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First appeared in slightly different form in Cruising World magazine, September 1997,
entitled "To Thine Own Chines Be True"
Aluminum For Boats
Copyright 1997 - 2009 Michael Kasten

Aluminu
m is a
sheet
material
with
virtues
aplenty.
To honor
them
best, I
advocate
simplicity
, ample
framing...
and yes,
even
single
chine hull
shapes!
Why Build An Aluminum Boat?
http://www.kastenmarine.com/aluminum.htm

For things that go bump in the night. For ease of construction. For longevity. For good
resale value. For the benefit of being able to create a custom design and build it
economically, without the huge penalty of having to build a mold first, as with fiberglass.
For freedom from the stench of fiberglass, and from the dread fiberglass boat pox. For
repair-ability. For lightness and strength. For the competitive edge in performance. And
most importantly, for the security of safe cruising.
It takes over 60,000 pounds per square inch (psi) to tear apart a chunk of mild steel, and
30,000 psi to deform the same piece; to make it yield. With aluminum, around 45,000 psi
will tear it apart, and around 35,000 psi will deform it. Yes, you read that correctly: size for
size, aluminum has a higher yield strength. In these facts lie the extreme benefits of metal
for hull construction: The "plastic range" of either metal is quite high, so the material can
take a terrific beating without failure.
Aluminum is light, strong, corrosion-resistant, non-sparking and weldable. Because
aluminum is not abrasion-resistant, it can be cut with carbide tools. Aluminum is subject to
electrolysis, pitting and crevice corrosion, but these liabilities can be managed as long as
the installation of dissimilar metals and electrical items are correctly done. After that, it is a
matter of attending to these matters during the life of the boat.
In terms of seakindliness, some boat shapes may be better if built in steel. Aluminum's
extreme lightness can introduce a faster pitching and rolling motion in some hulls. For
example, very beamy boats will exhibit a gentler roll if built in steel. Fairly narrow or light-
displacement boats, which tend to have a narrower waterplane and less inherent form
stability, will benefit most from aluminum construction. These are of course
generalizations. Given a blank sheet to begin a design, the roll behavior will be considered
along with the choice of materials.
In terms of size, one can successfully build a steel boat for coastwise cruising and serious
blue-water sailing down to around 30 feet LOD. Below that, the steel vessel will either
have to be built with excessive displacement or with quite thin plate that will be more
difficult to build due to distortion while welding.
An aluminum bare hull, built to the same strength standard, will weigh roughly 45% less
than the same hull in steel. As a result, if high strength is of the highest priority, the
aluminum boat can be built to the same structural weight as the steel vessel, and then be
considerably stronger.
We can therefore create aluminum cruising boats down to, say, 22 feet. One could still
build a safe aluminum boat in a size smaller than that, but who'd want to go to sea in it?

On Cost

The aluminum to build a bare hull costs just under twice as much as the mild steel to build
the same design. But aluminum is faster to work with, so the savings in labor helps even the
score. The labor saved can be substantial since aluminum can be cut with common
carpentry tools and is welded much faster than steel.
Another significant advantage with aluminum is that there is no need to sandblast or paint
the interior. You do have to insulate an aluminum hull, but that won't ordinarily require
sandblasting. Painting the exterior of an aluminum boat is unnecessary, representing
another big savings.
After you've factored in the added costs of painting steel, the margin for building an
aluminum hull drops to being a very minor amount when compared to building in steel. As
a percentage of the entire construction project, the additional cost of the aluminum becomes
very slight indeed. Once built, maintenance on an aluminum boat is less expensive, and
resale value higher. These factors more or less even the score between the two materials.
New construction methods have trimmed metal hull building costs substantially. The most
dramatic savings can be effected by computer lofting, and then computer cutting the actual
parts for the hull. Essentially, the builder receives a "boat kit" ready for assembly.
A parallel method, also ideally done by computer, involves cutting and fitting the plate
only, by itself, without a prior support structure.
One last note about cost: When comparing like for like, boat costs tends to vary more or
less directly with displacement (not length), assuming a given level of complexity in the
design. Displacement, and therefore cost, varies as the cube of the overall dimensions.

On Hull Shape
Aesthetics are a personal thing. For my own part, I am attracted to the single-chine shape
for metal boats because metal is a flat-sheet material. When building a boat using sheet
material, it makes the most sense to think in terms of that material's characteristics and how
one may optimize a hull design without incurring extra labor.
In metal, a single-chine hull is easier and less costly to build than one with radius or
multiple chines or one that is fully rounded. Further, with a good design there is no
performance penalty with a single-chine hull. The slight gain in wetted surface, if any, can
be offset by slightly greater sail area, made possible by slightly greater ability to carry sail
due to the form stability provided by the chine.


This line drawing
and the ones that
follow demonstrate
degrees of design
complexity for
sheet materials,
from single chine
to a fully rounded
hull. I prefer the
simplicity and
economy of a
single-chine metal
hull, as shown
here. In my view,
it is a more honest
shape for a metal
boat.
Further, the reputed seakindliness of a radius-chine or round-bottom hull can be approached
in a single-chine hull by giving it a slightly more "slack" shape. A big advantage of the
single-chine shape is economy; the cost to build a rounded or radius-chine hull is
considerably higher due to the work involved with the added shaping and welding.
A single chine can look quite appealing, especially when used with a more traditional
style. In my view, it makes the most sense to take any extra money available and use this
to make a graceful single-chine boat longer rather than radius chine or multiple chine,
thereby netting some real speed and comfort benefits in other words, a bigger boat for
the same money, with inherently greater speed potential due to the increased length.

Multi-chine
designs
allow
building
with flat
plate,
without
requiring
that any
plates be
rolled.
Although
considerably
more time
consuming
than a

simple
single chine,
these shapes
remain
within the
construction
realm of the
amateur or
one-off
builder.


Radius-chine hulls
employ flat panels
everywhere except
for a narrow
'rounded' plate that
joins topside to
bottom, rendering
a quasi-rounded
hull without
requiring that
every metal sheet
be rolled; only
those at the
radius.
However... it will
always be
recognized as a
radius chine
vessel, and not a
true rounded hull
shape. Therefore
if a radius chine is
being considered,
there is very little
reason not to
simply take the
next step and go to
a true rounded
shape, as follows...



A fully-rounded
metal hull is
beautiful to behold.
They need not be
expensive to build
if correctly
designed, where
only the minimum
amount of plating
needs to be rolled.
These are not
"radius chine"
boats. They are
instead just easily
plated, rounded
hulls with no
reverse curvature,
so these hulls can
be built
economically.
Radius-chine and multi-chine boats cost about the same amount to build, and a true
rounded hull - provided it's designed correctly - need not be any more time consuming nor
any more expensive to build than a multi-chine or radius-chine shape. And as a very big
bonus... it will look vastly better!
It is generally our first choice to make use of a single chine hull shape for metal boats. If
for some reason a chine shape is not desired, we nearly always find that a well-designed
rounded hull is the next best choice. It will share the same ease of construction as a multi-
chine or radius chine vessel, but with a little bit of transverse curvature in the topsides and
bottom.
Designing true rounded metal hulls for ease of plating is not at all difficult. Our goal with a
rounded metal hull is that the topsides and bottom will not require any pre-forming at all,
there being just enough curvature to sweeten the appearance, but not so much as to require
rolling. In other words, 90% or more of the vessel is still able to be plated using flat sheets,
and without any fuss at all.
One excellent technique when building a completely rounded metal hull involves using
"joggled" plate seams, akin to "lap strake" planking in wood. According to this method, an
offset is pressed in along one edge of the plate. The offset is just enough to take the
thickness of the plate below it. Each plate is a strip about 12 to 18 inches wide. Bernard
Moitessier's steel boat Joshua was built that way, and it certainly withstood the ultimate
test...!

Alternately, the plating can be lapped by instead jogging the frames to match the plate
contour. Just above the lap, the frame jogs out to meet the plate above, etc. These lapped
plate methods provide a much easier fit-up, and a much more easily achieved weld seam. If
"lined off" nicely, as one would do with wooden planking, they can also look very good.
The plate overlap creates its own longitudinal stringer and reinforcement.
With any of these types including the fully rounded metal hull, as can be seen in each of the
examples above, it is most economical in terms of labor if the keel is attached as an
appendage. In other words given the strength of metal, there is no particular need to create
a large reverse-curved garboard area merely for the sake of strength, as would indeed be the
case with a glass or wooden hull. This saves an enormous amount of construction time,
and is therefore the most practical approach.

On "Frameless" Construction
With the notion of metal's extreme strength, we have come to a point of faith which has at
times created a misconception: There is potentially misleading and incorrect information
pandered by some in the implied promise of "frameless" metal boats. The concept of
frameless metal boats is attractive, but flawed.
The definition of "frameless" must be clarified
Achieving the required strength in a metal vessel without using framing imposes an
enormous weight penalty due to the required increase in plate thickness. If one applies
well-proven engineering principles to the problem, one quickly discovers that frames are
simply a requirement. Designers may employ devious strategies, such as using bulkheads,
interior furniture or other features to achieve the required reinforcement, but responsibly
designed and built metal boats, whether of steel or aluminum, definitely do use framing.

Despite
recent talk
about
"frameless"
construction
,
responsibly
designed
and built
metal boats
do use
framing.
The added
plate
thickness

required to
forego
framing
completely
would
render a
heavy hull
indeed.
Here, just
three out of
a total of 17
transverse
frames for
this design
are
illustrated.
Without the aid of metal internal framing, many metal boats are successfully plated, and the
plating then is welded together prior to the addition of the frames. This construction
technique renders a high degree of fairness.
Other methods use a "folded plate" strategy, with perhaps one large plate per side, to make
the plating much faster to erect. To give the vessel adequate strength in the final product,
though, frames must be added before the hull can be considered finished.
Many so-called "frameless" boats make extensive use of longitudinals, which, in "folded-
plate" construction, are often pre-welded to the plate. Bulkheads or other internal transverse
structures are used to reduce the span of these longitudinals. Strictly speaking, then, these
boats do have framing, and with good design, the framing will be adequate to the task.
Classification societies, such as the American Bureau of Shipping, Lloyds, and Det Norske
Veritas are somewhat conservative in their approach, but working through their formulae
demonstrates the benefit of framing, primarily to bring the weight of the vessel within a
reasonable range while maintaining the required hull rigidity.
Studies of failures in aluminum crew boats and offshore supply vessels show the need for
being very conservative in terms of the allowable areas of unsupported plating, in terms of
scantlings for framing, and in terms of the welding between frames and plating.
Most often, the best framing style makes use of a series of strong transverse frames
combined with longitudinals which provide the primary support for the plating. The longs,
then, are held by the frames.
In my view, the frames in a metal boat should always be located where required by the
interior bulkheads. Bulkheads can then be bolted directly to these web frames, and all is as
it should be, simple and strong.

With a few tricks of the trade up your sleeve, an absolutely fair hull is the result.
Some boats are built "Frames First" while others are built by applying the "Plating First" as
described above. For further reading about the various advantages of each, please see our
online article: Metal Boat Building Methods.

On Protection And Coatings
Aluminum alloys for use on boats are generally limited to the 5000 and 6000 series. These
two alloy groups are both corrosion resistant in the marine environment due to the
formation of a tough aluminum oxide.
Aluminum alloys are subject to crevice corrosion, since they depend on the presence of
oxygen to repair themselves. What this means is that wherever aluminum is in contact with
anything, even another piece of aluminum or zinc, it must be painted with an adhesive
waterproof paint such as epoxy, or it must be protected with a waterproof adhesive bedding,
or both. A plastic wafer alone as an isolator is not enough. Salt water must be prevented
from entering the crevice; otherwise corrosion will result.
Anodizing, a process of electrically causing the formation of a tough oxide film on the
surface of aluminum, slows pitting, but anodizing will not prevent pitting or crevice
corrosion.
Aluminum is very active galvanically and will sacrifice itself to any other metal it contacts
either directly or indirectly. Aluminum is anodic to everything except zinc and magnesium,
and must be electrically isolated from other metals. In this case, paint, bedding, and a non-
conductive plastic or rubber isolator should all be used together. Unlike tankers, small
metal boats are not designed with an appreciable corrosion allowance.
In terms of the paint system, aluminum boats are dealt with more easily than steel boats.
Aluminum must be painted wherever things are mounted to the aluminum surface, and
below the waterline if left in the water year-round. Otherwise, marine aluminum alloys do
not require painting at all.
Present technology for protecting metal boats is plain and simple: epoxy paint. Once the
metal is protected with a 12- to 16-mil dry-film thickness of epoxy, it can then be top
coated with whatever is appropriate to the situation.
The top coats can be, for example, foam, enamel, linear polyurethane, or bottom paint.
More durable top-coats better protect the investment in epoxy. To assure that this
"secondary system" sticks to the epoxy barrier, use a standard extended-recoat-time epoxy
primer, which makes an excellent tie-coat.

For anti-fouling paint, the excellent offerings from the E-Paint Company should be of
interest to metal-boat owners. Called "No-Foul," these paints release hydrogen peroxide to
prevent marine growth, eliminating the inherent problems that accompany copper-based
paints on aluminum hulls.
Whether on steel or on aluminum surfaces, paint preparation is critical. Thorough cleaning
and sandblasting provide the best surface for adhesion of paint or bedding. Alternately for
aluminum, cleaning and then grinding with a coarse 16-grit disk will provide enough tooth
for the paint to stay put. If the surface finish must be extra fine, as on an aluminum spar,
then a thorough sanding, cleaning and etching with a product like Alodine before painting
will give good results.
The interior of an aluminum boat does not require painting. It would be the ultimate,
though, to epoxy prime the interior if a blown-in urethane foam will be used. A chromated
vinyl-acid "wash primer" would be a very acceptable second choice inside, in order to
provide the best surface for adhesion for the foam.
Regardless of the bottom paint used, zincs must be used to control stray-current corrosion,
to which we can become victim with a metal boat, even without an electrical system! With
a scratch at the bow, and another at the stern, the boat itself becomes the preferred path for
any ambient currents in the water. In the best of all possible worlds, there would be no stray
currents in our harbors, but that is not reality.
Zinc anodes should always be used on an aluminum boat, and generally in the same
quantities as with a steel boat, in order to prevent stray-current corrosion. The quantity and
placement of zincs are discovered by experiment over time, and will differ from one marina
to the next.
As an example, on a 40-foot metal hull, the best scheme is to start with two zincs forward,
two aft, and one on each side of the rudder. With a larger boat, say over 45 feet, an
additional pair of zincs amidships would be appropriate. Surface area, not zinc volume, is
the important factor.
After the first few months, inspect the zincs. If they appear active but plenty of material
remains, the zincs are doing their job. If they are seriously wasted, the area as well as the
weight of zinc should be increased.
Of course, welding zincs on is best, but for an aluminum boat, the zincs will instead usually
be bolted to studs welded onto the hull plate, or bolted using stainless bolts into a heavy
bolting plate welded to the hull. Good electrical connection between the zinc and the hull is
imperative.

The Bottom Line

Can aluminum compete with fiberglass as a production hull material?
Jimmy Cornell's Ocean Cruising Survey, a valuable indicator of trends among world-
voyaging cruisers, shows that metal boats are on the increase. A metal hull was the number-
one wish of those with other hull materials. "My next boat will be metal..." was heard over
and over, particularly by those who were already cruising aboard a metal boat.
It is said among dedicated blue water cruisers in the South Pacific, "50% of the boats are
metal; the rest of them are from the United States...." Although it may seem so at times,
this statement is fortunately not 100% true!!
In terms of cost, we usually observe that displacement is more important than length.
Aluminum is the ideal material for building a lightweight boat.
The second cost determinant is complexity. This reaches into all aspects of the design,
including hull shape. The simpler the design, the lower the cost. For example, a well-
designed single-chine hull will perform extremely well, and the savings will allow a
slightly longer boat. Dollar for dollar, this translates into a *real* performance advantage.
With correctly applied protective coatings where needed, adequate zincs, a proper electrical
system, and good care over time, an aluminum boat will last indefinitely.

Further Considerations...?
We believe in metal as the ultimate boat structure, and as a result we have created quite a
number of metal boat designs. To review them, please see our Sail Boats Gallery and our
Power Boats Gallery. We have also created quite a number of Prototype Designs, most of
which are also intended for metal structure. Sail or power - mono or multi-hull - if the
structure is well-designed and well built, the resulting boat will be excellent.
We are often asked about one metal vs. another - most commonly steel vs. aluminum.
Despite the excellent case we have made for aluminum above, we do not have a distinct
preference. There are so many varying factors that will contribute to making that decision
for each boat, and for each owner. Some boats are designed for one material only, other
boats can make use of either.
In general, any of our designs that have been developed for steel can very quickly be re-
specified for construction in aluminum. The design conversion from steel to aluminum is
done for a minimal extra cost. Where NC cutting files exist for a steel boat, they will need
to be re-done in order to work for aluminum structure, and there will be a cost incurred for
that conversion.
Designs originally developed for aluminum structure are not as readily converted, since
they will have been designed specifically to save weight. To convert an aluminum design

to steel will ordinarily require a re-work of the hull shape in order to support the extra
weight of steel.
If a conversion of one of our designs from steel to aluminum or vice versa is of interest,
please inquire.
For more information on the question of hull materials, please see our web articles on the
following:
Metal Boats for Blue Water | Aluminum for Boats | Aluminum vs. Steel | Steel Boats |
Composites for Boats | The Evolution of a Wooden Sailing Type
Copyright 1997 - 2009 Michael Kasten

Direct Quote from an aluminum boat owner...
As an owner since 5 years of an aluminum boat I could not agree more with your
preference for this material. She is a great sailboat and requires very little in the way of
maintenance. I do a lot more reef snorkeling than the paint, polish, varnish and wax guys!
--Peter Kminek
Please see the Plans List page to review our available Boat Plans.

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All Web Site Graphics, Layout, and Written Content at this Domain Created
by Michael Kasten.
All Graphic and Written Materials at this Domain Copyright 1989 - 2010
Michael Kasten.
All Content Registered with US Library of Congress and US Copyright
Office.
Copyright Violations will be Prosecuted. All Rights Reserved.




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Frames First... or Plates First...?
A Discussion of Metal Boat Building Methods
There are a number of approaches one can take when fabricating a new metal boat. Among
them are methods that erect the framing first and apply the plating to that structure
afterward, and others that favor pre-planning the plate shapes in order to create the hull
shape before the frames are introduced inside. The following is a discussion of the various
approaches taken, their rationale and the pros and cons of each.
With extreme luck, the following will be taken as intended - purely for information's sake.
I hope also it will shed light on what has in the amateur metal boat building world become
at times a heated debate.
You can review our approach to the various metal boat building methods in our article on
Aluminum for Boats where they are discussed in detail, including the various pros and cons
of each approach toward fabricating. In that article and among the links provided there
you'll also find our thoughts on boat shape itself: single vs. multi-chine vs. radius chine vs.
rounded hull, etc.
Rather than to discuss the merits of different hull shapes here, we will limit ourselves to the
question of Build Methods.
In this article I will divide the various metal boat building approaches into two broad
categories of BUILD METHODS, and then I will address a few basic notions regarding
STRUCTURE.
http://www.kastenmarine.com/frames_first.htm

The main thing I hope to accomplish here is to attempt to define and to therefore help the
reader to understand the various different terms being used when discussing different
boatbuilding methods.
Here are several thoughts that I hope may help clarify the picture...

Structure
First, in terms of STRUCTURE, we have in recent years encountered several proponents of
so-called "frameless" construction. Unfortunately, when the word "frameless" is used it is
commonly mis-construed to imply that a vessel can do entirely without internal structure.
Regardless of the various approaches taken toward fabricating and plate development for
boats, there will always be a requirement for hull plate reinforcements, whether they occur
in the form of floors, longitudinal stringers, bulkheads, web frames, mast steps, engine
girders, tank faces, deck beams, or whatever. These are all various types of internal
reinforcements, any of which will legitimately qualify for the term "framing."
The very notion of "frameless" metal boat construction is by definition therefore a flawed
and incorrect concept insofar as it refers to the possibility of a completed vessel being able
to exist entirely without frames or other internal metal structure.
While it is certainly possible to increase plate thickness in order to increase frame spacing
and to therefore reduce the number of frames, it is not at all desirable to eliminate frames
altogether. Even with aluminum, the thickness of plate required to completely eliminate
frames would end up weighing far too much (and would cost too much) to be practical.
Our approach to the so-called "frameless" metal boat construction methods are addressed
thoroughly within our article on Aluminum for Boats, in our article on Metal Boats for
Blue Water and below under the heading, The Question of Pedigree...

Build Methods
In terms of BUILD METHODS, we observe the following broad categories:
1. "Framing First" with the plating being patterned and applied to the already
erected frame, and
2. "Plating First" with the frames patterned to the already erected and welded
plating - often making use of temporary moulds to help guide the plate and
maintain the intended hull shape.

This latter method is often incorrectly referred to as being "frameless" because the plating
occurs prior to the frames being introduced. This is most unfortunate terminology, is
inaccurate and therefore misleading, and is all too often cause for misunderstanding and
unnecessary argument.

The "Frame First" Method
With the Frame-First method, the hull shape is controlled by first having a rigid
"armature" over which the plating is applied, in other words: the frames. The primary
advantage of this method is that it allows exact control over the shape. As a result it is by
far the most common approach to metal boat building, whether being used for ships (nearly
100% used) or for yachts (possibly 90% used if Europe is included).
We'll limit our discussion to small yachts here (boats under around 60 feet), so we need not
involve methods used for larger vessels such as modular construction.
In order to achieve a fair exterior hull surface, the "frame-first" method requires that the
builder be skilled in the lofting, the set-up of the frames, the patterning of the plate, and the
final weld-up of the hull. It is of course exacting work to achieve this level of precision and
fairness in the completed hull, but the attention to detail is well worth it in the end..
The question then becomes, "How shall we save the builder time...?"
With the "frame-first" method, quite a lot of the builder's fabricating time can be saved by
having all the frames and plating pre-planned by CAD and pre-cut by NC Cutting via
plasma or water jet. What is NC...? It literally means "Numerically Controlled."
The high level of precision offered by NC Cutting takes the traditional "frame-first" method
to the next level... When using pre-cut metal parts, there is no lofting needed, and there is
no cutting required for the frames or plates or other key structures. NC Cutting therefore
provides substantial efficiencies to the builder, thus considerable time savings, in addition
to offering a degree of accuracy that is simply unachievable by manual lofting and cutting.
While NC Cutting can effect substantial labor savings in the hands of a professional
builder, it has the potential to save even more time in the hands of an amateur builder.
Why? Mainly this is due to the elimination of quite number of "What do I do now?"
questions, and the relatively huge amount of time expended on them - inevitable for a first
time builder when having to loft, plan, spile, and cut every part of the structure.
Needless to say, the NC approach requires a high degree of skill and actual building
experience on the part of the vessel's designer in order to be able to pattern all the frames,
plates, and other parts correctly. It also requires a high degree of accuracy on the part of
the builder who must then place everything as intended, i.e. exactly where it belongs.

Ordinarily when using NC Cutting, aside from just the frame shapes being pre-defined, the
frames will also have mouse holes for weld-throughs, and will have notches pre-cut to
receive the longitudinal stringers. Additionally, there will be all the other parts such as the
engine girders, tank faces and lids, stem and horn piece shapes, mast steps, deck beams,
bulkheads, and of course all the exterior plating - all of it pre-cut to an accurate fit-up.
The result of these efforts is that since all parts are machine-cut to an exacting shape, and
the hull can be erected with precision, the builder - amateur or otherwise - can avoid the
distortion problems associated with poor fit-up of plates.
For further information about the NC Cutting process and how NC Cut Files are developed,
we have posted a number of NC cutting articles online.

The "Plate First" Method
With the "Plating-First" method, the plate outlines are precisely defined. They are either
developed manually, or from a 3D physical scale model, or they are defined using a 3D
CAD model. Then the plates are cut to their perimeter outline, and arranged so they can be
pulled into place one by one and tacked together, and finally the plates are welded up. This
much can sometimes be done without using internal or external moulds as a guide, but
more commonly moulds of some sort will be used. The moulds can be frame segments or
they can be other types of temporary guides to the shape.
After the hull plate seams are welded up, the frames are patterned to the interior of the hull
plating, then the frames are installed and welded in place.
The primary advantage of placing the frames afterward is to allow the plating to be welded
up first without there being any potential distortion introduced by the presence of a
relatively un-yielding frame inside. This can produce an extremely fair hull, and can do so
even without there being much skill involved on the part of the builder, thus although it has
enormous appeal to amateur or back-yard builders, it also has substantial appeal to many
professional boat builders. It is for example the most common method in use throughout
the Netherlands, where there is a very highly developed metal boat building industry.
The main disadvantages of the "plate first" approach are:
That unless the plating is patterned very accurately there can be unpredicted variations in
the shape of the hull, there being no internal frame to control the overall shape, nor to
provide an indication that the hull shape may be turning out differently than intended;
and
That the actual shape of the hull must conform to what is a readily developable plate
shape, limiting the design somewhat.

This "hull shape" restriction is the only significant drawback to the "plate-first" method. It
just means that the designer must use fully "developable" hull forms. Though this limits
what is possible aesthetically and in terms of being able to optimize the underwater hull
form, it is fortunately not a crippling limitation...!
When we are discussing any of the various "plate-first" methods, it should be recognized
that this approach is really only applicable to the hull bottom and side plating, possibly
including the transom. This method however is generally not applicable to appendages
such as the keel or rudder, nor ordinarily to the deck and house structures. Therefore, really
only about 35% to 50% of the vessel's total plating surface is even under consideration
when referring to any of the plate first methods.
Just as with the "frame first" method, in order to address the issue of accuracy, the "plating
first" method can take excellent advantage of CAD for patterning and NC cutting. This
approach will yield an extremely precise plate definition and consequent cutout, and
therefore will provide a much more accurate as-welded hull shape.
By using NC cutting, the frames too can be pre-planned and pre-cut, making allowances at
their joins for the inevitable small variations introduced by the weld shrinkage during the
weld-up of the plating prior to the frames being put in place.
It should be mentioned that even when using the "plate-first" approach, it may be
advantageous to attach a number of internal frame members to the plating prior to it being
offered up to the boat, in particular this will often apply to the longitudinal stringers.
This kind of "plate-first" approach is rather common among professional builders in the
Netherlands. Often, frames are placed as there are opportunities to do so in order to retain
the overall shape. For example, once the bottom plating and longitudinal stringers are in
place and welded to the keel sides, internal bottom frames can be introduced while the
structure is easily accessed, then the topside plating attached and welded up prior to
introduction of the side frames. This results in an extremely fair hull, as well as a highly
accurate shape.
In my view, this hybrid strategy has the most to offer, especially when used with NC
cutting. In order for the designer to plan the shape and the NC cutting so that construction
can proceed smoothly, it must be determined in advance just what sequence the builder
will use to assemble the plates and frames.

Variations on a Theme...
Within the "plate-first" approach, there are two main divisions:
1. The "Pre-Cut-Plate" method as described above, and
2. The "Folded-Plate" or so-called Origami method.

With the "Pre-Cut-Plate" approach, the plating is all planned for developability (curvature
in one direction only, i.e. not saddle shaped or dome shaped). Here, the plating is all pre-
cut, pulled into place - ordinarily over a mould or temporary supports - then stitched
together along the seams. This is essentially the "plate-first" method described above.
Taking this pre-cut-plate approach one step farther, we have the "Folded Plate" or
Origami method, whereby as many of the hull plate weld seams as possible are eliminated
via an ingenious layout of the seams and a shape that allows there to be a number of "pre-
joined" areas.
The advantage of the "Folded Plate" method is that with an accurately pre-planned outline
that's cut out of plate, the entire hull plating can first be laid out flat - port and starboard -
welded where necessary to create the sizes and shapes required, then it's all pulled together
and stitched into place. Using this method, once the plate shapes have been determined, the
hull plating can be erected in a very short time - often in a matter of days.
Of course this looks impressive...! It actually is impressive! Naturally this concept has
captured the imagination of the amateur metal boat building community, thus a possibly
significant contingent among potential owner-builders.
With the Folded Plate / Origami method however, one must realize that the designer is
unfortunately extremely limited in terms of the possible hull shapes that will actually do
this trick. Try it with paper cutouts and you will be immediately convinced. You can
achieve a few minor variations and still get shapes that will fold together, but regional
subtleties of hull form are just not possible. If a different type of hull form is desired, then
quite a lot of trial and error time must be spent - usually by making actual trial cutouts and
seeing if they will fit together in an attempt to discover a totally flat plate layout that will
provide the intended shape when folded together.
This is not only a severe limitation on the designer - it also restricts the builder who may
as a result have only one basic model to offer. In other words, variations to the hull shape
are difficult and time consuming to create, so the vessels are limited to being either larger
or smaller, fatter or more slender, taller or shorter, having more or less sheer, yet essentially
the same in their general shape and appearance.
Further, it must be kept in mind that just as with the "pre-cut-plate" method, the "Folded-
Plate" or Origami method is generally only applicable to the hull plating itself, and not to
the keel, rudder, deck, or superstructure.
We observe then the following disadvantages of the "Origami" method:
1. Only a limited portion of the total plate surface will be addressed by the Origami method;
2. The variety of hull shapes that are possible both aesthetically and functionally are quite
limited;
3. There will be quite a lot of fussing around with trial shapes prior to achieving the desired
result.

As a result of these factors, I have not so-far been tempted to pursue the Origami approach
in my design work.
Except for the initial "wow" factor, which holds a certain well deserved appeal among
amateur boat builders, I don't see much advantage to it, especially in a professional boat
building context. In particular, this is so due to the extreme restriction on the variety of
possible hull shapes that can be offered. The hull shapes become extremely alike, therefore
ordinary and uninteresting.
Ask any of the proponents of the Origami method how many truly "different" hull shapes
they have been able to design or build using that approach (hulls which are not simply
stretched or squished versions of the same thing), and I believe you'll immediately see what
I mean.
One can just as easily make use of the "pre-cut-plate" approach, and have considerably
more freedom with subtleties of hull form.

Strategy...?
If one is able to begin with a blank sheet, in other words if one is able to create a new
custom yacht design, it becomes possible to choose between a frame-first vs. a plate-first
building method. In this case, the first task in the design cycle belongs to the owner, and
that is to find a designer who can bring about the owner's vision and purpose for the vessel
they have in mind.
The designer's role is to act as the owner's advocate throughout the whole process,
attempting to meld their requirements / requests with what is practical / achievable / safe /
etc., at the same time as attempting to achieve the aesthetic, the layout, and the performance
being sought. Then once the vessel has been designed, to follow through during the
construction of the vessel, first to connect the owner with a builder who is suited to the
task, and then to follow through during construction to assure that what has been designed
gets built as planned.
Occasionally this order of events gets turned around, and the owner first finds a suitable
builder, then together they forage for a design that the owner likes and that the builder
wants to build. While this can often result in great success, it can also result in great
compromise. However if the compromise is not too great, and the cost is attractive, then a
deal may be struck that is satisfying to all involved.
More often than not though the builder or the owner will want to introduce changes to the
design. Subtle variations to the interior, usually introduced by the owner, are to be
expected and are usually not of any consequence.

Major changes to the layout that involve changes to the structure, or that involve relocating
tanks, bulkheads, engines, major machinery, masts, etc. are very often sought. However,
any of these kinds of changes must necessarily involve the designer.
What is not often realized is that collectively, these changes can quickly eliminate any
possible advantage to having selected a stock design. At this point, it can become
advantageous to begin from a blank sheet - even if it is largely based on a prior design.
Thus, our nearly 100% focus on new custom yacht design.
If a stock design is entirely suitable as is, or if minor changes are all that's needed, then
certainly the designer will be able to "customize" that design to suit - it is all part of a
designer's usual routine.

The Question of Pedigree...
All the building methods mentioned above can be made to satisfy the structural
requirements of the ABS or other rules - with the exception of the so-called "frameless"
building method, which cannot. In considering any existing design, one should inquire as
to whether the structure has been designed according to the standards of one or more of the
yacht classification societies.
For motor vessels, we calculate structure per the requirements of the ABS Rule for Motor
Pleasure Yachts, or for sail boats, the ABS Rule for Ocean Racing Yachts, or both, taking
the most conservative result from each, then adding our own factor of safety. We also
consult applicable portions of the German Lloyd's rule and other classification society rules
such as Lloyd's Register wherever they may be appropriate, such as for spars and rigging or
for wooden structures, etc.
Aside from the structure, when inquiring about any stock design or new custom design it
will be prudent to inquire about the stability compliance of the vessel being considered.
For example, we impose the EU Recreational Craft Directive stability requirements on our
designs - both sail and power. Even though there are legally no stability standards imposed
on pleasure craft built and registered in the US, we feel this is quite important, therefore the
EU-RCD is our base-line standard.
You can read about our rationale for use of these standards, what they mean, and how they
apply by reviewing our various articles related to "Boat Design" on the Articles web page.
In terms of safety equipment, while we very much advocate the use of the ABYC
guidelines for safety and systems, there are a few specific areas where we disagree with the
ABYC recommendations. Mainly this is limited to those chapters where the ABYC
guidelines are at present inadequately developed and are rapidly changing - in particular
with regard to bonding and electrical isolation on metal vessels. We address these matters

thoroughly in our Vessel Specification which accompanies each design, often amounting to
well over 50 pages.

Conclusions
A number of our designs are fully developable, and are thus directly adaptable to the "pre-
cut plate-first" approach, in particular if NC cutting were to be employed. Examples that
come to mind are the 36' ketch Grace and her larger sisters: the 42' schooner Highland Lass
and the 42' ketch Zephyr, which have fully developable hulls.
Many of our other designs, while largely developable, have intentionally violated
developability locally in order to achieve the right aesthetic shape or the right distribution
of displacement or the right waterlines or buttock lines, etc. Examples include the 44'
schooner Redpath or those designs for which a rounded hull form was preferred such as
the 36' cutter Fantom, the 40' schooner Benrogin, or the 50' schooner Lucille.
Although we have no particular interest in pursuing the "origami" approach as such, we do
believe there to be considerable merit to the "pre-cut-plate-first" approach. More
particularly we have observed big advantages to the hybrid "plates-first-then-frame-as-you-
go" approach mentioned above. Even though hull shapes are thus limited to only what is
developable, there are innumerable good shapes that one can achieve which are
aesthetically pleasing and that have a water-friendly shape.
To be a success, the pre-cut plate shapes must be precisely planned and cut, but this is not
at all difficult when combined with CAD driven NC cutting. We have developed NC
cutting files for a number of our designs, and we're continually involved in the development
of new designs - and of NC files to ease their construction.

Further Considerations...?
We believe in metal as the ultimate boat structure, and as a result we have created quite a
number of metal boat designs. To review them, please see our Sail Boats Gallery and our
Power Boats Gallery. We have also created quite a number of Prototype Designs, most of
which are also intended for metal structure. Sail or power - mono or multi-hull - if the
structure is well-designed and well built, the resulting boat will be excellent.
We are often asked about one metal vs. another - most commonly steel vs. aluminum. We
do not have a distinct preference. There are so many varying factors that will contribute to
making that decision for each boat, and for each owner. Some boats are designed for one
material only, other boats can make use of either.

In general, any of our designs that have been developed for steel can very quickly be re-
specified for construction in aluminum. The design conversion from steel to aluminum is
done at no extra cost. Where NC cutting files exist for a steel boat, they will need to be re-
done in order to work for aluminum structure, and there will be a cost incurred for that
conversion. If that's of interest, please inquire.
Designs that were originally developed for aluminum structure are not as readily converted,
since they will have been designed specifically to save weight. To convert one of them to
steel structure will ordinarily require a re-work of the hull shape in order to support the
extra weight of steel. For some boats, that is not much trouble. For other boats, in
particular small ones, steel may not even be an option. If a conversion to steel is of interest
for one of our aluminum designs, please inquire. for more information.
You will find more information about costs and other considerations between these metals
among the essays linked from our Articles web page, and especially in the two articles
listed below.
For more information about any of the above, please feel free to contact me.
Related Articles
Metal Boats for Blue Water | Strength of Aluminum vs Steel
Please see the Plans List page to review our available Boat Plans.

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Boat Materials

Aluminum. We use only the finest materials available. The 5000 series marine grade
aluminum alloy is specifically made for full-time saltwater applications. ALCOA,
Aluminum Company of America, put a plate of this aluminum in Narragansett Bay, RI for
thirty years and took it out because nothing was happening. We have chosen the 5086
alloy for the whole hull. This aluminum alloy is the absolute best available and thick to
boot. With either 3/16 or 1/4 construction, these boats are 2-3 times as thick as
most aluminum boats you may be familiar with. If youve ever seen a U.S. Coast
Guard 47 footer than youve seen 5000 series aluminum alloy at work afloat.


Gunwale. This 2 3/4 oval in cross-section extrusion gives the edge of your boat
incredible durability. Weve had demo rides where a prospective customer
inadvertently slammed the boat into cement pilings with just a slight rub to show for it.
The only reason to own fenders is to protect the other guys boat.

Chine. Along the length of the chine is an extrusion that both the side and the bottom
plates fit into. This high impact area is then double welded the length of the boat. This
level of quality is unheard of even in custom aluminum boats.

Non-Skid. This material is applied to the self bailing deck and consists of a polyurethane
base and topcoat surrounding an aggressive non-skid abrasive. Not for the faint of
heart, nor the bare of foot, this material is similar to the new bedliner material you may
be familiar with as an aftermarket application in pick-up trucks. It gives you tough,
durable, surefooted-ness in all weather conditions.

Foam. We inject closed cell foam beneath the self-bailing deck into all voids below
decks (except around the fuel tank). This high-end system assures you of both
unsinkability and upright flotation should you ever swamp the boat.

In short, no expense is spared in making for you the finest boat available anywhere.
These materials, used for the first time in a production model boat, truly represent the
first in a whole new category of boats.
Black Lab Marine Partners, LLC

207-400-7404












Aluminium Alloys Used in the Marine Industry
Aluminium alloys commonly used in the marine industry include:
Aluminium-magnesium alloys - 5000 series, used primarily for rolled materials
(sheet/plate). Most common are 5083 & 5383.
Aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys - 6000 series, used primarily for extruded
sections. Most common are 6082, 6061, 6005A & 6060.

Source: Capral Aluminium
For more information on this source please visit Capral Aluminium.

Aluminum Distributing Inc
5086-H111, 5086-H116, 5083-H116 aluminum for marine use/ sheet
www.adimetal.com/
Marine Grade
Alloy Aluminum
5083
5086
Structural
Marine Grade
Alloy Aluminum
6061





Sheet and Plate (5086-H116 or 5083-H116
or Dual)

Check up to five results to perform an action.



larger image Several sizes dual certified

The following specifications cover Aluminum 5083

QQ A250/6
Aluminum 5083
Chemistry Data:
Aluminum: Balance
Chromium: 0.050.25
Copper: 0.1 max.
Iron: 0.4 max.
Magnesium: 44.9
Manganese: 0.41
Remainder Each: 0.05 max.
Remainder Total: 0.15 max.
Silicon: 0.4 max.
Titanium: 0.15 max.
Zinc: 0.25 max.
Aluminum 5086
Chemistry Data:
Aluminum: Balance
Chromium: 0.050.25
Copper: 0.1 max.
Iron: 0.4 max.
Magnesium: 44.9
Manganese: 0.41
Remainder Each: 0.05 max.
Remainder Total: 0.15 max.
Silicon: 0.4 max.
Titanium: 0.15 max.
Zinc: 0.25 max.
Aluminum 6061
Chemistry Data :
Aluminum : Balance
Chromium : 0.04 - 0.35
Copper : 0.15 - 0.4
Iron : 0 - 0.7
Magnesium : 0.8 - 1.2
Manganese : 0.15 max
Other : 0.15 max
Remainder Each : 0.05 max
Silicon : 0.4 - 0.8
Titanium : 0.15 max
Zinc : 0.25 max





Mechanical Data :
Aluminum 5083
Form : Sheet
Condition : H116
Temperature : 68
Tensile Strength : 42
Yield Strength : 30
Elongation : 12

Principal Design Features
This is a non-heat treatable alloy for strengthening. It has very good corrosion resistance, is
easily welded and does have good strength.

Applications
Commonly used in the manufacture of unfired, welded pressure vessels, marine, auto
aircraft cryogenics, drilling rigs, TV towers, transportation equipment, and in missile
components.

Aluminum Mill Product Specifications

Available Forms:
Sheet and Plate ASTM-B928 , FEDERAL-QQ-A-250/7











Aluminum 5086
Form : Sheet
Condition : H116
Temperature : 68
Tensile Strength : 42
Yield Strength : 30
Elongation : 12


Aluminum 6061-T6


Ultimate Tensile Strength, psi : 45,000
Yield Strength, psi : 40,000
Brinell Hardness : 95
Rockwell Hardness : B60





5086 Marine Grade Aluminum Alloy
Click on a Product to view details.







Angles - 25 Ft (5086-
H111)
(19)



Pipe (5086-H32) Drawn
Seamless
(29)



Sheet and Plate (5086-
H116 or 5083-H116 or
Dual)
(35)



Flat Bar (5086-H111)
(28)



Round Tube (5086-
H32) Drawn Seamless
(18)



Round Rod (5086-
H111)
(16)



The Butt Weld Fittings
and Flanges (5086)



(7)


Sheet and Plate (5086-H116 or 5083-H116
or Dual)

Check up to five results to perform an action.



larger image Several sizes dual certified

The following specifications cover Aluminum 5083

QQ A250/6

Chemistry Data:
Aluminum: Balance
Chromium: 0.050.25
Copper: 0.1 max.
Iron: 0.4 max.
Magnesium: 44.9
Manganese: 0.41
Remainder Each: 0.05 max.
Remainder Total: 0.15 max.
Silicon: 0.4 max.
Titanium: 0.15 max.
Zinc: 0.25 max.

Mechanical Data :
Form : Sheet

Condition : H116
Temperature : 68
Tensile Strength : 42
Yield Strength : 30
Elongation : 12

Principal Design Features
This is a non-heat treatable alloy for strengthening. It has very good corrosion resistance, is
easily welded and does have good strength.

Applications
Commonly used in the manufacture of unfired, welded pressure vessels, marine, auto
aircraft cryogenics, drilling rigs, TV towers, transportation equipment, and in missile
components.


Aluminum Mill Product Specifications

Available Forms:
Sheet and Plate ASTM-B928 , FEDERAL-QQ-A-250/7




6061 Structural Marine
Grade Alloy Aluminum
Click on a Product to
view details.







Structural Equal Angle
(6061-T6)
(17)



Structural Unequal
Angle (6061-T6)
(4)



Structural Flat Bar
(6061-T6511)
(46)



Structural "U" Channel
(6061-T6)
(8)



Structural Beams
(6061-T6)
(3)



Structural Tee (6061-
T6)
(2)



Round Tube (6061-T6)
(4)



Square Tube (6061-T6)
(4)



Pipe (6061-T6)
(14)





Round Rod (6061-
T6511)
(14)



Square Bar (6061-
T6511)
(6)



Flat Sheet (6061-T6)
(5)


Flat Sheet (6061-T6)

Check up to five results to perform an action.



larger image The following specifications cover Aluminum 6061

6061 Aluminum is, by most any measure, the most commonly used aluminum alloy. It is
specified in most any application due to its strength, heat treatability, comparatively easy
machining, and weldability. If that were not enough, it is also capable of being anodized,
adding a layer of protection for finished parts.
The main alloy ingredients of 6061 aluminum are magnesium and silicon.

Physical and Mechanical Properties
Ultimate Tensile Strength, psi : 45,000
Yield Strength, psi : 40,000
Brinell Hardness : 95
Rockwell Hardness : B60


ASTM B209, QQ A-250/11

Chemistry Data :
Aluminum : Balance
Chromium : 0.04 - 0.35
Copper : 0.15 - 0.4
Iron : 0 - 0.7
Magnesium : 0.8 - 1.2
Manganese : 0.15 max
Other : 0.15 max
Remainder Each : 0.05 max
Silicon : 0.4 - 0.8
Titanium : 0.15 max
Zinc : 0.25 max

Principal Design Features
Probably the most commonly available, heat treatable aluminum alloy.

Applications
Commonly used in the manufacture of heavy-duty structures requiring good corrosion
resistance, truck and marine components, railroad cars, furniture, tank fittings, general
structural and high pressure applications, wire products, and in pipelines.

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