Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594

DOI 10.1007/s00421-007-0533-5
1 3
ORI GI NAL ARTI CLE
EVects of diVering intensities of static stretching on jump
performance
David G. Behm Armin Kibele
Accepted: 16 July 2007 / Published online: 4 August 2007
Springer-Verlag 2007
Abstract Acute bouts of static stretching have been
shown to impair performance. Most published studies have
incorporated static stretching that stressed the muscle(s) to
the point of discomfort (POD). There are very few studies
that have examined the eVects of submaximal intensity
(less than POD) static stretching on subsequent perfor-
mance. Ten participants were pre-tested by performing two
repetitions of three diVerent stretches to assess range of
motion (ROM) and two repetitions each of Wve diVerent
types of jumps. Following pre-testing, participants were
stretched four times for 30 s each with 30 s recovery for the
quadriceps, hamstrings and plantar Xexors at 100% (POD),
75% and 50% of POD or a control condition. Five minutes
following the stretch or control conditions, they were tested
post-stretch with the same stretches and jumps as the pre-
test. All three stretching intensities adversely aVected jump
heights. With data collapsed over stretching intensities,
there were signiWcant decreases in jump height of 4.6%
(P = 0.01), 5.7% (P < 0.0001), 5.4% (P = 0.002), 3.8%
(P = 0.009) and 3.6% (P = 0.008) for the drop jump, squat
jump, countermovement jump (CMJ) to a knee Xexion of
70, CMJ using a preferred jump strategy and short ampli-
tude CMJ respectively. An acute bout of maximal or sub-
maximal intensity stretching can impair a variety of
jumping styles and based on previous research, it is hypoth-
esized that changes in muscle compliance may play a role.
Keywords Stretch shortening cycle Muscle compliance
Drop jump Countermovement jump Flexibility
Introduction
It seems fairly clear from the recent literature that static
stretching prior to an athletic performance can result in deW-
cits for force (Behm et al. 2001; Fowles et al. 2000; Kokko-
nen et al. 1998), jump height (Cornwell et al. 2002; Young
and Behm 2003; Young and Elliott 2001) muscle activation
as measured by electromyography (Behm et al. 2001; Power
et al. 2004; Rosenbaum and Hennig 1995) and the interpo-
lated twitch technique (Behm et al. 2001; Power et al.
2004), reaction and movement time and balance (Behm
et al. 2004). When jump heights have not been signiWcantly
aVected by static stretching, ground contact times have been
prolonged (Power et al. 2004). These deleterious eVects
have been shown to endure for at least 2 h post-stretching
(Power et al. 2004). Even when combined with an aerobic
warm-up (Behm et al. 2001, 2004; Power et al. 2004) and
skill rehearsal (Young and Behm 2003), static stretching
exerted negative inXuences upon subsequent performance.
These adverse eVects are persistently demonstrated with
both Xexibility trained and untrained individuals (Behm
et al. 2006). However, all the aforementioned studies incor-
porated static stretching that stressed the muscle groups to
the point of discomfort (POD). There are very few studies
that have examined the eVects of submaximal intensity (less
than POD) static stretching on subsequent performance.
Young et al. (2006) recently identiWed a volume and inten-
sity eVect to their stretching regime. A greater duration of
stretching resulted in greater deWcits. In addition, static
stretching at 90% of POD provided increases in range of
motion (ROM) with no deleterious jump performance eVects.
D. G. Behm (&)
School of Human Kinetics and Recreation,
Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. Johns ,
NF, Canada A1C 5S7
e-mail: dbehm@mun.ca
A. Kibele
Institute for Sports and Sport Science,
University at Kassel, Kassel 34121, Germany
588 Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594
1 3
Knudson and colleagues published two studies (Knudson
et al. 2001, 2004) where the subjects were stretched to a point
just before discomfort. Neither study showed signiWcant
decreases in performance. With respect to the very limited
information regarding submaximal intensity static stretching,
it would be important to elaborate on the eVects of submaxi-
mal intensity static stretching on dynamic jump activities.
Furthermore, it is also important to establish whether moder-
ate (i.e. 75% of POD) or lower intensity (i.e. 50% of POD)
static stretching would result in stretch-induced impairments.
Thus, the objective of this study was to determine the
extent of changes in various parameters of jump perfor-
mance that could occur with static stretching at 100, 75 and
50% of POD. It was hypothesized that the lowest intensity-
stretching regimen (50%) would provide increases in ROM
without detrimental eVects on jump performance.
Methods
Experimental design
After warming up on a cycle ergometer, participants
were pre-tested by performing two repetitions of three
diVerent stretches to assess ROM and two repetitions
each of Wve diVerent types of jumps. Following pre-test-
ing, participants were stretched four times for 30 s each
with 30 s recovery for the quadriceps, hamstrings and
plantar Xexors at 100% (POD), 75% of POD and 50% of
POD or a control condition. Five minutes following the
stretch or control conditions, they were tested post-
stretch with the same stretches and jumps as the pre-test
(Fig. 1). The diVering intensities of stretch (100% (POD),
75% of POD and 50% of POD and control) were per-
formed on separate days with at least 48 h rest between
sessions.
Participants
A sample group of convenience consisting of ten partici-
pants (7 males; age = 27.6 3.7 years, height = 180.6
2.5 cm, mass = 77.1 5.7 kg and 3 females; age = 24.0
0.8 years, height = 169.7 1.2 cm, mass = 58.7
4.8 kg) participated in the study. All participants were from
a university student population. Each subject was required
to read and sign a consent form prior to participating in the
study. The institutions Human Investigations Committee
approved the study.
Fig. 1 A diagrammatic repre-
sentation of the experimental
design
5 min cycle ergometer warm-up at 70 Watts
Pre-stretch Tests
Stretches
1) Stoop and Reach
2) Supine Hip Flexion with Knee Extended
3) Prone Hip Extension with Knee Extended
Jumps
1) 24 cm drop jump
2) CMJ with fast SSC
3) CMJ with slow SSC to 70 knee flexion
4) Self selected (pace and depth) CMJ
5) Concentric-only squat jump

Stretch Conditions
1) 100% of point of discomfort (POD)
2) 75% of POD
3) 50% of POD
4) Control (5 s stretch at maximal POD)
Stretches
4 stretches of 30 s each with 30 s recovery
1) Unilateral kneeling knee flexion (quadriceps),
2) Supine hip flexion with extended knee (hamstrings)
3) Ankle dorsiflexion while standing upright on an elevated platform (stretch of the plantar
flexors with soleus emphasis)
5 min following stretch intervention
Post-stretch Tests
Stretches
1) Stoop and Reach
2) Supine Hip Flexion with Knee Extended
3) Prone Hip Extension with Knee Extended
Jumps
1) 24 cm drop jump
2) CMJ with fast SSC
3) CMJ with slow SSC to 70

knee flexion
4) Self selected CMJ (pace and depth)
5) Concentric-only squat jump
Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594 589
1 3
Dependent variables
All participants warmed up on a cycle ergometer (Monark;
Ergomedic 828E) at 70 rpm with a resistance of 1 kp
(70 Watts) for 5 min. ROM tests were performed in a ran-
dom order with two repetitions of three stretches. Stretch
tests included a standing stoop and reach where an individ-
ual stood on an elevated platform and with knees fully
extended reached downwards as far as possible. The dis-
tance from or past the platform was noted. A plastic goni-
ometer was used to measure the ROM when performing a
supine hip Xexion movement with knee fully extended
(Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology 2003). The third
stretch test had the participants prone on the mat, where
they attempted to extend their hip with knee fully extended.
The distance from the mat to the patella was measured in
centimetres (Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology
2003). Immediately following the stretch testing, jump tests
were conducted. All stretch and jump tests were repeated
before and following the stretch intervention.
Five types of jump tests were executed on a Kistler force
plate (type 9281, Kistler Instrument Corp., Amherst, NY,
USA) before and following the static stretching interven-
tion. Jump tests included a drop jump from a 24 cm plat-
form, concentric only squat jump with knees initially
positioned at 70, countermovement jump (CMJ) with a
slow stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) to a knee Xexion of 70
(CMJ 70), CMJ with knee depth and speed self-selected
by the individual (CMJ preferred), and CMJ emphasizing a
short amplitude and high speed SSC of the quadriceps
(short amplitude CMJ). For the 24 cm drop jump, partici-
pants were instructed to emphasize a short ground contact
time (of about 200 ms) while attempting to achieve the
greatest vertical height (Young and Behm 2003). Knee Xex-
ion and extension were minimized during the drop jump by
the instructions and the demonstration by the investigators,
which emphasized minimal knee and hip Xexion. Thus with
these instructions, knee Xexion and extension were
expected to be kept minimal during the drop jump placing a
greater emphasis on the SSC of the plantar Xexors. A simi-
lar drop jump procedure has been used in a number of stud-
ies by Young (Young and Behm 2003, Young et al. 2006).
The downward displacement of the center of mass after
landing from the drop jump was monitored and controlled
by a double integration procedure of the force-time record
outlined by Kibele (1999). The CMJ with a fast SSC (short
amplitude CMJ) emphasized the plantar Xexors and thus
was implemented to compare a rapid SSC of a countermov-
ement jump with a rapid SSC drop jump that had an even
greater plantar Xexors emphasis. The CMJ with a slow SSC
to 70 allowed a comparison of slow (CMJ 70) and fast
SSC (short amplitude CMJ). The CMJ conducted at the
individuals own pace and depth (CMJ preferred) was
instituted to observe stretch-induced changes in jump strat-
egy when unimpeded by researcher instructions. Finally the
concentric-only squat jump would provide a comparison
with the diVerent SSC jumps (CMJ preferred, short ampli-
tude CMJ and CMJ 70). To control for the diVerent CMJs,
the displacement of the centre of gravity during the down-
ward movement was calculated by a double integration pro-
cedure of the force-time record outlined by Kibele (1998).
All subjects went through an orientation period at least 24 h
prior to testing to provide an opportunity to practice the
jumps under the supervision of the researcher.
All jumps were performed with hands on hips (akimbo).
Two repetitions were performed for each jump with the
jump achieving the greatest height used for analysis. One-
minute recovery periods were permitted between jumps.
The order of jump tests was randomized with one excep-
tion. Since the software for the force plate necessitated an
initial body mass to be registered in order to calculate jump
parameters, the testing always began with one of the count-
ermovement or concentric only squat jumps. Thus, the drop
jumps were never the Wrst test. Post-stretch testing com-
menced 5 min following the Wnal stretch intervention.
Independent variables
Immediately following the pre-test, the stretching interven-
tion commenced. The order of quadriceps, hamstrings and
plantar Xexors stretching was randomized. Based on previ-
ous research that recommended 30 s or greater duration of
stretching (Bandy and Irion 1994; Bandy et al. 1997),
stretches were held for a duration of 30 s with 30 s recovery
periods between stretches. Each type of stretch was
repeated four times. Stretching of both legs included a
series of unilateral kneeling knee Xexion (quadriceps),
supine hip Xexion with extended knee (hamstrings), and
ankle dorsiXexion while standing upright on an elevated
platform in a step position with the body weight moved to
the rear leg (stretch of the plantar Xexors with gastrocne-
mius emphasis) (Alter 1996). Stretching was passive for the
quadriceps and hamstrings with the same investigator con-
trolling the change in the ROM and resistance for all sub-
jects. For the ankle dorsiXexion, subjects moved the body
weight to the rear leg while executing at 50%, and 75%,
and 100% stretch on the calf muscles.
A manual muscle strength tester (Lafayette Instruments)
was used to quantify the stress on the limb during stretch-
ing. The researcher placed the manual muscle strength
tester against the anterior (quadriceps stretch) or posterior
(hamstrings stretch) portion of the limb at the level of the
malleoli. The researcher would push against the limb to
increase the ROM until the participant indicated that they
had reached POD. The force reading at this point was
noted. For the 100% intensity stretch, this force level would
590 Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594
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be maintained for the four sets of 30 s stretches. For sub-
maximal intensity stretches, the POD force would be main-
tained for 5 s or less to establish the force level. The
participants limb would then be moved to a ROM that
indicated that the limb was exerting either 75 or 50% of the
POD stretch force upon the manual muscle strength tester.
During the unilateral plantar Xexors stretch, the subjects
were standing upright at the edge of an elevated platform.
A step posture was required while subjects pushed the heel
of their rear leg beyond the edge of the platform. For the
100% intensity condition (POD), full body weight moved
towards the rear leg to the POD. This posture was main-
tained for the four sets of 30 s stretches. The POD stretch
was determined on each testing day (condition). For the
submaximal intensity stretch conditions, subjects were
asked to individually determine a resistance of about 75 or
50% loading on the rear leg for approximately 5 s. A nor-
mal upright stance with body weight distributed equally on
both feet was considered as reference condition. Visual
inspection of the heel displacement below the platform was
used as an estimate for the loading condition. Five minutes
following the static stretching intervention, post-test
stretches and jumps were conducted.
Since the plantar Xexors were stretched to a subjective
assumption of 50 or 75% of POD, rather than using the
objective manual muscle tester, it was necessary to evaluate
the reliability of this method. Subjects stood on the plat-
form, which was slightly elevated above the Xoor to ensure
enough space for a downward displacement of the heel. The
front foot was slightly forward in a step posture while the
rear food slightly backward with the middle of the rear foot
placed right above the edge of the platform. The heel of the
rear foot was pushed downward beyond the edge of the
platform by pulling at a cable strain gauge in an upward
direction. There was force exerted onto the heel through a
pull on the cable while the plantar Xexors being stretched at
the same time. This force could be read from the digital dis-
play of the strain gauge system. Subjects were asked to
stretch the plantar Xexors at an estimated intensity of 100%
(= POD). Three measures for the 100% condition were con-
ducted with 45 min between repetitions. The plantar Xex-
ors of the dominant leg (used for unilateral high jumping)
were stretched. Ten minutes later, subjects were asked to
execute the stretch with an estimated 50% of the previous
stretching force. Again, three repeated measures were eval-
uated. No feedback regarding the force values was given to
the subjects. Force values from the strain gauge were regis-
tered during each stretch. Intraclass correlations for the
forces values were calculated to estimate reliability for the
100 and the 50% condition. Three repeated measures were
included into the analysis.
The control condition had the participants perform the
5 min cycle warm-up. Following the warm-up, they per-
formed all the stretches to the POD for 5 s in order to simu-
late the initial stage of the submaximal intensity stretches.
They then relaxed for 12 min (control duration similar to
the stretching intervention duration) after the pre-tests
before being tested again for the post-tests. Each stretch or
control condition was allocated in a randomized fashion
and performed on separate days.
Statistical analysis
A two way repeated measures ANOVA (4 2) was per-
formed to determine if signiWcant diVerences existed
between conditions (100, 75 and 50% of POD stretches and
control) and testing (pre- and post-stretch) data (GB Stat
Dynamic Microsystems, Silver Spring Maryland USA). An
alpha level of P = 0.05 was considered statistically signiW-
cant. If signiWcant main eVects or interactions were present
a Bonferroni post hoc analysis (GB Stat Dynamic Micro-
systems, Silver Spring Maryland USA) was conducted.
EVect sizes (ES) were also calculated and reported (Cohen
1988). Cohen applied qualitative descriptors for the eVect
sizes with ratios of 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 indicating small, moder-
ate and large changes respectively. Descriptive statistics
included means standard deviation (SD). Reliability of
the measurements was assessed with a Cronbach model
intra-class correlation coeYcient (ICC) (McGraw and
Wong 1996; Vincent 1999) with all subjects.
Results
The day to day reliability (ICC) of force measures using the
manual muscle strength testing device to determine the
POD during quadriceps and hamstring stretching was
r = 0.97. For the reliability estimation of the plantar Xexor
stretching procedure, the ICC for the estimated 100% con-
dition across the three repeated measurements was r = 0.94
(with a mean value = 737 N) and for the estimated 50%
stretch condition: r = 0.97 (with a mean values = 407 N).
Therefore for the 50% condition, subjects were able to pro-
duce 53.7% of their maximal forces in the 100% condition.
The ICC values for the pre-stretch jump heights when
tested repeatedly over all four conditions (100, 75, 50% of
POD and control) were 0.96, 0.93, 0.91, 0.86 and 0.89 for
the squat jump, CMJ preferred, CMJ 70, CMJ short ampli-
tude and drop jump respectively.
There was a signiWcant (P = 0.01) main eVect for time
with a mean 3.5% decrease in all jump height measures
(Table 1). The mean data for all stretching intensities com-
bined (control condition excluded), indicated signiWcant
decreases in jump height of 5.3% (P = 0.01, ES = 0.22),
3.8% (P < 0.0001, ES = 0.36), 5.6% (P = 0.002, ES
= 0.35), 3.6% (P = 0.009, ES = 0.26) and 4.6% (P = 0.008,
Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594 591
1 3
ES = 0.3) for the drop jump, squat jump, CMJ 70, CMJ
preferred and short amplitude CMJ, respectively (Fig. 2).
There were no signiWcant changes in jump measures with
the control condition over time.
A main eVect for stretching condition was also apparent
(P = 0.01). Post-hoc testing indicated there was no signiW-
cant diVerence between the three stretching intensities.
There were no signiWcant interaction eVects between the
stretching conditions (stretching condition x time) indicat-
ing that jump heights decreased similarly with 100, 75 and
50% of POD stretching (Table 1). There was also no eVect
of stretching on the lowering of the centre of gravity prior
to jump take-oV.
There was also a tendency (P = 0.06, ES = 0.24) for
contact times with the drop jump to increase by 4.5% (pre-
stretch: 223.3 ms 42.1 vs. post-stretch 233.4 ms 45.4).
The Xexibility testing before and after the stretching pro-
cedures showed signiWcant diVerences between the warm-
up and the post-stretch testing only for the standing stoop
and reach. A two way repeated measures ANOVA (4x2) for
multivariate tests revealed a signiWcant main eVect for the
pre-post measurement (P < 0.05, ES = 0.41), for the
stretching condition (P = 0.05, ES = 0.52), and for the
interaction eVect (P < 0.01, ES = 0.86). No signiWcant
diVerences were found for the hip extension and the Xexion
testing. Overall (main eVect), the stoop and reach distance
increased by 12.1% with the three intensities of stretching
combined (interaction eVects: 8, 9.7% with 100% POD; 8,
13.9% with 75% of POD and 8, 12.6% with 50% of POD).
There was no signiWcant diVerence in the stoop and reach
with the control condition.
Discussion
The most interesting Wnding in this study was that all inten-
sities of prior static stretching whether submaximal (50 and
75% of POD) or maximal (100% of POD) resulted in sig-
niWcant impairments in jump height. Previous research
involving prior static stretching have resulted in impair-
ments of force (Behm et al. 2001; Kokkonen et al. 1998;
Fowles et al. 2000), jump height (Young and Behm 2003;
Fig. 2 Main eVect for stretching. Changes in jump height pre- and
post-static stretching with data collapsed over the intensity of stretch-
ing (50, 75 and 100% POD data combined). All jump types had signiW-
cant decrements (P < 0.01) post-stretching. The control condition did
not experience signiWcant jump impairments and has not been included
in this Wgure. Columns and bars represent means standard deviation
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Squat Jump
J
u
m
p

H
e
i
g
h
t

(
c
m
)
Pre-Stretch Post Stretch
CMJ Preferred CMJ 90 CMJ SA DJ
Table 1 Pre- to post-stretch
percentage decreases in jump
height with the Wve jump
variables
100% POD 75% POD 50% POD Control
Drop Jump 3.8 6.1 6.1 1.0
Squat Jump 2.4 3.7 5.3 3.6% increase
Countermovement
jump (CMJ) preferred
4.2 3.9 2.8 0.7
CMJ 70 5.8 3 8.0 0.9
Short amplitude CMJ 4.4 5.4 4.0 0.5
Mean 4.1 4.4 5.2 0.1 no signiWcance
Stoop and reach test data
Subjects Stretch test 1 Stretch test 2
1 13.17 13.43
2 5.23 5.83
3 6.7 6.57
4 7.2 5.1
5 9.37 9.03
6 5 5.47
7 4.7 4.5
8 4.47 6.37
There were no signiWcant diVer-
ences between stretch intensities
(interactions) but there was a
main eVect for stretching overall
592 Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594
1 3
Young and Elliott 2001; Cornwell et al. 2002), drop jump
ground contact times (Behm et al. 2006), muscle activation
(Behm et al. 2001; Power et al. 2004; Rosenbaum and Hen-
nig 1995), reaction and movement time and balance (Behm
et al. 2004). However, all of these studies instituted stretch-
ing regimes that had the participants stretch to the POD.
There has been some evidence in the literature to suggest
that less than maximal intensity stretching might not pro-
duce these deWcits (Young et al. 2006; Knudson et al. 2001,
2004).
Young et al. (2006) manipulated the volume of stretch-
ing and in one condition had the participants stretch to 90%
of POD. The submaximal intensity stretch of the plantar
Xexors was calculated by decreasing the range of motion by
10% from the angle achieved when the subjects were
stretched at the POD. They found that 2 min of static
stretching at 90% intensity had no eVect on muscle perfor-
mance (concentric calf raise and drop jump height). In the
present study, the 75 and 50% POD stretches resulted in
smaller hip Xexion angles that were 14.8 and 19.4,
respectively less than the 100% stretch at the POD.
Changes in ankle ROM were not measured. Hence in the
present study, the submaximal stretching angles were rela-
tively comparable or even less than the Young study.
DiVerences in jump results between the two studies may
exist since Young and colleagues stretched only the plantar
Xexors whereas the present study stretched the quadriceps,
hamstrings and plantar Xexors. Similar to the volume of
stretch eVects reported in Youngs study (1 min of stretch-
ing garnered signiWcantly less jumping impairments than 2
or 4 min), the control condition in the present study who
performed 5 s of maximal static stretching did not experi-
ence signiWcant jump height decrements. Knudson and col-
leagues published two studies (Knudson et al. 2001, 2004)
where the subjects were stretched to a point just before
discomfort. Neither study showed signiWcant decreases in
performance. In one study (2001) there was a trend towards
impaired vertical jump height (3%), while the other study
reported no change in tennis serve velocity (2004). Their
subjective just before discomfort stretch point was not
measured for ROM and thus it is diYcult to compare
between the studies.
It was hypothesized in the present study that stretching
to the POD would have greater impairments on perfor-
mance than submaximal intensity stretches. High intensity
(POD) stretch-induced stress might have a detrimental
eVect of on neuromuscular activation (Avela et al. 1999;
Behm et al. 2001; Power et al. 2004). Avela et al. (1999)
reported that following 1 h of passive stretching of the tri-
ceps surae there were signiWcant decreases in MVC
(23.2%), EMG (19.9%), and H-reXex (43.8%). It has been
suggested that the decrease in the excitation of the moto-
neuron pool resulted from a reduction in excitatory drive
from the Ia aVerents onto themotoneurons, possibly due
to decreased resting discharge of the muscle spindles via
increased compliance of the MTU (Avela et al. 1999). Fur-
ther inhibitory inXuences on the motoneuron could arise
from Type III (mechanoreceptor) and IV (nociceptor) aVer-
ents (Fowles et al. 2000), However, this decreased excita-
tion is more prevalent during the stretch and recovers
immediately after the stretch (Fowles et al. 2000; Guissard
et al. 2001).
With stretching to the POD, there is an attempt to Xex or
extend to the limit of the individuals joint ROM. Knee
Xexion during the quadriceps stretch would increase intra-
articular knee pressure (Eyring and Murray 1964; Jayson
and Dixon 1970) as well as compress the patella upon the
joint. In addition, dislocating torques would be placed upon
the tibial portion of the knee joint, by forces pulling or
pushing the distal portion of the tibia towards the pelvis.
Prolonged stress on the joint receptors could possibly lead
to inhibitory eVects upon the motoneuron. Similar to other
reXex actions, any inhibitory actions would exert their
greatest eVects during the stretch period with minimal con-
tinuance 510 min into recovery.
In addition to the reported transitory eVects of inhibitory
neural responses, anecdotal reports from the participants
indicated that the stresses placed on the joints and muscles
with the submaximal intensity stretching especially at 50%
POD was perceived to be very light. Therefore, it would
seem unlikely that this intensity of stretching would have
placed undue stress on the joint receptors, mechanoreceptors,
Golgi tendon organs or highly activated the nociceptors.
Thus, the evidence seems to indicate that the stresses asso-
ciated with stretching to the POD or less are unlikely to
lead to prolonged inhibition due to neural inhibition. The
similar deWcits irrespective of the stretch intensity in the
present study might be attributed to similar changes in mus-
cle compliance. All stretching intensity protocols in the
present study signiWcantly increased stoop and reach ROM
measures by approximately 914%.
An acute bout of stretching has been reported to alter the
length and stiVness of the aVected limb musculotendinous
unit (MTU). Although the exact mechanisms responsible
for increases in ROM following stretching are debatable,
the increase has been attributed to decreased MTU stiVness
(Wilson et al. 1991, 1992) as well as increased tolerance to
stretch (Magnusson et al. 1996a). Studies have reported
both decreases (Magnusson et al. 1996b; Toft et al. 1989)
and no change (Magnusson et al. 1996a, 2000) in MTU
passive resistance or stiVness with an acute bout of stretch-
ing.
Changes in MTU stiVness might be expected to impact
the transmission of forces and the rate of force transmis-
sion, which are essential variables in the vertical jump
height. A slacker parallel and series elastic component
Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594 593
1 3
could increase the electromechanical delay by slowing the
period between myoWlament crossbridge kinetics and the
exertion of tension by the MTU on the skeletal system. A
lengthened muscle due to an acute bout of static stretching
could have a less than optimal cross-bridge overlap which,
according to the length tension relationship (Rassier et al.
1999), could diminish muscle force output. The elongation
of tendinous tissues can also have an eVect on force output
(Kawakami et al. 2002). Kokkonen et al. (1998) reported a
decrease in 1 RM for the knee extensors and Xexors after an
acute bout of passive stretching of both muscle groups for
20 min. They suggested that the stretching treatment might
have inXuenced maximal strength through a reduction in
either the passive or active stiVness of the MTU. Rosen-
baum and Hennig (1995) investigated the acute eVects of
prior exercise (warm-up and stretching) on Achilles tendon
reXex activity. They found a decrease in the reXexive peak
force and myoelectrical activity of the triceps surae. Addi-
tionally, they also found the passive peak force caused by a
tendon tap to be signiWcantly reduced following the stretch-
ing treatment. Decreases in peak twitch torque (post
stretch15 min recovery) following prolonged stretching
were implicated as evidence of impaired muscle contractile
force by Fowles et al. (2000). Since an evoked twitch
involves an incomplete saturation of the myoWlaments with
Ca
2+
(Binder-MacLeod and Lee 1996), resulting in signiW-
cantly less force than an MVC, the dramatically smaller
force of a twitch would be more sensitive to changes in
muscle stiVness. The similar deWcits in vertical jump height
irrespective of stretch intensity would suggest that it is not
the stretch-induced muscle or joint stress that impacts the
impairments, but the increase in muscle compliance pro-
vides the most signiWcant impediment.
The data analysis in the present study also indicated that
there were no changes in the depth of the centre of gravity
during the drop jumps, CMJ preferred and short amplitude
CMJ. Unlike the squat jump and CMJ 70 where the lower-
ing of the centre of gravity was controlled, the centre of
gravity depth could be altered in the other jumps. The ratio-
nale for measuring the depth of the centre of gravity was to
investigate whether the neuromuscular system would com-
pensate for a more compliant or less stiV MTU by increas-
ing the ROM over which force could be exerted. Hence,
would the neuromuscular system attempt to increase the
amount of work (force distance) or impulse (force
time) to achieve similar jump heights? The results of this
study indicated that there was no compensatory alteration
in the centre of gravity.
Furthermore, the acute stretching eVects did not have
speciWc eVects on the individual jumps whether they
emphasized plantar Xexors SSC (drop jumps), a brief quad-
riceps SSC (short amplitude CMJ), slower quadriceps SSC
(CMJ 70), self selected quadriceps SSC (CMJ preferred)
or a concentric only squat jump. However, there was a
trend (P = 0.06) towards a longer ground contact time with
the drop jump. This Wnding corresponds with Power et al.
(2004) who also reported increased ground contact times
during a drop jump following stretching to the POD. They
suggested that the increased contact times were further evi-
dence of the increased muscle compliance which adversely
aVected force output in their study. Furthermore, Kubo
et al. (2007) reported that pre-stretch augmentation with
both CMJ and drop jumps was related to tendon stiVness.
Hence, if an acute bout of static stretching whether at maxi-
mal or submaximal intensities decreased tendon compli-
ance, there could be a signiWcant eVect on jump height as
seen in the present study. Increased ground contact times
may be illustrative of the muscle or tendon compliance-
induced impairments to the rate of force transmission or
development.
There were no signiWcant changes in hip Xexion or
extension ROM tests following the stretching protocol. For
the supine hip Xexion measurement, the plastic goniometer
must be aligned precisely with the greater trochanter of the
femur and the distal segment of the limb. According to
Hubley-Kozey (1991), there is considerable diYculty in
locating the true joint centre with this method and aligning
the limbs. Similarly, it is important but also diYcult to
maintain contact of the hip with the mat when performing
the hip extension ROM test (Canadian Society for Exercise
Physiology 2003). Similar diYculties may have increased
the variability of these measurements in the present study.
The submaximal intensity stretches provided greater
stoop and reach scores than the maximal intensity stretches.
Stretches to the maximum POD might cause some minor
muscle damage similar to the eVects seen with the eccen-
tric-induced damage associated with delayed onset muscle
soreness (DOMS). The decreased ROM associated with
DOMS has been attributed to an increase in passive tension
(Reisman et al. 2005). Alternatively the excessive stretch
tension could also elicit greater myotatic stretch reXex
activity increasing the active stiVness of the muscle.
Conclusion
Similar to previous research incorporating acute bouts of
static stretching to the point of discomfort, submaximal
intensity static stretches in the present study resulted in
jump height deWcits for all jumps tested. While it is possi-
ble there were inhibitory neuromuscular eVects impacting
on the jumps, it is hypothesized that changes in muscle
compliance played the more signiWcant role in the impair-
ments. There were no changes in jump strategy (amplitude
of centre of gravity during eccentric phase) in attempt to
compensate for the static stretching-induced decrements.
594 Eur J Appl Physiol (2007) 101:587594
1 3
Therefore, it is recommended that static stretching of any
intensity above 50% of POD should not be conducted prior
to an athletic performance attempting to achieve maximum
jump heights. Although the statistically signiWcant changes
reported in this study were small (3 to 6%), the eVect size
descriptors of change in magnitude were moderate. While
the application of these Wndings may not translate into
highly detectable changes for the sedentary or recreation-
ally athletic individual, they could have major conse-
quences for the elite athlete for whom impairments of 3
6% could mean the diVerence between winning and losing.
Acknowledgments This research was supported by a grant from the
National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of
Canada and by a grant from the University of Kassel.
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