Self-Regulation: A Brief Review

Luke Behncke
RMIT University
Melbourne Australia
ABSTRA!T
Intro"uction
Mechanis#s of Self-Regulation
!onclusions
References

ABSTRA!T
A review of self-regulation e$a#ine" basic volitional factors of goal setting self-
#onitoring activation an" use of goals "iscre%ancy "etection an" i#%le#entation self-
evaluation self-conse&uation self-efficacy #eta-skills boun"ary con"itions an" self-
regulation failure that reveale" self-#onitoring as fun"a#ental to self-regulation' There is
no consensus in the literature concerning "efinitions #etho"s an" %roce"ures of self-
#onitoring that #ay cause vali"ity an" reliability issues in research' It was in"icate" that
future research shoul" e$%lore the various %heno#enological as%ects of %sychoso#atic
function if #etho"ological a%%roaches to self-#onitoring are to be #ore clearly "efine"'
Intro"uction
Recent research has begun e$%loring the co#%le$ %rocess of self-regulation an
i#%ortant feature in cognitive an" so#atic behavior thera%ies' Many interrelating factors
a%%ear to govern self-regulation with no single factor res%onsible for its success or
failure' The ability to self-regulate #ay have a"vantages in the course of an in"ivi"ual(s
#ental life es%ecially within the s%orting conte$t' )or e$a#%le *ealey +ayashi
,arner-+ol#an an" ,iacobbi -.//01 "evelo%e" a &uestionnaire over a series of
e$%eri#ental trials that e$a#ine" sources of s%ort confi"ence in 223 college athletes'
4ine sources of s%ort confi"ence were i"entifie" a#ong the athletes that were s%lit into
three broa" "o#ains -achieve#ent self-regulation an" cli#ate1' The athletes rate" first
achieve#ent -inclu"es self-#astery an" "e#onstration of ability1 secon" self-regulation
-inclu"es %hysical5#ental %re%aration an" %hysical %resentation1 an" thir" cli#ate
-inclu"es social su%%ort coaches( lea"ershi% vicarious e$%erience environ#ental
co#fort an" situational favourableness1 in or"er of %erceive" %riority as the #ost
i#%ortant sources of i#%roving s%ort confi"ence'
)urther#ore the ability to in"ivi"ually self-#onitor -6i# .///1 an" self-#onitor
within a tea# environ#ent -6i# 7 !ho .//81 influences %erce%tion of in"ivi"ual an"
tea# %erfor#ance e$%ectations an" confi"ence of success' Thus %erce%tion of self-
control or self-#astery acco#%anying the %rocess of self-regulation an" self-#onitoring
%ro#otes confi"ence in self an" %erfor#ance of a given task' +owever the #echanis#s
of self-regulation are i#%ortant to clarify an" "efine to assist the thera%ist an" client to
engage in any behavioral change strategy'
Mechanis#s
6aroly -.//21 has con"ucte" an e$tensive review of self-regulation #echanis#s
un"erlying cognitive an" so#atic base" learning in thera%y an" %erfor#ance an" "efines
self-regulation as:
those %rocesses internal an"5or transactional that enable an in"ivi"ual to gui"e his5her
goal-"irecte" activities over ti#e an" across changing circu#stances -conte$ts1'
Regulation i#%lies #o"ulation of thought affect behavior or attention via "eliberate or
auto#ate" use of s%ecific #echanis#s an" su%%ortive #eta-skills' The %rocesses of self-
regulation are initiate" when routini9e" activity is i#%e"e" or when goal-"irecte"ness is
otherwise #a"e salient -e'g' the a%%earance of a challenge the failure of habitual action
%atterns etc1'
Self-regulation a%%ears to be the stable ele#ent atte#%ting to gui"e behavior along a
s%ecific %ath to a "irecte" ai# or goal' +owever a%art fro# %roce"ural e%iste#ic an"
conce%tual "ivergences in various #o"els of self-regulation basic volitional factors such
as goal setting self-#onitoring activation an" use of goals "iscre%ancy "etection an"
i#%le#entation self-evaluation self-conse&uation self-efficacy #eta-skills boun"ary
con"itions an" self-regulation failure characteri9e the %rocess of self-regulation -6aroly
.//21' Therefore a brief "iscussion of the basic tenants outline" in self-regulation #o"els
#ay assist in i"entifying key issues in i#%roving %erfor#ance'
,oal Setting
Though attitu"es an" beliefs -,ill ./08: Ri""le .//;1 an" #otivation -!ar#ack 7
Martens ./</: =ish#an ./0>: ?einberg ./0>1 contribute to the athletes( a%%roach
towar"s training an" co#%etition initiation an" a"herence to goal setting involves
"istinct levels of "irecte" behavior for a s%ecific ai# -Brunelle @anelle 7 Tennant .///:
!hen 7 Singer .//A: ,reen-=e#ers Belletier Stewart 7 ,ushue .//0: 6ane Marks
Caccaro 7 Blair .//81' =irections of behaviors are influence" by long- an" short-ter#
i#%ortant an" non-i#%ortant an" easy an" "ifficult goals that are %rioriti9e" an"
strategically i#%le#ente" accor"ing to in"ivi"ual ai#s "uring self-regulation' Dnce a
s%ecific self-regulation treat#ent has been learne" an" a"a%te" for a s%ecific behavior it
beco#es increasingly "ifficult to change treat#ent to be congruent with long-ter# goals'
In other wor"s too #uch "eviation fro# the original %ath #ay lea" to never fin"ing the
sa#e %ath again' Thus clear an" "efine" goal setting is essential in the initial a%%roach to
self-regulation'
Self-Monitoring
Dnce goal setting has been "evelo%e" the ability to self-#onitor beco#es essential
because attention to internal an" e$ternal cues through greater self-awareness lea"s to
faster an" #ore a%%ro%riate control of intervention strategies' Attention to internal states
-thoughts feeling sensations1 an" e$ternal states -bo"ily #ove#ent an" environ#ent1 is
a "ifferent %heno#enon fro# attentional styles though there is overla% between the two'
Attentional styles involve the relationshi% of concentration an" focus or %erce%tion
selection to a "yna#ic environ#ent -Caichkowsky ./0>1' Attentional styles can range
fro# broa"-e$ternal focus of attention -o%ti#al for rea"ing co#%le$ s%ort situations an"
assessing the environ#ent i'e' goo" antici%ation skills1 broa"-internal focus of attention
-o%ti#al for analy9ing s%ort within the conte$t of strategies an" %lans an" for future
antici%ate" events i'e' &uick learners1 narrow-e$ternal focus of attention -able to %ay
attention on the necessary sti#uli at the right #o#ents with the correct res%onses1 an"
narrow-internal focus of attention -ability to %syche oneself u% an" cal# oneself "own1
-4i"effer ./0.1' There are "egrees an" co#binations of the afore#entione" foci of
attention across an" within in"ivi"uals' +ow #uch of these ty%es of attentional styles
an" their co#binations is a %ro"uct of %ersonality an"5or trainable is still unclear but
attentional styles a%%ear to be relate" to the "egree of internal an" e$ternal "istraction
-Singer et al' .//.1 an" the "egree of conscious an" auto#atic control an in"ivi"ual
%ossesses for a given task -+ar"y Mullen 7 @ones .//81' That is it is the ability of the
athlete to intervene an" se%arate i#%ortant #ental content fro# non-i#%ortant "erive"
fro# s%ecific sti#uli an" to know when to consciously over-ri"e actions or to allow
auto#atic %rocesses to continue' This %rocess is governe" by the skill of the in"ivi"ual to
self-#onitor effectively'
=efining Self-Monitoring
To ascertain effective self-#onitoring Sny"er -./</1 has se%arate" two "istinct
ty%es involving high self-#onitors -those in"ivi"uals who use cues fro# others to
regulate their behavior1 an" low self-#onitors -those in"ivi"uals who are controlle" fro#
within by their affective states an" attitu"es1' S%litting self-#onitoring criteria into these
two si#%lifie" "o#ains leaves out a consi"erable nu#ber of variables that influence the
self-#onitoring %rocess' Dne of these variables is the "efinition of self-#onitoring
nor#ally taken as the level of self-awareness that an in"ivi"ual has over %sychological
content' +owever high an" low self-#onitors "efine" by Sny"er -./</1 a%%ear to rest
on e$ternal rather than internal cues' )or e$a#%le so#eone who is "efine" as a high self-
#onitor takes e$ternal cues -other %eo%le(s behavior towar"s the#1 as an in"ication of
what behavior #o"ification is re&uire" fro# a s%ecific situation' This #ay be a%%ro%riate
for social events where eti&uette nee"s to be observe" but un"er s%orting co#%etitions
this #ay be "etri#ental' !onversely low self-#onitors take internal cues -observation of
one(s own %sychological state1 as an in"ication of behavior #o"ification' )or #ost
s%orting situations low self-#onitors woul" be at an a"vantage because they woul" not be
as likely to fluctuate with the nu#erous e$ternal cues but woul" be #ore likely to re#ain
%sychologically stable in a "yna#ic environ#ent' The "efinitions "esignate" by Sny"er
-./</1 to "ifferent self-#onitoring attributes #ay serve to confuse a%%ro%riate use of
self-#onitoring' More s%ecifically high self-#onitors #onitor the environ#ent #ore so
than the#selves unlike low self-#onitors' Therefore attributing the %rocess of self-
#onitoring to high self-#onitors "efeats the intention of the "efinition' )or %ractical
%ur%oses low self-#onitors #onitor the#selves whereas high self-#onitors #onitor the
environ#ent'
=efining self-#onitors this way has le" to contra"ictory results in so#e stu"ies' )or
e$a#%le !hatterEee +unt an" 6ernan -.///1 foun" that in an infor#ation %rocessing
e$%eri#ent low self-#onitors e$hibite" significantly higher #ean recognition scores
than high self-#onitors contra"ictory to what the Sny"er -./</1 "efinition shoul" have
obtaine"' +igh self-#onitors shoul" be better at cognitive %rocessing because of better
self-observational %ower' As was sai" above this #ay be because high self-#onitors
learn to "iscri#inate e$ternal cues better than internal an" thus when a cognitive task is
given a "istinct lack of internal attention woul" be evi"ent'
Lester -.//<1 foun" that high self-#onitoring subEects re%orte" e$%eriencing
F#ulti%le selvesF -i'e' "ifferent as%ects of e$ternal behavior1 in social situations #ore so
than low self-#onitoring subEects' +igh self-#onitors recogni9e" #ore e$ternal cues that
change" their behavior than low self-#onitors' Although these results coinci"e with
Sny"er(s %re"icte" %erfor#ance of high self-#onitors it "oes not in"icate whether they
coul" observe their %sychological content -thoughts an" feelings1 or si#%ly knew
-recalle"1 they were behaving "ifferently' !onversely the low self-#onitors not
re%orting an e$%erience of #ulti%le selves "i" not in"icate whether fro# observing
the#selves they chose not to react to e$ternal cues an" %reserve that state of self'
,ra9iano an" Bryant -.//01 foun" that high self-#onitors reacte" to bogus
biofee"back -heart-rate #onitoring1 when viewing sli"es of attractive %eo%le #ore so
than low self-#onitors coinci"ing with Sny"er(s -./</1 theory' +owever like Lester
-.//<1 no "ifferentiation was #a"e concerning the ability of high an" low self-#onitors
to regulate internal states of self' The authors conclu"e" that high self-#onitors are #ore
susce%tible to e$ternal sti#uli than low self-#onitors an" coul" not give a causative
e$%lanation'
Macrae Bo"enhausen an" Milne -.//01 foun" that subEects who were in a heightene"
state of self-focus -low self-#onitors1 were able to su%%ress social stereoty%es better than
in a non-self-focuse" state -high self-#onitoring1' This in"icate" that the ter#s of high
an" low self-#onitors shoul" be reverse" when "ealing with internal -self1 regulation
rather than a"herence to e$ternal cues' The conclusion in ter#s of self-#onitoring
as%ects -internal versus e$ternal1 is also su%%orte" by ?ebb Marsh Schnei"er#an an"
=avis -./0/1 that foun" low self-#onitors were better able to #ani%ulate %rivate self-
awareness -awareness of own behavior towar"s others1 than high self-#onitors but high
self-#onitors were better able to #ani%ulate %ublic self-awareness -awareness of other(s
behavior towar"s the#selves1'
A%art fro# "isagree#ent in "efinitions self-#onitoring can be influence" by
%ersonality ty%e that is a %articular %re"is%osition or te#%era#ent an in"ivi"ual
%ossesses that allows %ursuit an" #aintenance of conscious self-#onitoring -!aligiuri 7
=ay A;;;1' ,en"er a%%ears to %lay a role in self-#onitoring an" regulation in "ifferent
socio-cultural situations -Rekers 7 *arni ./<<1 but whether this is a socio-econo#ic or
here"itary construct is unclear %articularly in s%orts -Anshel 7 Borter .//8a .//8b1'
Motor skill level an" e$%ertise generally correlate with better self-#onitoring as the
athlete learns various in"ivi"ual strategies to i#%rove skills with e$%erience though these
strategies #ay be li#ite" in "evelo%#ent it clearly gives e$%erience" athletes an
a"vantage over novices -)errari Binar" Rei" 7 Bouffar"-Bouchar" .//.1' So#e
in"ivi"uals in an atte#%t to %rotect their ego fro# self-criticis# #ay "isregar" vital
infor#ation fro# observation in a self-serving bias an" thus li#it the effectiveness of
self-#onitoring -Bau#eister +eatherton 7 Tice .//2: 6rosnick 7 Se"iki"es .//;1'
Attentional styles to fiel" "e%en"ence5in"e%en"ence an" locus of control influence
%erceive" internal an" e$ternal cues #e"iate" in the self-#onitoring %rocess although it
a%%ears that "ifferent attentional styles can be taught -Leventhal 7 Sisco .//81' ?hen
learning or fine tuning %articular skills the ca%acity to observe an" i#itate influences
self-#onitoring ability -)errari .//81' =e%letion %atterns in conscious effort occur over
sustaine" %erio"s of self-#onitoring an" self-regulation that restrict further effort an"
thus the ability to sustain constant an" consistent efforts of self-#onitoring #ay be
li#ite" by the fa#iliarity of the athlete with self-#onitoring or insufficient ca%ability
-Muraven Tice 7 Bau#eister .//01' Gven before a"e&uate self-#onitoring can be
i#%le#ente" #ulti%le factors influence the effectiveness an" efficiency of in"ivi"ual
%erfor#ance' If these factors are not consi"ere" in the initial i#%le#entation of self-
regulation strategies in relation to self-#onitoring set goals #ay not be achievable'
Another factor influencing self-#onitoring an" self-#onitoring research is reliability
an" accuracy of self-re%orts' 4asby -./0/1 foun" that low self-#onitors -high "egree of
%rivate self-consciousness but low %ublic self-consciousness1 were able to %rovi"e
greater reliability across ti#e than high self-#onitors -low "egree of %rivate self-
consciousness but high %ublic self-consciousness1' This is because in"ivi"uals
%ossessing high %rivate self-consciousness or a greater ability in self-awareness have
articulate" self-sche#ata of greater te#%oral stability than in"ivi"uals in low %rivate self-
consciousness'
Briggs an" !heek -./001 investigating Sny"er an" ,angesta"(s -./081 .0-ite#
#easure of the self-#onitoring scale a revise" scale of Sny"er -./</1 suggest that it is
ti#e to #ove beyon" the construct of Sny"er(s -./0<1 #o"el of self-#onitoring' This is
because it is assu#e" that there is a bi%olarity of social an" %ersonal orientations
unifor#ity a#ong those scoring high on the self-#onitoring scale as well as unifor#ity
a#ong those scoring low on the self-#onitoring scale an" the lack of clarity concerning
the role of intentionality in self-re%resentational %rocesses' Most of the self-#onitoring
#easures con"ucte" in a #aEority of recent research un"er the Sny"er scale s%lit %eo%le
into two "istinct grou%s two e$tre#es in a theori9e" self-#onitoring construct'
Dbviously this never ha%%ens in real life where there is #ore often than not
co#binations an" #erging of the two "e%en"ent u%on situational nee"s' This is
es%ecially i#%ortant because research con"ucte" in the laboratory is a "ifferent situation
co#%are" to life events' Artificial settings #ay cause nervousness an" an$ieties that
"o#inate in one self-#onitoring #o"e rather than the other that #ay be #ore natural to
the in"ivi"ual'
The Sny"er scale assu#es unifor#ity a#ong high self-#onitors -the social
%sychology1 an" low self-#onitors -the %ersonality %sychology1 that is they #onitor
si#ilar e$ternal or internal cues' Intentionality of self-%resentation %rocesses is also not
factore" into the scale' )ro# a %ersonality %ers%ective -e$troversion5introversion etc1 "o
the self-#onitors u%on self-re%ort intentionally #ani%ulate infor#ation either
consciously or unconsciously to %resent the#selves in a certain lightH +ow #uch "oes
%ersonality or socio-cultural influences %lay a %art in the vali"ity of self-#onitoringH Li
an" Chang -.//01 have atte#%te" to "iscri#inate the %ersonality factor in intentional
self-%resentation within a revise" self-#onitoring scale but foun" the scale useful only
for cross-cultural %ur%oses as relatively known cultural ele#ents fro# the in"ivi"uals(
res%ective country coul" be correlate" with %ersonal "ata' Therefore there a%%ears to be
#any un"erlying factors causes an" situational "e%en"encies that #ani%ulate the ability
of an in"ivi"ual to self-#onitor' This #ay not be solely "ue to in"ivi"ual "ifferences but
to the "ata collection #etho"s'
=ata !ollection in S%ort of Self-Monitoring
In s%ort an" #ore s%ecifically #otor skill ac&uisition the %rocess of self-#onitoring
has %ri#arily been focuse" u%on %erfor#ance-base" results' Self-#onitoring an" self-
regulation are concentrate" on s%ecific #otor tasks to i#%rove %erfor#ance' )ee"back
fro# self-#onitoring is assu#e" to correlate with %erfor#ance outco#es i'e' if
%erfor#ance increases over ti#e self-#onitoring has been successful' This allows
&uantitative "ata to be collecte" an" correlate" with %ossible &ualitative increases in self-
#onitoring an" self-regulatory %rocesses'
)or e$a#%le 6irschenbau# Dr"#an To#arken an" +olt9bauer -./0A1
6irschenbau# an" Bale -./0>1 4olan" -./0/1 6irschenbau# an" ?ittrock -.//;1
Martin an" Anshel -.//31 Beaucha#% +alliwell )ournier an" 6oestner -.//81 Anshel
an" Borter -.//8a .//8b1 Ci##er#an an" 6itsantas -.//81 6itsantas an" Ci##er#an
-.//01 Ryska -.//01 Thiese an" +u""leston -.///1 have use" &uestionnaires
inventories an" self-re%orts to "iscri#inate between the level of self-#onitoring ability
with skill %erfor#ance in"icators of s%ecific tasks' They "e#onstrate" that an increase in
self-#onitoring cou%le" with self-regulatory strategies lea"s to increases in skill
%erfor#ance regar"less of the skill -i'e' o%en5close"1' To enhance self-#onitoring
fee"back 6irschenbau# ?ittrock S#ith an" Monson -./0>1 an" @ohnston-D(!onnor
an" 6irschenbau# -./081 have co#bine" %ost-e$%eri#ental &uestionnaires an" vi"eo-
ta%e" fee"back with s%ecific skill in"icators of %erfor#ance showing si#ilar results'
Bra%avessis ,rove Mc4air an" !able -.//A1 also enhance" self-#onitoring %rocesses
by co#bining &uestionnaires rela$ation thought sto%%age refocusing co%ing
state#ents an" biofee"back with self-#onitoring to "ecrease state an$iety in a s#all-
bore rifle shooter to increase %erfor#ance' +owever Muraven et al' -.//01 "i" not use
any of the regular &uestionnaires or vi"eo-ta%e" fee"back #etho"s but instea" use"
in"ivi"uals to self-control their own training regi#e with the %ur%ose of i#%roving gri%
strength over ti#e' They foun" that in"ivi"uals who were #otivate" to %erfor# the task
naturally self-#onitore" an" self-regulate" their behavior to coinci"e with set goals with
the #easure of self-regulatory ability re%resentative of i#%rove#ents in gri% strength'
This was si#ilar to BIs an" Mechling(s -./0A1 fin"ings that showe" self-regulation
#easures were successful in increasing %erfor#ance an" learning of a co#%le$ skill if
#ove#ent conce%tion was %ro%erly taught fro# a #ulti%le-a%%roach #etho" -i'e' taught
conce%tually visually kinesthetically an" cognitively1 without overt intervention fro#
s%ecific self-regulation strategies' If the in"ivi"ual cogni9e" the i#%ortance of various
as%ects of the co#%le$ skill -i'e' un"erstoo" the fun"a#ental %ro%erties of the task fro#
#ulti%le %ers%ectives1 they coul" in turn "evelo% their own self-regulation strategies an"
results of self-regulation were re%resente" in %erfor#ance i#%rove#ent' A si#ilar
%roce"ure was %erfor#e" by Bell an" Batterson -./<01 with swi##ers kee%ing their own
logs for i##e"iate &uantitative fee"back as an in"ication source for the effectiveness of
their self-regulation an" self-#onitoring strategies with %ositive results'
The above #entione" stu"ies concerning self-#onitoring an" self-regulation in s%ort
an" #otor skills use" intervention #etho"s to s%ecifically increase task %erfor#ance'
SubEects were "irecte" to self-#onitor an" then self-regulate those behaviors critical to
the s%ecific task' +owever as 6aroly -.//21 e$%lains self-#onitoring involves #ore
than #onitoring actions or cognitive events lea"ing to those actions but also the social
cognitive e#otional an" so#atic reactions occurring as a result of environ#ental an"
self-"irecte" influences' That is self-#onitoring actions or non-actions re&uire" for task
effectiveness in a given #otor skill "iscar"s #any of the %sychological circu#stances
lea"ing to %erfor#ance itself' This is a reflection of the Set +y%othesis eluci"ate" by
4ascon an" Sch#i"t -./<.1 whereby awareness of %sychological events %rece"ing an"
"uring a given task allows the athlete to see a #ore co#%lete %icture of the cognitive
e#otional an" so#atic ele#ents con"ucive for %erfor#ance' The above #entione"
stu"ies "o not a%%ear to consi"er this in their self-#onitoring %rocess an" no e$%lanation
of what e$actly is to be #onitore" by the in"ivi"uals in ter#s of the %sychological events
occurring "uring or after the task is given in a concrete for#at' Dnly s%ecific skill
actions relate" to the task fro# fee"back of %erfor#ance is e#%loye"'
This as%ect of self-#onitoring is i#%ortant because as 6irschenbau# -./031 e$%lains
there are four a""itional %rinci%les in self-regulation that influence the effectiveness of
any self-regulation %rogra#' These %rinci%les inclu"e -.1 the self-#onitoring %rocess
itself i'e' what the in"ivi"ual atte#%ts to self-#onitor -A1 "ifferences in self-#onitoring
styles i'e' %rivate5low or %ublic5high self-#onitors -21 "ifferential e$%ectancies an" self-
#onitoring with res%ect to task #astery i'e' the in"ivi"ual(s attitu"e whether %ositive or
negative to self-#onitoring an" the task an" ->1 e$traneous e#otional an" cognitive
factors not relate" to the task but affecting the task i'e' issues relating to the in"ivi"ual(s
%ersonal an"5or social life' ?ithout consi"ering these factors influencing self-regulation
any i#%le#ente" strategies can be li#ite" in their effectiveness' The self-#onitoring
%rocess in regar"s to s%ort s%ecific research a%%ears to o#it these i#%ortant
%sychological consi"erations in self-#onitoring' There see#s to be no consensus or
#etho"ological a%%roach a%art fro# skill-oriente" %roce"ures that reflect the #ulti-
facete" nature of self-#onitoring affecting goal "irecte" behavior'
The Activation an" Use of ,oal Setting
Another as%ect in self-regulation is the activation of goal "irecte" behaviors to gui"e
in"ivi"ual res%onses to task %erfor#ance' After self-#onitoring over a given %erio"
internal an" e$ternal cues initiate a #o"ulation of thought affect or behavior un"er goal-
setting "irectives -6aroly .//21' These res%onses are %resu#ably store" in long-ter#
working #e#ory that can constantly scan %sycho-%hysiological content "uring activity
an" alert the in"ivi"ual to i#%en"ing "iscre%ancies in behavior %ro"ucing conscious
intervention generating a self-regulatory res%onse'
6aroly -.//21 allu"es to two issues concerning the ability of the in"ivi"ual to e#%loy
self-regulation #etho"s as "irecte" by goal settings' )irstly it can not be %resu#e" that
in"ivi"uals work with only one #in" controlling the entire o%eration of the self-
regulatory %rocess but there e$ists a #ulti%le-#in" a%%roach' Self-regulatory %rocesses
are #ost %robably un"er the control of #any interconnecte" F#in"-centersF within the
in"ivi"ual' )or e$a#%le self-regulatory %roce"ures that %re"o#inantly use
conce%tuali9ation to intervene in cognitive #atters re&uire intellectual strategies: self-
regulatory %roce"ures atte#%ting to alter #ove#ent re&uire so#atic strategies: an"
e#otional self-regulation re&uires affective base" strategies' Unless the self-regulation
%roce"ure accurately i"entifies what #in"-center or %re"o#inant #o"e of function -i'e'
intellectual so#atic or e#otional1 is e#%loye" in the given task ina%%ro%riate self-
regulation strategies #ay be use" un"er goal "irectives' )or e$a#%le if an in"ivi"ual is
atte#%ting to alter han" #ove#ents such as a %ersistent fi"geting of the fingers "uring a
"e$terous activity then #erely sto%%ing the unnecessary #ove#ents through so#atic
interventions -i'e' when the in"ivi"ual observes the fi"geting they sto% the #ove#ent1
#ay not be sufficient' The fi"geting #ay be a result of nervousness or e$%resse" an$iety
arising fro# the cognitive center an" intervening with the so#atic center #ay serve to
shift the fi"get fro# one bo"y %art to another because the "is%laye" fi"geting is a
sy#%to# rather than a cause' A cognitive base" strategy -i'e' observing what initiate"
the an$iety an" intervening through %ositive reinforce#ent1 #ay be #ore effective in
controlling the nervousness because it seeks to "iscover an" intervene at the un"erlying
cause rather than the affecting the sy#%to#'
Secon"ly intense an" fre&uent self-focuse" attention or self-awareness is i#%ortant
to i"entify relevant cues' !ontinual an" intense self-#onitoring before "uring an" after
the activity allows increase" awareness of what cues nee" to be i"entifie" an" altere" to
align with inten"e" goals i'e' "istinguishing between real-ti#e an" reflective self-
#onitoring' Reflective ability is re&uire" for initial an" further learning in self-regulation
but only real-ti#e self-#onitoring can effect e$ecute" self-regulation strategies an"
fun"a#ental change'
The research cite" in the general an" s%ort s%ecific self-#onitoring a%%roaches "o not
consi"er the relationshi% of #ulti%le centers or real-ti#e5reflective actions in self-
#onitoring' The s%ort relate" stu"ies assu#e #otor skill -so#atic function or the so#atic
center1 as the %re"o#inate #eans for self-regulation strategies' I#%le#enting a single
center strategy #ay not be a%%ro%riate for another center an" consi"ering the #ulti-
facete" nature of a%%roaching an" e$ecuting #otor skills #uch of the self-regulatory
%rocess #ay be li#ite"'
=iscre%ancy =etection an" I#%le#entation
Self-Gvaluative @u"g#ent an" Self-!onse&uation
An i#%ortant feature in self-regulation is "etecting "iscre%ancies between i"eal
behavior an" current behavior accor"ing goal setting obEectives' It a%%ears to be affecte"
by #otivation an" knowle"ge of results when co#%aring i"eal an" current behavior' Self-
evaluating "etecte" "iscre%ancies along a s%ectru# of favorable to unfavorable behavior
an" then self-conse&uation -i'e' "eci"ing what intervention to use1 by reinforcing or
re"ucing behavior through %ositive or negative self-co##unication influences the self-
regulatory strategies -6irschenbau# ./0>: ?illia#s =onovan 7 =o"ge A;;;1'
Many factors influence "iscre%ancy "etection an" the %ost-%roce"ure of self-
evaluating an" self-conse&uation in self-regulation -6aroly .//21' These factors inclu"e:
-a1 the "egree of increase in effortful behavior following fee"back regar"ing substan"ar"
%erfor#ance is greater for in"ivi"uals high in self-efficacy than those low in self-
efficacy' Self-efficacy theory %ostulates that broa" base" knowle"ge s%ecific #onitoring
"iscre%ancy "etection skills an" i#%le#entation are insufficient to insure goal-base"
%erfor#ance as witnesse" by the fact that %eo%le often "o not "o what they are %erfectly
ca%able of "oing an" thus hin"er goal attain#ent' That is self-efficacy a%%ears to be
self-%erce%tion of one(s own ca%ability to e$ecute the actions re&uire" to "eal with a
given task -Ban"ura ./08 .//<: Bouffar"-Bouchar" ./0/1' +owever whether self-
efficacy is influence" by beliefs about self-#onitoring ability %lanning #otivation
confi"ence in self-evaluation self-confi"ence in general %ersonality or "is%ositional
style re#ains unclear: -b1 %erfor#ance in achieve#ent situations varies with whether the
stan"ar"s are self-set or e$ternally "eter#ine": -c1 the "egree of #is#atch or
"is%lace#ent between %erfor#ance an" stan"ar" affects effort an" self-a%%raisal: -"1 the
effects of negative evaluation following substan"ar" %erfor#ance on co#%le$ tasks are
o%%osite to those foun" on si#%le tasks-na#ely %erfor#ance5efforts is re"uce": -e1
satisfaction is relate" not only to the absolute level of "iscre%ancy between %erfor#ance
an" stan"ar" but also to the rate at which the %erfor#ance changes over ti#e: -f1 social
co#%arisons can affect the self-rewar" %rocess as for e$a#%le when self-rewar" after
successful %erfor#ance is "i#inishe" if others are known to have %erfor#e" better an"
self-%unish#ent after %oor %erfor#ance is "i#inishe" if others are known to have
%erfor#e" worse'
Dverall the factors influencing effectiveness of self-evaluative Eu"g#ent an" self-
conse&uation are "eter#ine" by the i#%le#entation of "iscre%ancy "etection skills -i'e'
an array of #ental skills techni&ues1 but the initial ability of "etecting "iscre%ancies is a
result of effective self-#onitoring'
Meta-Skills Boun"ary !on"itions an" Self-Regulation )ailure
Meta-skills or #eta-cognition are those skills re&uire" in the self-regulatory %rocess
that govern the holistic coor"ination of self-regulation -Lee 7 !hen .//8: ?all Rei" 7
Baton .//;1' Me#ory retrieval an" correct te#%oral activation forethought self-
reflectiveness the ca%acity to learn vicariously use of i#agery an" language an"
e#otional an" intellectual intelligence are nee"e" in a coor"inate" a%%roach for
volitional free"o# to e$ercise self-influence in self-regulation' By cogni9ing what one is
"oing in self-regulation outsi"e the e$ecution of self-regulation strategies or the skills
about thinking about skills -Allen 7 Ar#our-Tho#as .//2: @acobson .//01 a greater
%ers%ective can be obtaine" to gui"e attitu"es an" beliefs concerning effective ways to
self-regulate' Moreover this #eans that the "egree of self-knowle"ge obtaine" in relation
to the given task fro# e$ecuting those skills to cogni9ing #etho"s of how to better
coor"inate those skills the #ore effective the overall self-regulation %lan' This is because
#eta-skills allow the in"ivi"ual to a"a%t to "ifferent situations in accor"ance with goal
"irecte" skills #ore freely through a %rocess of inner "evelo%#ent gui"e" by e$%erience
an" knowle"ge'
6aroly -.//21 allu"es to two for#s of boun"ary con"itions as ele#ents
su%eri#%osing the#selves on the self-regulation %rocess' )irstly inferential boun"aries
are e%iste#ic li#its i#%ose" u%on an in"ivi"ual i'e' even though it is assu#e" that self-
regulation is ulti#ately an in"ivi"ual effort acco#%lishe" alone #any social factors
contribute to self-regulation effectiveness' )or e$a#%le the %ursuit of goals often
involves other %eo%le(s assistance an" in fact one obEective #ay be to e$cite other(s
reactions to hel% one(s %erfor#ance' Thus goal attain#ent is a culture-s%ecific social
%roble#-solving %rocess as well as an in"ivi"ual %rocess'
Secon"ly o%erational boun"aries are the salient or %lausible li#its on the reali9ation
of self-regulation' )or e$a#%le %ersons high in self-efficacy an" in %ossession of the
re&uisite skills whether real or i#agine" will not work towar" goals in the absence of
incentives' This is because so#eone will generally not work to obtain so#ething they
believe they alrea"y %ossess' 4or can in"ivi"uals be e$%ecte" to %ersist in goal-"irecte"
behavior in the face of %owerful counter influences by significant others that is if there
is no realistic way to achieve results %eo%le will not generally even begin any goal
"irecte" work'
The self-regulatory failure is another factor in the self-regulatory %rocess' This is
i#%ortant because %eo%le(s efforts at self-#anage#ent even when %rofessionally
assiste" "o not always yiel" successful short- or long-ter# results -6irschenbau# ./0>1'
Self-regulation failure #ay occur if any of the above #entione" factors such as goal
setting self-#onitoring activation an" use of goals "iscre%ancy "etection an"
i#%le#entation self-evaluation self-conse&uation self-efficacy #eta-skills an"
boun"ary con"itions have been ina%%ro%riately i#%le#ente" or insufficiently utili9e"'
+owever other e$traneous variables such as social an" cultural environ#ents
%ersonality traits task "ifficulty e$%erience confi"ence level etc contribute to %ossible
failure #echanis#s' The e$act causes of self-regulatory failure "o not a%%ear governe"
by a single factor but #ost %robably entail #any factors acting in concert -To#arken 7
6irschenbau# ./0A1'
!onclusions
The basis of self-regulation is self-#onitoring' There are several issues that a%%ear to
have no consensus in the literature concerning self-#onitoring' These issues are:
.' =efining self-#onitoring: high an" low self-#onitors are categori9e" on "ifferent
bases' )or e$a#%le high self-#onitors %ossess #ore %ublic awareness than low self-
#onitors but low self-#onitors %ossess #ore %rivate awareness than high self-#onitors'
If the "efinition of self-#onitoring is the ability to observe oneself i'e' one(s
%sycho%hysiological %rocesses then high self-#onitors are actually low self-#onitors
an" low self-#onitors are high self-#onitors' This is because high self-#onitors concern
the#selves with #ore e$ternal than internal events an" low self-#onitors with internal
rather than e$ternal events' Therefore future research shoul" e$%lore the various facets of
%sycho%hysiological events fro# a %heno#enological %ers%ective'
A' Metho" of self-#onitoring: the #etho"s of current research in self-#onitoring
"is%lays #any "ifferent a%%roaches' The vali"ity an" reliability of self-re%orts
inventories an" &uestionnaires is "ebatable because of inherent an" constructe" biases of
culture #eaning an" subEectivity' *i"eota%e an" task %erfor#ance fee"back were also
offere" as a correlate with self-#onitoring5self-regulating ability' =uring all these "ata
gathering #etho"s no "istinctions were #a"e between real-ti#e an" reflective self-
#onitoring that #ay be i#%ortant for successful i#%le#entation of a self-regulation
%rogra#'
2' ?hat to self-#onitor: the reviewe" literature concerning s%orts an" #otor skill
%erfor#ance concentrate" the a%%lication of self-#onitoring to the s%ecific criteria of
task %erfor#ance i'e' self-#onitoring an" self-regulation was correlate" with
%erfor#ance outco#es' There a%%ears to be #ulti%le #in"s or centers -cognitive
e#otive an" so#atic1 o%erating in any self-regulation %rogra# an" the "ifferences of
these #in"s or centers were never eluci"ate" to subEects in the above#entione" stu"ies'
A%art fro# observing %hysical #ove#ent with the senses instructions concerning self-
#onitoring of s%ecific %sychological states with res%ect to intellectual an" e#otive
e$%erience was never e$%laine" clearly' This is an i#%ortant as%ect of the self-
#onitoring %rocess reflecte" by the Set +y%othesis' If the in"ivi"ual has never #onitore"
these states in the#selves then the %sychological backgroun" of %erfor#ance #ay never
co#e to self-awareness'
)ro# the above issues %oint -.1 relates to ter#inological "ifferences an" thus if
self-#onitoring is "efine" by its very nature as the action of F#onitoring selfF then a
consensus on this issue can bring its resolution' Boint -A1 relates to #etho"ological
a%%roaches in #easure#ent of self-#onitoring an" can only be resolve" through the
resolution of %oint -21 that concerns itself with the obEectives of self-#onitoring'
Therefore future research shoul" e$%lore the various %heno#enological as%ects of
%sychoso#atic function if #etho"ological a%%roaches to self-#onitoring are to be #ore
clearly "efine"'
References
Allen B' A' 7 Ar#our-Tho#as G' -.//21' !onstruct of #etacognition' @ournal of
Bsychology .A<-A1 A;2-A;<'
Anshel M' +' 7 Borter A' -.//8a1' Gfficacy of a #o"el for e$a#ining self-
regulation with elite an" non-elite #ale an" fe#ale co#%etitive swi##ers' International
@ournal of S%ort Bsychology A< 2A.-228'
Anshel M' +' 7 Borter A' -.//8b1' Self-regulatory characteristics of co#%etitive
swi##ers as a function of skill level an" gen"er' @ournal of S%ort an" Behaviour ./-A1
/.-..;'
Ban"ura A' -./081' Social foun"ations of thought an" action: a social cognitive
theory' Gnglewoo" !liffs 4ew @ersey: Brentice +all'
Ban"ura A' -.//<1' Self-efficacy: the e$ercise of control' 4ew Jork: )ree#an'
Bau#eister R' )' +eatherton T' )' 7 Tice =' M' -.//21' ?hen ego threats lea"
to self-regulation failure: negative conse&uences of high self-estee#' @ournal of
Bersonality an" Social Bsychology 8>-.1 .>.-.38'
Beaucha#% B' +' +alliwell ?' R' )ournier @' )' 7 6oestner R' -.//81' Gffects
of cognitive-behavioural %sychological skills training on the #otivation %re%aration an"
%utting %erfor#ance of novice golfers' The S%ort Bsychologist .; .3<-.<;'
Bell 6' )' 7 Batterson M' R' -./<01' A self-#onitoring techni&ue for
enhance#ent of swi##ing %erfor#ance' Swi##ing Techni&ue .>->1 .;2-.;8'
BIs 6' 7 Mechling +' -./0A1' The influence of structural task infor#ation an"
self-regulation on the ac&uisition of a co#%le$ skill in relation to %ractice con"itions an"
age' Scan"inavian @ournal of S%orts Sciences >-A1 3<-8.'
Bouffar"-Bouchar" T' -./0/1' Influence of self-efficacy on %erfor#ance in a
cognitive task' @ournal of Social Bsychology .2;-21 232-282'
Briggs S' R' 7 !heek @' M' -./001' Dn the nature of self-#onitoring: %roble#s
with assess#ent %roble#s with vali"ity' @ournal of Bersonality an" Social Bsychology
3>->1 882-8<0'
Brunelle @' B' @anelle !' M' 7 Tennant L' 6' -.///1' !ontrolling co#%etitive
anger a#ong #ale soccer %layers' @ournal of A%%lie" S%ort Bsychology .. A02-A/<'
!aligiuri B' M' 7 =ay =' *' -A;;;1' Gffects of self-#onitoring on technical
conte$tual an" assign#ent-s%ecific %erfor#ance' ,rou% an" Drgani9ation Manage#ent
A3-A1 .3>-.<>'
!ar#ack M' A' 7 Martens R' -./</1' Measuring co##it#ent to running: a
survey of runners( attitu"es an" #ental states' @ournal of S%ort Bsychology . A3->A'
!hatterEee A' +unt @' M' 7 6ernan @' B' -.///1' ?hat self-#onitors "on(t
#onitor' Berce%tual an" Motor Skills 00 >0>'
!hen =' 7 Singer R' 4' -.//A1' Self-regulation an" cognitive strategies in s%ort
%artici%ation' International @ournal of S%ort Bsychology A2 A<<-2;;'
=ish#an R' 6' -./0>1' Motivation an" e$ercise a"herence' In @' Silva 7 R'
?einberg -G"s'1 Bsychological foun"ations of s%ort -%%' >A;->2>1' !ha#%aign Illinois:
+u#an 6inetics'
)errari M' -.//81' Dbserving the observer: self-regulation in the observational
learning of #otor skills' =evelo%#ental Review .8 A;2-A>;'
)errari M' Binar" A' Rei" L' 7 Bouffar"-Bouchar" T' -.//.1' The relationshi%
between e$%ertise an" self-regulation in #ove#ent %erfor#ance: so#e theoretical issues'
Berce%tual an" Motor Skills <A .2/-.3;'
,ill =' L' -./081' Attitu"es an" s%ort behaviour Bsychological "yna#ics of s%ort
-%%' /3-.;/1' !ha#%aign Illinois: +u#an 6inetics'
,ra9iano ?' ,' 7 Bryant ?' +' M' -.//01' Self-#onitoring an" the self-
attribution of %ositive e#otions' @ournal Bersonality an" Social Bsychology <>-.1 A3;-
A8.'
,reen-=e#ers I' Belletier L' ,' Stewart =' ,' 7 ,ushue 4' R' -.//01' !o%ing
with the less interesting as%ects of training: towar" a #o"el of interest an" #otivation
enhance#ent in in"ivi"ual s%orts' Basic an" A%%lie" Social Bsychology A;->1 A3.-A8.'
+ar"y L' Mullen R' 7 @ones ,' -.//81' 6nowle"ge an" conscious control of
#otor actions un"er stress' British @ournal of Bsychology 0< 8A.-828'
@acobson R' -.//01' Teachers i#%roving learning using #etacognition with self-
#onitoring learning strategies' G"ucation ..0->1 3</-30<'
@ohnston-D(!onnor G' @' 7 6irschenbau# =' S' -./081' So#ething succee"s like
success: %ositive self-#onitoring for unskille" golfers' !ognitive Thera%y an" Research
.;-.1 .A2-.28'
6ane T' =' Marks M' A' Caccaro S' @' 7 Blair *' -.//81' Self-efficacy
%ersonal goals an" wrestlers( self-regulation' @ournal of S%ort 7 G$ercise Bsychology
.0 28->0'
6aroly B' -.//21' Mechanis#s of self-regulation: a syste#s view' Annual Review
of Bsychology >> A2-3A'
6i# M' S' -.///1' Self-#onitoring an" in"ivi"ual e$%ectation of %erfor#ance-
nor#s in s%ort tea#s' Berce%tual an" Motor Skills 0/ ..A/-..2A'
6i# M' S' 7 !ho I' !' -.//81' Self-#onitoring an" %erce%tion of %erfor#ance
nor#s of s%ort tea#s' Berce%tual an" Motor Skills 02 .A/-.2;'
6irschenbau# =' S' -./0>1' Self-regulation an" s%ort %sychology: nurturing an
e#erging sy#biosis' @ournal of S%ort Bsychology 8 .3/-.02'
6irschenbau# =' S' -./031' Self-regulation an" s%ort %sychology: where the twain
#eet' The Behavior Thera%ist 0 .2.-.23'
6irschenbau# =' S' 7 Bale R' M' -./0>1' !ognitive-behavioural skills in s%orts:
a%%lication to golf an" s%eculations about soccer' In ?' )' Straub 7 @' M' ?illia#s
-G"s'1 !ognitive s%ort %sychology -%%' 0>-/<1' Lansing 4ew Jork: S%ort Science
Associates'
6irschenbau# =' S' Dr"#an A' M' To#arken A' @' 7 +olt9bauer R' -./0A1'
Gffects of "ifferential self-#onitoring an" level of #astery on s%orts %erfor#ance: brain
%ower bowling' !ognitive Thera%y an" Research 8-21 223-2>A'
6irschenbau# =' S' 7 ?ittrock =' A' -.//;1' Still searching for effective
criticis# inoculation %roce"ures: an e$a#%le of the value of re%lication an" %rocess
analyses in a%%lie" s%ort %sychology research' A%%lie" S%ort Bsychology A .<3-.03'
6irschenbau# =' S' ?ittrock ='A' S#ith R'@' 7 Monson ?' -./0>1' !riticis#
inoculation training: conce%t in search of strategy' @ournal of S%ort Bsychology 8 <<-/2'
6itsantas A' 7 Ci##er#an B' @' -.//01' Self-regulation of #otoric learning: a
strategic cycle view' @ournal of A%%lie" S%ort Bsychology .; AA;-A2/'
6rosnick @' A' 7 Se"iki"es !' -.//;1' Self-#onitoring an" self-%rotective biases
in use of consensus infor#ation to %re"ict one(s own behaviour' @ournal of Bersonality
an" Social Bsychology 30->1 <.0-<A0'
Lee 6' 7 !hen L' -.//81' The "evelo%#ent of #etacognitive knowle"ge of basic
#otor skill: walking' @ournal of ,enetic Bsychology .3<-21 28.-2<3'
Lester =' -.//<1' Multi%le selves an" self-#onitoring' Berce%tual an" Motor Skills
0> /20'
Leventhal ,' 7 Sisco +' -.//81' !orrelations a#ong fiel"
"e%en"ence5in"e%en"ence locus of control an" self-#onitoring' Berce%tual an" Motor
Skills 028;>-8;8'
Li )' 7 Chang J' -.//01' Measuring self-#onitoring ability an" %ro%ensity: a
two-"i#ensional !hinese scale' @ournal of Social Bsychology .20-81 <30-<83'
Macrae !' 4' Bo"enhausen ,' *' 7 Milne A' B' -.//01' Saying no to unwante"
thoughts: self-focus an" the regulation of #ental life' @ournal of Bersonality an" Social
Bsychology <>-21 3<0-30/'
Martin M' B' 7 Anshel M' +' -.//31' Gffect of self-#onitoring strategies an" task
co#%le$ity on #otor %erfor#ance an" affect' @ournal of S%ort an" G$ercise Bsychology
.< .32-.<;'
Muraven M' Tice =' M' 7 Bau#eister R' )' -.//01' Self-control as li#ite"
resource: regulatory "e%letion %atterns' @ournal of Bersonality an" Social Bsychology
<>-21 <<>-<0/'
4asby ?' -./0/1' Brivate self-consciousness self-awareness an" the reliability of
self-re%orts' @ournal of Bersonality an" Social Bsychology 38-81 /3;-/3<'
4ascon @' 7 Sch#i"t R' A' -./<.1' The activity-set hy%othesis for war#-u%
"ecre#ent' @ournal of Motor Behaviour 2 .-.3'
4i"effer R' M' -./0.1' The ethics an" %ractice of a%%lie" s%ort %sychology' Ithaca
4ew Jork: Mouve#ent'
4olan" M' B' -./0/1' The effects of self-#onitoring an" reinforce#ent on e$ercise
a"herence' Research Kuarterly for G$ercise an" S%ort 8;-21 A.8-AA>'
Bra%avessis +' ,rove @' R' Mc4air B' @' 7 !able 4' T' -.//A1' Self-regulation
training state an$iety an" s%ort %erfor#ance: a %sycho%hysiological case stu"y' S%ort
Bsychologist 8-21 A.2-AA/'
Rekers ,' A' 7 *arni @' ?' -./<<1' Self-regulation of gen"er-role behaviours: a
case stu"y' @ournal of Behavioural Thera%y an" G$%eri#ental Bsychiatry 0 >A<->2A'
Ri""le B' 6' -.//;1' Attitu"es beliefs behavioural intentions an" behaviour of
wo#en an" #en to regular Eogging' Research Kuarterly for G$ercise an" S%ort 3. 882-
88<'
Ryska T' A' -.//01' !ognitive-behavioural strategies an" %reco#%etitive an$iety
a#ong recreational athletes' The Bsychological Recor" >0->1 8/<-<;>'
Singer R' 4' !auraugh @' +' Tennant L' 6' Mur%hey M' !hen =' 7 Li"or R'
-.//.1' Attention an" "istractors: consi"erations for enhancing s%ort %erfor#ances'
International @ournal of S%ort Bsychology AA /3-..>'
Sny"er M' -./</1' Self-#onitoring %rocesses' In L' Berkowit9 -G"'1 A"vances in
e$%eri#ental social %sychology -*ol' .A %%' 03-.A31' 4ew Jork: Aca"e#ic Bress'
Sny"er M' -./0<1' Bublic a%%earances5%rivate realities: the %sychology of self-
#onitoring' San )rancisco: )ree#an'
Sny"er M' 7 ,angesta" S' -./081' Dn the nature of self-#onitoring: #atters of
assess#ent #atters of vali"ity' @ournal of Bersonality an" Social Bsychology 3. .A3-
.2/'
Thiese 6' G' 7 +u""leston S' -.///1' The use of %sychological skills by fe#ale
collegiate swi##ers' @ournal of S%ort Behaviour AA->1 8;A-8;0'
To#arken A' @' 7 6irschenbau# =' S' -./0A1' Self-regulatory failure: accentuate
the %ositive' @ournal of Bersonality an" Social Bsychology >2-21 30>-3/<'
*ealey R' S' +ayashi S' ?' ,arner-+ol#an M' 7 ,iacobbi B' -.//01' Sources
of s%ort-confi"ence: conce%tualisation an" instru#ent "evelo%#ent' @ournal of S%ort 7
G$ercise Bsychology A; 3>-0;'
?all A' G' Rei" ,' 7 Baton @' -.//;1' The syn"ro#e of %hysical awkwar"ness'
In ,' Rei" -G"'1 Broble#s in #ove#ent control -%%' A02-2.81' A#ster"a#: Glsevier'
?ebb ?' M' Marsh 6' L' Schnei"er#an ?' 7 =avis B' -./0/1' Interaction
between self-#onitoring an" #ani%ulate" states of self-awareness' @ournal of Bersonality
an" Social Bsychology 38-.1 <;-0;'
?einberg R' S' -./0>1' The relationshi% between e$trinsic rewar"s an" intrinsic
#otivation' In @' M' Silva 7 R' S' ?einberg -G"s'1 Bsychological foun"ations of s%ort
-%%' .<<-.0<1' !ha#%aign Illinois: +u#an 6inetics'
?illia#s 6' @' =onovan @' @' 7 =o"ge T' L' -A;;;1' Self-regulation of
%erfor#ance: goal establish#ent an" goal revision %rocesses in athletes' +u#an
Berfor#ance .2-A1 .3/-.0;'
Caichkowsky L' =' -./0>1' Attentional styles' In ?' )' Straub 7 @' M' ?illia#s
-G"s'1 !ognitive s%ort %sychology' Lansing 4ew Jork: S%ort Science Associates'
Ci##er#an B' @' 7 6itsantas A' -.//81' Self-regulate" learning of a #otoric
skill: the role of goal setting an" self-#onitoring' @ournal of A%%lie" S%ort Bsychology 0
8;-<3'

?e look forwar" to your co##ents an" fee"back' Si#%ly e-#ail Athletic Insight'

Mental +ealth 4et Awar" ?inner
!o%yright -c1 A;;A Athletic Insight Inc'
ISS4 .328-;>2.