Trace minerals an overview

Information about trace minerals ( also called microminerals) is perhaps the mose
rapidly expanding area of knowledge in nutrition. With the exceptions of iron and iodide, the
importance of trace minerals to humans has been recognized only within the last 40 years.
Although we need 100 milligrams or less of each trace mineral daily. They are as essential to
good health as major minerals.
In some cases, discovering the importance of a trace mineral reads like a detective story,
and the evidence si still unfolding. In 1961, researchers linked dwarsfism among. Middle
eastern villagers to a zinc deficiency. Other scientists reconigzed that a rare form of heart
disease in an isolated area of china was linked to a selenium deficiency. In north america, some
trace mineral deficiencies were first observed in the late 1960s and early 1970s when the
minerals were not added to newly developed synthetic formulas used for intravenous feeding.
It is difficult to precisely define our trace mineral needs because we need only minute
amounts. Highly sophisticated technology is required to measure such small amounts in both
food and body tissues.
IRON (Fe)
Although the importance of dietary iron has been recognized for centuries, today, iron
deficiency is still one of the most common nutrient deficiencies worldwide. Iron is the only
nutrient for which young women have a greater RDA than do adult men. Iron is found in every
living cell, adding up to about 5 grams (1 teaspoon) for the entire body.
Absortion and distribution of iron
Controlling absorption is important because our bodies cannot easily eliminate excess
iron once it is absorbeb. The body uses several mechanisme to regulate iron absorption.
Overall, iron absorption depends on its form in the food, the bodys need for it, and a variety of
other factors. Healthy people absorb about 18% of tht present in food, whereas people with
iron deficiency absorb some what more.
The form of iron in foods especially influences how much is absorbed. About 40% of the
total iron in animal flesh is in the form of hemoglobin (the same form as in red blood cells) and
myoglobin (pigment found in muscle cells). This type of iron.called here iron, is absorbed about
two to three times more efficiently than the simple elemental iron, called nonheme iron,
nonheme iron is added to grain products during use enrichment process and also present in
animal flesh, as in eggs, milk, vegetables, grains, and other plant food.
Consuming heme iron and nonheme iron together increases nonheme iron absorption.
A protein factor in meats may also aid nonheme absorption. Overall, eating meal with
vegetables and grain products enhances the absorption of all nonheme iron present.
Vitamin C in amounts of about 75 milligrams can also increase nonheme iron
absorption. Drinking a glass of orange juice when taking an iron supplement, therefore, will
enhance the iron absorbed from the supplement. Consuming more foods rich a vitamin C is
particularly desirable if dietary iron is inadequate or if blood iron is low. Iron use in the body is
also aided by copper,as explained in the later section on opper.
In contrast,several dietary factors interfere with our ability to absorb nonheme
aron.Phytic acid and other factors in grain fibers and oxalic acid in vegetables can all bind this
iron and reduce its absorption . Polyphenols ( tannins ) found in tea also reduce nonheme iron
absorption.It is a good idea to moderate intake of tannins if one has irondeficienty and keep
fiber intake within current recommendations.Taking rinc supplements will also interfere with
nonheme iron because zinc compete with iron for absorption.
Overall, the most important factor influencing nonheme iron absorption is the bodys
need for it.Iron needs are increased during pregnancy and growth.At high altitudes,the need for
iron is also increased because the lower oxygen concentration of the air cause an increase in
the hemoglobin concentrationof blood.During an iron deficiency state,nonheme iron
absorption can increase.When iron stores are madequate,the main protein that carries iron in
blood readily binds more ironfrom intestinal cells and shifts it into thebllodstream.When iron
stores are adequate and the iron binding protein in the blood is fully saturated with iron,iron
stays bound in the intestinal cells and little will be absorbed.
By this mechanis,under normal circumstances,iron,especially the nonheme form,is
absorbed as needed.If not needed,iron stored in intestinal cells will be accreted when intestinal
cells are shed at the end of their 2-to 5-day life cycle.High doses of iron can still be toxic ,but
absorption is carefully regulated under typical didary conditions in most people.
Most iron in the body iscontained in the hemoglobin molecules of the red blood cells.
Some iron is stored in the bone marrow and a small portion goes to other body cells,such as the
liver,for storage. As iron is needs,it can be mobilized from these body stores. If dietary intakes is
chronically inadequate,these iron stores become depleted. Only then do signs of an iron
deficiency appear.


Functions of iron
Iron is part of the hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells.
Hemoglobin molecules in red blood cells transport oxygen ( O2 ) from the lungs to cellsans
assist in the return of some carbon dioxide (CO2 ) fromcells to the lungs for excretion. In
addition,iron is used as part of many enzymes,some proteins and compounds that cells use in
energy production. Iron is also needed for brain and immune function and contributes to drug
detoxification in the liver and to bone health.
If neither the diet not body stores can supply the iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis,
the number of red blood cells decreases in the bloodstream. The bloodcells (called the
hematocrit) and the hemoglobin concentration in blood to assess iron status, a long with the
amount of iron and iron-containing proteins in the blood-stream. When hematocrit and
hemoglobin fall , an iron deficiency is suspected. Person In severe deficiency,hemoglobin and
hematocritfall so low that the amount of oxygen carried in the bloodstream is decreased. Such
a person has anemia,defined as a decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
White there are many types of anemia,iron-deficiency anemia is the major type
worldwide. About 30% of the worlds population is anemia,about 10% of north Americans in
high risk categories have iron-deficiency anemia. This appears most often in infancy,the
preschool years and at puberty for both males and females. Growth, with accompanying
expansion of blood volume and muscle mass, increasesiron needs,making it difficult years from
blood loss during menstruation . In addition,anemia is often found in pregnant women ,as
discussed in chapter 14. Iron- deficiency anemia in adult men is usually caused by blood loss
from ulcers,colon mia,as discussed in chapter 10.
Clinical symptoms of iron-deficiency anemia primarily include pale skin , fatigue upon
exertion ,poortemperature regulation,loss of appetite and apathy. Insufficient iron for the
synthesis of red blood cells key and key cell compounds may cause the fatigue. Poor iron stores
may also decrease learning ability,attention span,work performance , and immune status even
before a person is anemic.
More north Americans have an iron deficiency without anemia than have iron-
deficiency anemia. Their blood hemoglobin values are still normal,but they have no stores to
draw form in times of pregnancy or illness,and basic functioning may be atdecreased levels.
These effects could range from having too little energy to perform everyday tasks in an
efficient manner todifficulties staying alert in school or on the job.
To speed the cure of iron-deficiency anemia , a person needs to take iron supplements.
A physician should determine the cause of the anemia,be it an inadequate diet or a bleeding
ulcer,for example , so that the anemia does not recur. Changes in diet may prevent iron-
deficiency anemia, but supplemental iron is the only reliable cure once it has developed.

Iron sources and needs
Because animal sources contain some heme iron,the most bioavailable form,they are
our best iron sources. The major ironsources in the adult diet are ready-t-eat break-fast
cereals,animals products, and bakery items,such as bread ( figs. 9-13 and 9-14 ). Most of the
iron in bakery items has been added to refined flour in the enrichment process. Other iron
sources are spinach,peas,and legumes,but the iron is less available from these foods than from
animal products.
Milk is a poor source of iron. A common cause of iron-deficiency anemia in children is
an overreliance on milk , coupled with an insufficient meat intake. Total vegetarians (vegans)
aree particularly susceptible to iron-deficiency anemia because of their lack of dietary heme
iron.
The daily adult RDA for iron for men ,and for women over 50 years,is 8 milligrams. For
women ages 19 to 50 the RDA Is 18 milligrams. The higher RDA for young and middle-age
women is primarily because of menstrual bloods loo. The variation in menstrual bloods lood,
and hence, loss of iron, makes it difficult to set an RDA for iron for women. Women who
menstruate more heavily and longer than average may need even more dietary iron than those
who have lighter and shorter flows. The Daily Value used to express iron content on food and
supplement labels is 18 milligrams.
Most women do not consume 18 milligrams of iron daily. The average daily intake is
closer to 13 milligrams, while n men it is about 18 milligrams per day. Women can close this gap
between average daily intakes and needs by seeking out iron- for tified foods, such as ready-to-
eat breakfast cereals that contain at least 50% of Daily Value. Use of balanced multivitamin and
mineral supplement containing up to 100% of the Daily Value for iron is another option.
Consuming more than that much iron is not advised unless a physician suggests otherwise (e.g.,
compensating for heavy menstrual loss).




MAKING DECISIONS
Blood donation
The adult human body contains about 21 cups (5 liters) of blood. Blood donation are
generally 2 cups (500 milliliters) . thus a blood donor gives about a teath of his or her total
supply with each donatioan . healthy people generally can donate blood two to fout time a year
with out harmlul consequences . as a precaution , blood banks first screen potential donors
blood for the presence of anemia.

UPPER LEVEL FOR IRON
the upper level for iron is 45 milligrams per day. Higher amounts can lead to stomach
irritation. Although iron overload is not as common as iron deficiency it can be a serious result
of misuse because iron can easily build up in the body and lead o toxica 1-year-old. Children are
frequently victim of iron poisoning because iron are tempting when accessible on kichen tables
and even from cabinets.
FDA has ruled that all iron supplements must carry a warming about toxicity and that
tablets with 30 milligrams of iron or more must be individually wrapped. Smaller doses of iron (
but still greater than what is needed ) over a long period can also cause problems. Repeated
blood transfusions also lead to iron toxicity.
Hemochromatosis iron toxicity can occur as a result of the genetic disease called
hereditary Hemochromatosis. The disease is associated with a substantial increase in iron
absorption. Heme iron poses the greatest risk a body needs do not influence its absorption to a
great extent. For people with this disease,iron in the body eventually builds up to dangerous
amounts,especially in the blood and liver. Some iron is deposited in the muscles,pancreas and
heart.
ZINC ( Zn)

Zinc deficiency was first recognized in humans in the early 1960s in Egypt and iran . zinc
deficiencies were determined to cause growth retardation and poor sexual deploment in some
groups of people ,even though the zinc content of their diets was birly high. The zinc
bioavailability of the customary diet however , was decreased by the lack of animal protein and
almost exclusive use of unleavened bread . unleavened bread is very high in phytic acid and
other factors that decrease zinc bioavailability .in north american,zinc deficiencies were first
observed in the early 1970s in hosdalized patients who were fed only intravenously via total
parenteral nutrition mentaining individual amino acids as the protein source .zinc deficiency
symptoms quickly developed because amino-acid formulas are low in minerals compared a
whole proteins .
Like iron, zinc absorption is influenced by the foods a person ingests . about 40% of
dietary zinc is absorbed ,especially when animal protein sources are used and when the body
needs more zinc .most people worldwide rely on cereal grains ( low ininc) for their sources of
protein,and calories. This makes consuming adequate zinc a problem . in addition,high-dose
calcium supplementation with meals decreases finc absorption . finally ,zinc competes with
copper and iron for absorption, and iron for absorption ,and vice seisa when supplemental
sources are taken .

Functions of zinc
Up to 200 or so enzymes ,such as alcohol dehydrogenase ,require zinc as a cofacto fo optimal
activity . adequate zinc intake is necessary to support many bodily functions ,such as :
- DNA synthesis and function
- Protein metabolism ,wound healing, and growth
- Immune function (intakes in excess of the RDA do not provide any extra benefit to
immune function )
- Development of sexsual organs and bones
- Storage ,release ,and function of insulin
- Cell membrane structure and function
- Indirect antioxidant as acomponent of two forms of superoxide dismutase ,an enzyme
that aids in the prevention of oxidative damage to cells .

Other possible functions of zinc are progression of macular degeneration of the eye end
reducing the risk for developing certain forms of cancer . one study has shown that megaose
zinc supplements ( 80 milirams per day of zinc oxide ) reduces the bprogressions of macular
degeneration by 15% people who had a moderate case of the disease . the zinc supplements
worked even better when provided in combination with 400.of vitamin E ,500 milligrams of
vitamin C ,and 15 milligrams of betacarotene .( copeper oxide [2 milligrams ] was also included
because zinc decreases copper absorption ). Experts suggest that adults who have evidence of
moderate macular degeneration talk to their phycians and eyecare specialists about the
possibility of following sud a protocol .
Symptoms of adult zinc deficiency include an acnelike rash ,diarrhea, lack of appetite
,reduced sense of taste and smell ,and hair loss in children and adolescents with zinc
deficiency,growth, sexual develoment ,and learning ability may also be hampered .
Zinc sources and needs
In general ,protein rich diets are also rich in zinc . animal foods supply almost half of an
individuals zinc intake . major sources of zinc are beef ,fortified breakfast cereals ,milk ,poultry
,and bread .as with iron ,biovail ability is also important to consider for zinc . animal foods are
again our prime sources because zinc from animal sources is not bound by phytic acid .however
,good plant sources of zinc such as whole grains ,peanuts ,and legumes (beans ) should not
be discounted . they can deliver substantial amounts of zinc to body supplements (zinc oxide ) is
not as well absorbed as zinc found naturally in foods ,but still contributes to meeting zinc needs
.
The adult RDA for zinc is 11 milligrams for men and 8 milligrams for women based on
the amount to cover daily losse of zinc . the daily value used to ekspress Zinc content on food
and supplement labels is 15 milligrams. The average north american takes in 10 to 14 milligrams
of zinc per day,with men consuming the higher values .there are no indications of moderate or
severe zinc per day ,with men consuming the higher values .there are no indications of
moderate or severe zinc deficienciesa in an otherwise healthy adult population .it is likely
,however ,that some north americans - especially some women ,poor children ,vegans ,oler
poeple ,and people who show deterioration in taste sensation ,recurring infections ,poor
growth, or depressed wound healing should have zinc status checked .

upper level for zinc
the upper for zinc is 40 milligrams per day based on the potential interference with
copper metabolism . excessive zinc intakes over time can lead to problems by interfering with
copper metabolism . an increased risk for prostate cancer with high intakes of zinc is also
under study .overall, if a person uses megadose zinc suplements ( e.g ., to try to slow macular
degeneration ) ,he or she should be under close medical supervision an also take a suplement
containing copper ( 2 milligrams per day ) .Zinc intakes over 100 milligrams per day also result
in diarrhea ,cramps,nausea,vomiting,and depressed immune system function ,especially if
intake exceeds 2 grams per day .

MAKING DECISIONS
Zinc and the common cold
Many companies are singing the praises of zinc as a cold remedy. Products such as cold
EEZE are lozenges that contain zinc and their claims are based largely on one study done with
100participant the 50 individuals in the experimental group took 13 miligrams of zinc via the
lozenges every 2 hours for the duration of their symptoms .cold symptms subsided after 4 days
in the experimental group and 7 days in the control group .nausea was a common side effect
of the zinc lozenges .of 10 other follow up studies .however ,only half have shown beneficial
results from zinc .this may be due to differences in the bioavailability of various forms of zinc
experts also note that we also have have noidea of how the zinc would treat a cold ,if it did
.aults can determine if the benefits outweigh the taste zinc expert dr.ananda prasad
recommends discontinuing use of zinc lozenges after 3 to 4 days unless they are showing
evidence of effectiveness .any use of such amounts beyond a week or so is potentially
dangerous.

SELENIUM (Se)
Selenium exists in many readily absorbed forms .like zinc .,selenium has an indirect
antioxidant function. Seleniums best understood role is as part of the enzyme ( glutathione
peroxidase ) that works to reduce damage to cell membranes from electronseeking free- radical
( oxidizing ) compounds. Silenium also contributes to thyroid hormone metabolism and other
functions.
In chpter 8 you saw that vitamin E helps prevent attack on cell membranes by donating
electrons to electrons seeking compounds, Thus, vitamin E and selenium work together
toward the same goal. The potential for free-radical compounds to cause cancer was also
discussed in chapter 8 . although selenium could prove to have a role in prevention of cancers ,
such as prostate cancer ,it is premature to recommend megadose selenium supplementation
for this purpose .animal studies in this area are conflicting ;current studies with humans using
supplemental intakes of 200 micrograms per day are under way to help clarify what role, if any
, selenium plays in cancer prevetion .
Selenium deficiency symptoms in humans include musxle pain and wasting and a certain
form of heart damage .in some areas of cina ,people develop characteristic muscle and heart
damage . in some areas of cina , people develop characteristic muscle and heart disorders
associated with inadequate selenium intake. Other factors probably also contribute .
Selenium sources and needs
Fish ,meats ( especially organ meats ) ,eggs ,and shellfish are good animal sources of
selenium ( fig. 9-17 ) . grains and seeds grown in soils containing selenium are good plant
sources .major selenium controbutors to the adult diet are animal and grain product . we eat a
varied diet of foods supplied from many geographic areas, so it is unlikely that low soil selenium
in a few locations will mean inadequate selenium in our diets .
The RDA for selenium is 55 micrograms per day for adults .this intake maximizes the
activity of selenium dependent enzymes .the daily value used to express selenium content on
food and supplement labels is 70 micrograms. In general ,adults meet the RDA, consuming on
average 105 micrograms of selenium each day
Upper level for selenium
The upper level for selenium is 400 micrograms per day for adults .this is based on overt
sign of selenium toxicity ,such as hair loss