample consider =3bit message signal and I3parity bit as follows.
)i*. 4.'.1 (a!it% $odin*
In above figure observe that there are seven bits in message word. "nd there are 0+Gs in
message word. " parity bit of bs >>>> + is added in the codeword. This makes odd number of +Gs in the
codeword. This is called odd arit".
How errors are detected?
&ow let t$e error take" place in 2nd 'it of t$e code word. i.e.(
)t t$e recei*er num'er of 1 +" are c$ecked. )nd due to error( num'er of 1 +" are
+e*en+. ,ence an error i" pre"ent in t$e recei*ed codeword.
Parity coding is an error detecting code:
-e "tudied a'o*e( t$at error i" pre"ent in t$e recei*ed codeword. But it i" not
po""i'le to locate( w$ic$ 'it i" in error. ,ence parit! code" are onl! error detecting code".
Multiple errors cannot be detected
&ow let u" a""ume t$at 2nd a" well a" 1 st 'it" are in error. $en we get(
"s shown above, there is an error in +7+ and #nd bit. &ut still the parity is odd $i.e. odd numbe
of l1s'. Then the receiver will not be able to deted this error. Thus multiple errors cannot be detected.
This problem can be solved with the help of method discussed ne!t subsection.
4.'.'.2 Odd and Even (a!it% Codin*
Odd parity: If t$e parit! 'it i" added "uc$ t$at t$ere are odd num'er of 1 +"( t$en it i"
called odd parit! coding.
Examples:
Even parity coding : If t$e parit! 'it i" added "uc$ t$at t$ere are e*en num'er of
l+"( t$en it i" called e*en parit! coding.
Examples:
4.'.'.' +e!ti$al and ,o!i-ontal (a!it% Ce$.s
.et u" con"ider t$e me""age word of 4/'it" lengt$.
ml = 1 0 1 1
m2 = 1 1 0 1
m3 = 000 1
m4 = 0 1 0 1
$e"e four me""age 'it" can 'e arranged a" an arra! of 4 x 4 "i1e. $e arra! can 'e
repre"ented '! a matrix a" "$own 'elow.
To this matri! one e!tra column for hori/ontal parity and e!tra row for vertical parity is
added. )or e!ample if we consider odd parity, then parity bit is added in e!tra row and column
such that there are odd numbers of l1s. It is shown below.
)i*. 4.'.2 +e!ti$al and o!i-ontal pa!it% $e$.s
3ow error can be located%
.et us assume that there is an error in #11d row third column bit. This bit is encircled as shown in
)ig. "s shown in )ig. 0.-.-, parity of #nd row and &rd column is wrong. 2ence there is an error in
the bit in 2nd row and 3rd column. (e know that 2nd row represents message1 m2 +. 2ence there is
error in &rd bit of m2 This is how vertical and hori/ontal parity checks are used to locate errors.
/dvanta*es:
+' *arity coding is simple.
,' Code rate is high. #ince only one e!tra parity bit per message is reuired. )or e!ample, if there are
1b1 message bits, then there will be $k 2 +' bits after parity coding. 2ence code rate will be,
Code rate = 454 which is high.
5 61
-' Hery simple decoders and generators are reuired.
0' (ith vertical and hori/ontal checks, it is possible to detect particular bit in error.
0isadvanta*es:
+' It only detects errors. I. cannot correct errors.
,' %ultiple errors cannot be detected.
/ppli$ations:
*arity coding is used for error detection in "?I systems.
E-ample '(,(*: *n a single arit" chec5 code2 the arit" bit b1 is given b" following rule:
For 5 4 -, determine all ossible code words.
"olution: )or k 4 -, the given euation becomes,
In mod3, addition we know that can be written as since there is
no subtraction operation. 2ence above euation can be written as,
This euation gives parity bit from three message bits. )ollowing table shows the
possible code words.
4.3.4 #!clic 4edundanc! #$ecking 5#4#)
The data message polynomial %$p' is divided by the generator polynomial 65p).
The uotient is discarded and the remainder is truncated to +< bits. This is called block check
sum $&#C'.
It is added with the message. The result of addition is nothing but encoded codeword.
If there are transmission errors, then remainder is non/ero. Btherwise if there are no
transmission errors, the remainder is /ero. This is how errors are detected at the receiver.
Example 0.-.,> The generator ol"nomial of a $=, 0' c"clic code 7/0 =
&
2 . 2 +. Find all the
code vectors for the code in s"stematic form.
Solution: 2ere n = 7 and ! = 4 therefore " 44 n 3 ! 44 3. There will be total 2
!
= ,
0
44 +< message
vectors of = bits each. Consider any message vector as,
Then the message polynomial will be #! = 0 in euation 0.0.7',
"nd given generator polynomial is,
To obtain p
q
1 (p)
#ince " = -,
$
,/0 will be,
(e now have
$
,/0 and 7/0. Now let1s perform the division to find remainder of this division.
Thus the remainder polynomial is
#
2 8 2 9 in the division of
&
,/0 by 7/0. Therefore remainder
C$p' can be written as,
This is the reuired cyclic code vectors in systematic form. The other code vectors can be obtained
using the same procedure.
Table 0.-.+ lists all the systematic cyclic codes.
a'le 4.3.1 #ode *ector" of a 57( 4) c!clic code for 7 /0 = & 2 2 1
'(+ 0ata 1odems.
The modems are basically DCE or data communication euipment. It is the interface between
DTE and analog transmission media.
'(+(* /s%n$!onous 1odems
J The clocking information is not received in1 asynchronous modem.
8 It uses )#@ and used for low speed dial3up1 circuits.
J The types of modems used are ,9, T 67, ,9,T, ,9,7 and +9-.
J %odems operate over +,993,,99 2/ freuencies.
4.2.2 S%n$!onous 1odems
J The clocking information is received in synchronous modem.
8 It is used for medium and high speed applications.
8 It uses *#@ or I"% modulation.
J #ynchronous modems are more complicated and more e!pensive than asynchronous modems.
J %edium speed modems operate over ,099 to 0599 bps.
J 2igh speed synchronous modems operate at D<99 bps.
4.2.' 3ow4speed 1odems
These modems are generally asynchronous. They use noncoherent )#@. 2ence transmit carrier
and clock freuencies are not recovered by receive modem. The pre3and port3euali/ation circuits
do not reuire initiali/ation.
4.2.4 1edium and ,i* Speed 1odems
These modems are normally synchronous type, and have transmission rates higher than ,099 bps.
They use *#@ or I"%. The clock is transmitted and received by the respective modems. These
modems have scrambler 6 desc1rambler and adaptive euali/ers.
4.2.2 1odem Cont!ol
The modems have certain set of commands that are used to perform functions such as call
initiating and dialing, busy signal recognition, automatic answering, error correction etc. The
commonly used modem command is "T command set.
At command mode: (hen the modem does not communicate directly with another modem, it is
said to have in command mode. In this mode, the modem monitors information sent through DTE
for "#CII characters "T. "s the modem detects the "T seuence, it interprets the ne!t set of
characters as "T commands.
At on line mode: "fter the communication is established with other modem, the modem then
enters the online mode. In this mode, the modem interprets the "T characters as data only.
4.6 5SO4OS5 Seven 3a%e! /!$ite$tu!e
The data needs to be communicated all over the nation as well as world. Therefore the
data communication systems should follow some compatible and world wide accepted standards.
These standards fit into the frame work established by International Brgani/ation for
#tandardi/ation $I#B'. This framework is called the model for Bpen #ystems Interconnection
$B#I'. It is also called I#B3B#K ?eference model.
This model specifies seven layers or levels in the communication system. The lowest layer is
called physical layer, which specifies conversion of bits into electrical signals and connection to the
network. The various functions are specified in different layers to the highest $seventh' layer, which
support the end user like .BCIN, password, file transfer etc. The I#B3B#I does not provide the actual
standards but it provides the common framework for co3ordination of standards development. 2ence it
is called reference model.
)ig. 0.<.+ shows the layered architecture of I#B3B#I reference model. It is also called seven
layer model. The layer 191 which is transmission media is included in the seven layers. "s shown in the
figure, the first layer is physical layer, then data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session
layer, presentation layer and application layer. The transmission media considered to be O
t$
layer, but
it is not part of seven layers. The sub network has three layers > physical layer, data link layer and
network layer. These three layers interface one to one to the corresponding layers of end systems.
Table 0.<.+ gives the summary of various layers, the primary functions offered by them and services
provided to the ne!t higher layer.
.a!er" of IS9/9SI reference model and t$eir function"
(lication la"er /la"er 90
"s shown in )ig. The application layer is the highest layer in the B#I model. It pro*ide" services to
the users. The functions like .BCIN, password checking, file transfers etc. are performed by
application layer.
.resentation la"er /la"er :0
The two communicating entities may have different local synta!, i.e. code and data format
differences. These differences are resolved in the presentation layer. )or e!ample consider that
one end of the system is transferring file which is in "#CII code format. The other end system
needs this file, but its uses I&%1s E&CDIC format. Then the translation from "#CII code to
E&CDIC code $without changing the meaning' will be done in the presentation layer.
Session la"er /la"er ;0
The management and synchroni/ation of a dialog $conversation' between two different
applications is done at the session layer. "t this layer the user establishes system to system
interconnection. The logging on and off, user identification and billing, and session management
etc. are controlled at this layer. )or e!ample consider transmission of data from one end
application to other end application. "t the session layer, the streams of data are properly
marked .and resynchroni/ed so that the ends of messages are not cut off prematurely. Thus there
is no data loss.
Transort la"er /la"er 40
The transport layer provides transport services. %any groups of independent messages are passed
by the end users. These messages can be transmitted on the parallel paths or single path as
available. The transport layer may do multiple!ing, splitting, blocking or segmenting of various
messages $data streams' to improve utili/ation of network resources. The transport layer
guarantees the data from one end of the system to other with small error rate, minimum delay,
minimum cost and highest throughputs. The transport layer provides end to end connectivity.
1etwor5 la"er /la"er &0
The network layer provides means to access the sub network for routing the messages to the
destination end system. The outgoing messages are divided into packets at this layer. The
incoming packets are assembled into messages for the higher levels. The routing of messages and
packets is also decided in the network layer. Thus network layer acts as a network controller for
routing data.
Data lin5 la"er /la"er #0
The function of the data link layer is to detect and correct the errors introduced during
transmision of electrical signals. )or the data which is to be transmitted, it adds the error detection
bits. This encoded data is then handed over to physical layer for transmission. These error
detection bits are used by the data link layer at other end for detecting and correcting errors.
Normally the data is transmitted in frames. The flow of frames is also performed in data link
layer.
.h"sical la"er /la"er 10
The physical layer is concerned with the transmission of digital data over the interconnection
media. It converts the digital data bits to the electrical signal. It decides duration of bit, amplitudes
of the electrical signal, whether the transmission is half duple!, full duple! and how the
connections are established at each end. The physical layer does not detect and correct any errors
rather it is mainly concerned with physically carrying the data and handing over the data to data
link layer. ?#3,-,C and ?#300D standards are the e!amples of physical layer protocols.
4." T%pes o& #etwo!.s
In this section we will briefly describe various types of networks. They are .ocal "rea Network
$."N', (ide "rea Network $("N', #atellite Network, *ublic #witched Telephone Network
$*#TN', Integrated #ervices Digital Network $I#DN' etc. "ll these networks serve variety of
applications.
4.".2 5nte*!ated Se!vi$es 0i*ital #etwo!. 65S0#7
The rapid development is computers and communication technologies have resulted in merging
of these two fields. The computing, switching and digital transmission euipment are being used
combinely and effectively for data, voice and image transmission. The Integrated #ervices Digital
Network $I#DN' is intended to replace the e!isting telecommunications network and deliver the
wide variety of services. The I#DN is an all digital network that provide services on telephone,
data, computers etc. anywhere around the world. It is an interface network which integrates
various( types of services and users. I#DN is the ne!t step in the field of communication. There
are two types of I#DN> Narrowband I#DN and Broad'and I#DN
In narrow band I#DN ,the data transmission takes place at very low rate of <0kb6sec
&ecause of such low bit rates, the range of services offered by Narrow band I#DN is limited. The
uality of video signal is very poor in narrow band I#DN. &roadband I#DN is the ne!t step of
de*elopment in I#DN technology. The transmission of signals takes place on optical fiber in
&roadband I#DN. &ecause of optical fibers, very high data rate are possible. &ecause of this fast
e!change of data( 'road'and IS:& can pro*ide man! "er*ice".
Principles o! %"DN:
)i*. 4.".8 Conne$tion &eatu!es o& 5S0#
.integrated in the single interface by I#DN. The customer I#DN interface is connected to I#DN
central office through digital pipe $or I#DN line'. The I#DN central office is, connected to
Integrated Digital Network $IDN' : which consists of packet switched network, circuit switched
network, data bases, some other networks and services.
Architecture.#lock diaram o! %"DN:
)ig. 0.=.D shows the architecture or block diagram of I#DN, which is almost similar to )ig. 0.=.5.
The common physical interface is basically customer I#DN interface. It provides DTE6DCE
connection. This interface can also be used for telephone, computer terminal and videote!t
terminal. " digital ;B< and .)&" can al"o 'e connected to t$e p$!"ical interface. The
common physical interface is connected through digital line to I#DN central office. The common
physical interface is connected through digital line to I#DN central offices. The central office
connect the I#DN subscriber loop signal to IDN. The central office provides access to C1irc.uit
switched network, dedicated lines, packet switched networks, and time shared, transaction
oriented computer services.
)i*. 4.".9 /!$ite$tu!e o! blo$. dia*!am o& 5S0#
%"DN Channels :
The digital pipe between central office and I#DN user carries various communication channels.
There are three types of channels >
3 L-3channel having <0 kbps capacity
3 D channel having +< or <0 kbps capacity
3 2 channel having -50 $2B', +7-< $2ll' and +D,9 $2+,' kbps.
"ny access link is constructed from these channels. The &3channel is the basic user (
channel. It can be used to carry digital data, *C% encoded digital *oice or a mi!ture of lower rate
traffic. The D3channel carries signaling information to control circuit "witc$ed call" on a""ociated B
c$annel" at the user interface. It is also used packet switching or low speed telemetr! when no
signaling information is to be transmitted. The 23channel is used to carry user information at
higher bit rates. This channel can also be used to carry TB% data signals at high speed.
Cannel st!u$tu!es in 5S0#
4.".1 3o$al /!ea #etwo!.s 63/#7
The local area networks are also called as ."Ns. They are privately owned networks within a
single building or campus of upto a few kilometers in si/e. The personal computers and
workstations in the company offices or factories are interconnected by ."N. &ecause of ."N, it
becomes easy to share resources like printers and e!change the information. The ."Ns are
distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics> $i' their si/e, $ii' their
transmission technology, and $iii' their topology.
In ."N, the single cable is used and all the machines are connected to this cable. The
modern ."Ns operate at hundreds of megabits6sec. Different types of topologies are used for
."Ns. The 1bus1 and 1ring1 topologies are very common. (e will study these topologies in detail
in the ne!t section. The broadcast networks are also divided as static or dynamic, depending upon
how the channel is allocated. The architecture of the ."N is described in terms of layering
protocols that organi/e the basic functions of the ."N. The architecture of ."N consists of
physical, medium access control and logical link control layers.
(e will see more details of ."N in ne!t section.
4.8 lo$al /!ea #etwo!.s 63/#7
4.8.1 5nt!odu$tion to 3/#
In the last section we have already defined and introduced ."N. " .ocal "rea Network
$."N' is the network that is specifically designed to operate over the small physical area. Normally
."Ns are privately owned. ."Ns can provide the data rates upto +9 %bps. The main advantage of
."N is the ability to store euipment, data and software. The nature of the ."N is determined by $i'
topology, $ii' transmission medium and $iii' medium access control techniues. 2ere we will briefly
discuss these concepts.
4.8.2 /tt!ibutes o& 3/#
The ."N consists of computers, graphic stations and user terminal stations which are interconnected
by the cabling system. ."N has following attributes >
$i' The geographical coverage of ."Ns is limited to areas less than 7 suare kilometers.
$ii' The data rates in ."N are more than + %bps.
$iii' The physical interconnecting medium of ."Ns is owned by private organi/ations.
$iv' The physical interconnecting medium is shared by the stations which are connected to ."N.
4.8.' Topolo*ies o& 3/#
The topology of ."N means the way in which the stations are physically connected. There are three
main topologies> &us, ring and star. The topology of ."N has following reuirements>
$i' The topology should be fle!ible, so that changes can be made in physical locations of stations.
$ii' The cost of physical media and installation should be minimum.
$iii' The network should not have any single point of complete failure.
Bus Topolo*%:
In the bus topology of ."N, the stations are connected to the cable as shown in )ig.
Bus topolo*% o& 3/#
In the bus topology the data flows in both the directions on the cable. Every station listens to
all the transmissions on the bus. The ends of bus are terminated by appropriate matching
impedance to avoid signal reflection. #ince the signal is bidirectional, amplifiers cannot be used
on the bus. Two separate buses are used for each. direction if amplifiers are to be used. Every
terminal is connected to both the buses. This is called dual bus topology. It is shown in )ig. Bne
bus is called transmit bus and other is called receive bus.
0ual bus topolo*% wit ampli&ie!s
The transmit and receive buses can be provided on the single bus by using freuency
division multiple!ing of transmission channels. )ig. 0.5.- shows this topology. "s shown in.
figure, the stations receive data from bus by demodulating receive carrier #%2& The stations send
data on the bus by modulating transmit carrier #%'& The head end consists of a freuency translator
which changes transmit carrier freuency to receive carrier freuency. 2ence data transmitted by
one terminal can be received by other terminal.
0ual bus topolo*% usin* &!e:uen$% division multiplexin*
/dvanta*es o& bus topolo*%:
$i' The stations are connected to the bus using a passive tap.
$ii' The length of physical transmission medium is minimum.
$iii' &y e!tending bus through repeaters, the coverage can be increased.
$iv' Lust by tapping a working bus, the new stations can be easily added.
Rin* Topolo*%:
In the ring network, a number of transmission links are Foined together in the form of a
ring through repeaters. These repeaters called ?ing Interface Mnits. )ig. 0.5.0 shows ring
topology. The transmission is only in one direction on ring. The ?IM receives the signal at its
input, it regenerates the signal and sends it to the ?IM of ne!t stations. The station can e!change
data on the network through ?IM $also called repeater'. Every data unit has source and
destination address. The ?IM checks for the destination address. If the data unit is transmitted for
a particular ?IM, it copies the data. The data unit circulates around the ring and comes back to the
?IM from where it was transmitted on the ring. The ?IM of the source then absorbs or removes
this data unit from the ring. Thus each data unit completes one round on the ring. The ring
topology is not superior to bus topology.
Rin* topolo*% in 3/#
0isadvanta*es o& !in* topolo*%:
$i' If one ?IM fails in the ring, then there can be total failure of the network.
$ii' It is difficult to e!pand the number of users in the ring.
$iii' The cost of cables is more in ring topology.
Sta! Topolo*%:
Each station is directly connected to the common central controller in this topology. It is
shown in )ig. 0.5.7. The central controller acts as a switch. The data units from source to the
destination are routed through central controller. The star topology is widely used in telephone
networks. It can be used for small ."Ns.
Sta! topolo*%
0isadvanta*es o& sta! topolo*%:
$i' If the central controller fails, then complete network fails.
$ii' Every station is connected to the central controller by separate link. 2ence no
sharing of transmission medium.
T!ee Topolo*%:
The tree topology is the generali1ation of bus topology. In tree topology, the cable branches
at one or both the ends as shown in )ig. 0.5.<. The cable is branched from the headend. Bbserve
that there is only one transmission path between any two nodes. The cables which connect
various stations looks like a tree hence the name tree topology is given.
%aFority of the ."Ns use bus and tree topologies
3o*i$al Topolo*%:
The logical topology means the way in which the stations are logically interconnected.
The ring, star, bus and tree topologies are physical topologies. In the bus topology, the data is
routed to various nodes through bus. Thus bus is the central controller. It receives data and
forwards it to various nodes. Thus the stations have logical connection the bus which acts as
central controller. 2ence the logical topology is star.
4.8.4 3a%e!ed /!$ite$tu!e o& 3/#
" t the beginning of this chapter we have studied I#B3B#I reference model. It consists of
data link layer as layer , above the physical layer. In the .ocal "rea Networks $."Ns', the data
link layer is divided into two sublayers > $i' .ogical .ink Control $..C' and $ii' %edia "ccess
Control $%"C'. )ig. 0.5.= shows these layers.

The physical layer transmits the data signals through the transmission media to other
stations. It also receives data from transmission media and delivers it to sublayers of data link
layer.
The %edia "ccess Control $%"C' sublayer performs following functions>
/ It performs control of access to transmission media.
3 Mniue addressing of stations directly connected to ."N.
/ It also performs error detection.
The .ogical .ink Control $..C' sublayer performs following functions>
3 Error recovery
3 )low control
3 Mser addressing
Each sub layer appends a header to the user data to perform the above functions. "s
shown in )ig. 0.5.5, the data frame is delivered from network layer to the ..C sublayer. The
..C sublayer appends the protocol control information in the form of header $T 2' to the data
unit 5It i" also called *rotocol Data Mnit or *DM'. The ..C *rotocol Data Mnit $*DM' thus
formed is passed on to the %"C sub layer. The %"C sublayer adds header $%2' and trailer
$%T' to the ..C *rotocol Data Mnit $*DM' to form %"C *rotocol Data Mnit $*DM' or frame.
This frame is then handled over to physical layer for transmission.
33C and 1/C eade!s o& te 3/# &!ame
The ..C header contains control field and address fields. The control field is used for
error control, flow control and seuencing of ..C data units. The address field contains the
sending and receiving network layer identity.
The %"C header contains the media access control field and station address fields. The
station address field contains the sending and receiving station addresses.
4.8.2 5EEE Standa!ds 8;2 &o! 3/#
)or the layered architecture of ."N, the standards and protocols have been developed by
Institution of Electronics and Electrical Engineers $IEEE'. These standards are collectively
known as IEEE 59, standards. These standards have been adopted by "N#I, NI#T and I#B as
international standards. The IEEE 59, standards are mentioned as follows>
59,.+ "rchitecture, management and internetworking
59,., .ogical .ink Control $..C' protocol
59,.- Carrier #ense %ultiple "ccess $C#%"'6Collision Detection $CD'
59,.0 Token &us
59,.7 Token ?ing
59,.< %etropolitan "rea Networks $%"Ns'
59,.= &roadband Technical "dvisory Croup
59,.5 )ibre Bptic Technical "dvisory Croup
59,.D Integrated Data and Hoice Networks
In ."Ns the common cable $or media' is shared by many stations. The %edia "ccess
Control $%"C' sub layer deals with the access of media to transmit or receive signals. The %"C
sublayer is important in ."Ns since all the stations use a common cable or media as a basis for
their communication. )or ."Ns IEEE has adopted three mechanisms of media access control.
They are Carrier #ense %ultiple "ccess6 Collision Detection $C#%"6CD', Token bus and Token
ring.
Thus these are the three protocols for %"C sublayer. "s shown in )ig. 0.5.D, the
C#%"6CD $IEEE 59,.-', Token bus $IEEE 59,.0' and Token ring $IEEE 59,.7' are the three
standard protocols for %"C sublayer.
5EEE 8;2 3/# standa!ds
The physical layer protocols we have seen earlier. It does the Fob of signal encoding, transmitting
and receiving signals from the transmitting media. The .ogical .ink Control $..C' sub layer
standards are specified in IEEE 59,.,.
4.8.6 3o*i$al 3in. Cont!ol 633C7<5EEE 8;2.2
(e have seen earlier that .ogical .ink Control $..C' sub layer is the upper layer of data
link layer. The specifications of ..C are given in IEEE 59,., standard. The ..C sub layer
carriers out error control, flow control, seuencing and user addressing functions. The ..C sub
layer provides service to network layer and receives service from %"C sublayer.
33C Se!vi$e :
The ..C sublayer provides three types of following sevices to the network layer entity>
T"e-l +nac5nowledged connection less-mode service:
This is non3reliable data link service, since there is no acknowledgement of delivery or
non3delivery of data units. There is no guarantee that data will be delivered in this service. This
service is used only for sending and receiving the user data. The error control, flow control or
seuencing are performed by higher layers rather than data link layer, since the service is
unacknowledged.
T"e-# )onnection mode service:
In this serviceE the data frames contain source address, a destination address, a seuence
number and an acknowledgement number. It provides flow control, error control and seuencing
operations. It is more reliable service. This service is provided in three phases > establishment of
connection, data transfer and disconnection.
T"e-& (c5nowledged connection less mode service :
In this service the ..C user gets an acknowledgement to transmission. The data transfer
takes place in connectionless mode. Each *rotocol Data Mnit $*DM' is acknowledged to ..C,
after it is received properly. This service can also provide poll and response service.
33C (!oto$ol :
33C (0= &o!mat
(e have seen in )ig. 0.5.5, that the ..C appends header to the *rotocol Data Mnit $*DM'
obtained from network layer. #uch appended data frame is called ..C *DM and is shown in )ig.
0.5.+9. Its address field contains the address of destination data link layer service access point
$D#"*' and the address of source data link layer service access point $##"*'. The control field is
similar to control field of 2D.C frames.
4.8." 1edia /$$ess Cont!ol 61/C7
The %edia "ccess Control $%"C' sublayer is the lower layer1 of data link layer as we have seen
in )ig. 0.5.=. The %"C sublayer performs media access controt error detection and station
addressing. This layer receives the service from physical layer and provides service to the ..C
sublayer.
1/C Se!vi$e :
The %"C sub layer provides connectionless3mode service for the transfer of ..C *DM.
1/C p!oto$ol<&!ame &o!mat :
The %"C layer receives *rotocol Data Mnit $*DM' from the ..C layer. The %"C sub
layer appends header and trailer to ..C *DM as we have seen earlier in )ig. 0.5.5. Thus the %"C
frame consists of header, ..C *DM as data field and trailer. The e!act format of %"C protocol
or %"C frame differs somewhat for different media access control techniues. The general
format of the %"C frame is shown in )ig> 0.5.++. %n the figure the format of ..C *DM is also
shown. (e have discussed this format in last subsection. The various fields of the %"C frame
are as follows >
1/C (!oto$ol<&!ame &o!mat
MAC control: This field contains the protocol control information reuired for the functioning of
the %"C protocol.
Destination MAC address: This is the address of the receiving station on ."N.
Source MAC address: This is the address of the sending station on ."N.
//C PDU : This is the ..C protocol data unit passed from the ..C sublayer.
CRC : This is the cyclic redundancy check field. It is also known as )rame Check #euence $)C#'
field. It is the error detecting code similar to 2D.C and other data link protocols.
The %"C sublayer discards the frames that are in error. Thus it detects errors, but does
not correct. The ..C sub layer keeps track of which frames have been successfully received. It
sends retransmission reuests for unsuccessful received. It sends retransmission reuests for
unsuccessful frames or recovers those frames. Thus the combined Fob of data link layer for error
detection and correction is done partially by %"C sublayer and partially by ..C sublayer.
1edia /$$ess Cont!ol in 3/#
(henever any station wants to communicate on ."N, it needs transmission media. #ince
many such stations are connected in ."N,E there are fi!ed defined methods for media access.
The delay, throughput, e!pandibility of ."N is determined by topology as well as by media
access control methods. The Token bus, C#%"6CD and Token ring are maFor media access
control techniues. The media access control methods are classified broadly into two categories
as follows >
$i' Centrally controlled access and
$ii' Distributed access control.
In the first method, the access to the media is controlled by the central controller. *olling,
)D% and TB% are the e!amples of centrally controlled access. The maFor drawback of this
method is that the complete network fails if the central controller fails. In the distributed access
control, there is no single controller. The various communicating stations manage themselves
such that access is given to every station fairly. The advantage of distributed access control is that
there is no single point of network failure. Even if some station fails, the network remains fairly
operating. )or the bus topologies following two methods are mainly used for media access
control>
$i' Token bus, $IEEE 59,.0' and
$ii' Carrier #ense %ultiple "ccess6Collision Detection $C#%"6CD' IEEE 59,3-.
)or the ring topology, Token ring IEEE 59,37 is one of the main methods. "ll these
methods are distributed access control methods.
4.9.1 To.en Bus : 5EEE 8;2.4
The IEEE 59,.0 standard for media access control is also called Token bus. *hysically the token
bus is a linear or tree shaped cable on which the stations are connected. .ogically, the stations are
organi/ed into a ring. )ig. 0.D.+ shows the physical connections and logical ring. )ig. $a' #hows
the physical topology and )ig. $b' shows the logical seuence, which is ring. Each station knows
the address of the stations to its left and right in the ring. (hen the logical ring is initiali/ed, the
highest numbered station sends the first frame. Then it passes the permission to its immediate
neighbour by sending a special control frame for that neighbour. This special control frame is
called To5en.
) token 'u" 5a) ;$!"ical topolog! 5') .ogical "e=uence of token pa""ing
1edia a$$ess $ont!ol :
The token bus operates as follows>
$i' The station which holds token is allowed to transmit its data frames on the bus. Every frame
carries source and destination addresses.
$ii' The stations receive frames e!cept the station which holds a token.
$iii' Bnce the transmission time of the station is over, it passes token to the ne!t immediate
station in the logical seuence.
$iv' In once cycle across the logical ring, every station gets an opportunity to transmit. If any
station is given multiple addreses, then it gets multiple opportunities to transmit data.
)!ame )o!mat :
The frame format of IEEE 59,.0 is shown in )ig. 0.D.,.
$e IEEE >0?.4 format
The various fields of the frame are as follows >
.remable > The premable is one byte $octet' pattern. It is used for bit synchroni/ation.
Start Delimiter /SD0: It is one byte pattern used to mark the start of the frame.
Frame )ontrol /F)0 > This is one byte long field. It is used to identif! data frames and control
frames. Token is one of the control frames. $e ot$er control frames are claim token, set successor
and solicit successor frame.
Destination (ddress /D(0 > This is , or < bytes long. It contains destination address.
Source (ddress /S(0: This is , or < bytes long and it contains source address.
Frame )hec5 Se$uence /F)S ' > It is 0 bytes long. It+ contains the C?C code for error detection.
This code is used to check D", #",)C and data fields.

<nd Dilimiter /<D0 > It is one byte long and mark" the end of the frame The ma!imum length 1Bf
the frame from )C to )C# including. Data is 5+D+octets $bytes'.
To.en 1ana*ement:
The stations on the bus perform the, control and management N of the token, The stations
use claim token frame, solicit successor frame, set successor1 frame and who follows frames to
send the token from one to another.
(%si$al Spe$i&i$ations :
The token bus ."Ns operate at the data rates +,7 or +9 %bps using analog #ignaling over
=7 ohms coa!ial cable. Two types of transmission systems are used >
$+' Carrierband $single channel' and $,' &roadband $multiple channel'.
The carrierband system is based on single channel bidirectional transmission. )or + %bps
data rate it uses phase coherent )#@ modulation. The bus is implemented using fle!ible semi
rigid co3a!ial cable. )or 7 or +9 %bps data rate the bus uses phase coherent )#@ #ignaling. In the
broadband system multiple channel unidirectional transmission is possible. It uses amplitude and
phase modulation combinely. It uses separate transmit and receive carriers.