FLOW SENSOR

A flow sensor is a device for sensing the rate of fluid flow. Typically a flow sensor is the sensing
element used in a flow meter, or flow logger, to record the flow of fluids. As is true for all sensors,
absolute accuracy of a measurement requires a functionality or calibration.
There are various kinds of flow sensors and flow meters, including some that have a vane that is
pushed by the fluid, and can drive a rotary potentiometer, or similar devices.
Other flow sensors are based on sensors which measure the transfer of heat caused by the
moving medium. This principle is common for micro sensors to measure flow.
Flow meters are related to devices called velocimeters that measure velocity of fluids flowing
through them. Laser-based interferometer is often used for air flow measurement, but for liquids,
it is often easier to measure the flow. Another approach is Doppler-based methods for flow
measurement. Hall effect sensors may also be used, on a flapper valve, or vane, to sense the
position of the vane, as displaced by fluid flow.
Optical flow meters use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural
and industrial gases pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart in the flow path.
in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam.
The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photo detector, which then generates a pulse
signal. As the same particle crosses the second beam, the detecting optics collect scattered light
on a second photo detector, which converts the incoming light into a second electrical pulse. By
measuring the time interval between these pulses, the gas velocity is calculated as
where is the distance between the laser beams and is the time interval.
Laser-based optical flow meters measure the actual speed of particles, a property which is not
dependent on thermal conductivity of gases, variations in gas flow or composition of gases. The
operating principle enables optical laser technology to deliver highly accurate flow data, even in
challenging environments which may include high temperature, low flow rates, high pressure,
high humidity, pipe vibration and acoustic noise.
Optical flow meters are very stable with no moving parts and deliver a highly repeatable
measurement over the life of the product. Because distance between the two laser sheets does not
change, optical flow meters do not require periodic calibration after their initial commissioning.
Optical flow meters require only one installation point, instead of the two installation points
typically required by other types of meters. A single installation point is simpler, requires less
maintenance and is less prone to errors.
Commercially available optical flow meters are capable of measuring flow from 0.1 m/s to faster
than 100 m/s (1000:1 turn down ratio) and have been demonstrated to be effective for the
measurement of flare gases from oil wells and refineries, a contributor to atmospheric pollution.

3.3.1.1 FEATURES
i. Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade)
ii. Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor
iii. 0.5C accuracy guaranteed (at +25C)
iv. Rated for full55 to +150C range
v. Suitable for remote applications
vi. Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
vii. Operates from 4 to 30 volts
viii. Less than 60A current drain
ix. Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air
x. Nonlinearity only 1 4C typical


3.3.2HUMIDITY SENSOR

Fig 3.3 Humidity Sensor
According to the measurement units, humidity sensors are divided into two types: Relative
humidity (RH) sensors and absolute humidity (moisture) sensors. Most humidity sensors are
relative humidity sensors.
As there no real physical standard for relative humidity calibration, humidity instruments are not
specified properly. And it makes it really difficult for a user to compare the sensors from
different manufacturers. This makes it mandatory for a user to go deeper into the specifications
and attempt to verify the claims of the instrument manufacturer.
Humidity is the presence of water in air. The amount of water vapor in air can affect human
comfort as well as many manufacturing processes in industries. The presence of water vapor also
influences various physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Humidity measurement in industries is critical because it may affect the business cost of the
product and the health and safety of the personnel. Hence, humidity sensing is very important,
especially in the control systems for industrial processes and human comfort.
Controlling or monitoring humidity is of principal importance in many industrial & domestic
applications. In semiconductor industry, humidity or moisture levels needs to be properly
controlled & monitored during wafer processing. In medical applications, humidity control is
required for respiratory equipments, sterilizers, incubators, pharmaceutical processing, and
biological products.

Humidity control is also necessary in chemical gas purification, dryers, ovens, film desiccation,
paper and textile production, and food processing. In agriculture, measurement of humidity is
important for plantation protection (dew prevention), soil moisture monitoring, etc. For domestic
applications, humidity control is required for living environment in buildings, cooking control
for microwave ovens, etc. In all such applications and many others, humidity sensors are
employed to provide an indication of the moisture levels in the environment.
The humidity sensor HH10D is used for sensing humidity. Relative humidity is a measure, in
percentage of the vapour in the air compared to the total amount of vapour that could be held in
the air at a given temperature.HH10D gives the output in terms of frequency at a range of 5 kHz
to 10 kHz from frequency out pin.
3.3.2.1 FEATURES
i. Relative humidity sensor.
ii. Two point calibrated with capacitor type sensor, excellent performance.
iii. Frequency output type can be easily integrated with user application system.
iv. Very low power consumption.
v. No extra components needed.





3.3.2.2 SPECIFICATION:-

Range: 0% to 95%
Power: 0.0002 A @5Vdc
Response Time (time for 90% change in reading):
In still air: 60 minutes (typical)
With vigorous air movement: 40 seconds (typical)
Resolution: 0.04% RH
Stored calibration:
Slop: 30.43% per Volt
Intercept: -25.81%
Total accuracy (With saturated salt calibration): 2% RH
Total accuracy (With standard calibration): 10% RH
Operating Temperature Range: 0 to 85C
Temperature Effect on 0%RH voltage: 0.007% RH/C(negligible)
Temperature Effect on 50%RH voltage: 0.11% RH/C
Temperature Effect on 95%RH voltage: 0.22% RH/C


Piezo Vibration Sensor - Small Vertical

Description: The Minisense 100 from Measurement Specialties is a low-cost cantilever-type
vibration sensor loaded by a mass to offer high sensitivity at low frequencies. Useful for
detecting vibration and 'tap' inputs from a user. A small AC and large voltage (up to +/-90V) is
created when the film moves back an forth. A simple resistor should get the voltage down to
ADC levels. Can also be used for impact sensing or a flexible switch.Comes with solder pins that
allows for vertical mounting.


Features:
Flexible PVDF Piezo Polymer Film
Wide dynamic range
Laminated for higher voltage output
Breadboard friendly leads

WHATER LEVEL SENSOR
Wide spectrum of sensors is available in the market and commonly, they are classified
based on the specific application of the sensor. Sensor used for measuring humidity is
termed as humidity sensor, the one used for measurement of pressure is called pressure
sensor, sensor used for measurement of displacement is called position sensor and so on
though all of them may be using the similar sensing principle. In a similar fashion, the
sensor used for measurement of fluid levels is called a level sensor.

Quite obvious from its name, level sensors are used to measure the level of the free-
flowing substances. Such substances include liquids like water, oil, slurries, etc as well as
solids in granular/powder form (solids which can flow). These substances tend to get
settled in the container tanks due to gravity and maintain their level in rest state. Level
sensors measure their level against a pre-set reference.


FLEX SENSOR
Flex sensors are passive resistive devices that can be used to detect bending or flexing. The flex
sensor shown in this article is a bi-directional flex sensor that decreases its resistance in
proportion to the amount it is bent in either direction. The sensor we are building is about 3/8"
wide by 5" long. You can easily make a sensor wider and longer depending upon your
application:

Applications

Flex sensors may be used in robotics to determine joint movement or placement. They may also
be used like whiskers for wall detection. The sensors we are making are also pressure sensitive
so they can also be used as bumper switches for wall detection or pressure switches on robotic
grippers. For bio-metrics, the sensor can be placed on a moving joint of athletic equipment to
provide an electrical indication of movement or placement. A few of the sensors can be
incorporated onto a glove to make virtual reality glove
Load Sensors :

A load cell is a sensor or a transducer that converts a load or force acting on it into an electronic
signal. This electronic signal can be a voltage change, current change or frequency change
depending on the type of load cell and circuitry used.

Load cells or Load sensors as they are commonly called - can be made using resistive,
capacitive, inductive or other techniques. Most commonly available load cells are based on the
principle of change of resistance in response to an applied load. This is termed piezo-resistive
i.e. something that changes in response to an applied pressure (or squeezed). Loadstar Sensors
has pioneered the use of capacitive techniques to build rugged, small digital load cells with high
level USB, WiFi, XBee Wireless and Bluetooth outputs. We have over a dozen patents covering
various aspects of capacitive and digital load cells. We have also developed a variety of
convenient low cost easy to use, digital and analog interfaces that enable incorporation of load
cells and other sensors into a variety of applications.
Commonly available load cells include:
- S-Beam Load Cell
- Single Point Load Cells
- Shear Beam Load Cells
- Pancake Load Cells
- Button Load Cells
- Through hole Load cells and
- Miniature and Sub-Miniature load cells
Load Cells - How They Work?
Load cells are traditionally built using resistive bonded foil strain gauges (as shown in the picture
below). Strain gauges are essentially resistors built using standard semiconductor etching
techniques and are bonded to a metallic member such as a cantilever beam or diaphragm.

Usually at least four strain gauges are configured in a Wheatstone Bridge configuration with four
separate resistors connected as shown below in what is called a Wheatstone Bridge Network. An
excitation voltage - usually 10V is applied to one set of corners and the voltage difference is
measured between the other two corners. At equilibrium with no applied load, the voltage output
is zero or very close to zero when the four resistors are closely matched in value. That is why it
is referred to as a balanced bridge circuit.

When the metallic member to which the strain gauges are attached, is stressed by the application
of a force, the resulting strain - leads to a change in resistance in one (or more) of the resistors.
This change in resistance results in a change in output voltage. This small change in output
voltage can be measured and digitized after careful amplification of the small milli-volt level
signals to a higher amplitude 0-5V or 0-10V signal.
These load cells have been ins use for many decades now, and can provide very accurate
readings but require many tedious steps during the manufacturing process.
The steps involved in manufacturing strain gauge based load cells include:
Machining of an intricate pattern to optimize stress & strain on the mechanical member
Controlling surface roughness through surface polishing to ensure rough edges are
removed prior to bonding a strain gauge
Scoring to make alignment marks to align multiple strain gauges that need to be bonded
to create the Wheatstone bridge
Application of a bonding agent with matching temperature coefficients to the metal being
used
Applying even pressure on the strain gauge during the curing process to avoid lumpiness
along the bond
Curing at an elevated temperature in an oven to cure the bonding agent and temper the
bond
Applying a coating to protect the strain gauges and wiring from moisture and humidity
and environmental effects
Once the load cells are built, they need to be tested at different temperatures in order to ascertain
their drift with temperature. Thermistors are installed to reduce the temperature effect at zero
loads and then at full scale loads prior to final test and calibration.
As you can see - the resistive load cells are cumbersome to build and require many manual steps
during their manufacture.
However, when built properly from a trusted source, resistive load cells built with bonded foil
strain gauges, offer accuracies as good as +/- 0.02% of full scale! And when properly
compensated for temperature variations they can be used between -10C to 40C generally with
very good resistance to temperature variations. Finally, these load cells offer excellent off-center
load compensation and hence are very useful for building scales where the weight to be
measured could be placed randomly anywhere on the loading platform.
What are Capacitive Load Cells? How do they work?
Capacitive load cells are built on the principal of a change in capacitance when a force is applied
on the load cell. Capacitance is the ability of a system to store a charge. If a capacitor is built
using the classic parallel plate approach then its ability to store a charge is directly proportional
to the area between the two plates and inversely proportional to the gap between the plates.

The construction of a capacitive sensor is much simpler than constructing a resistive load cell. In
addition, by optimizing the starting gaps and/or overlap areas of the two plates, once can vary the
sensitivity and output signal to optimize it for various applications.
Capacitive techniques can be used to measure gaps (proximity), humidity, tilt, force, torque,
acceleration, fluid quality and many other physical parameters! It is a very versatile parameter
that offers tremendous sensitivities in a small package.
This capacitive technology is more rugged than strain gauge designs and can therefore be used in
a wider variety of engineering applications. When coupled with USB wireless technology, these
load sensors can be used for easy measurement on a PC and for data sharing on the Internet.
Load Sensors Available in Digital and Analog Designs
The iLoad Series Load cells built on our capacitance technology come built in with both analog-
and digital outputs! Using a simple hybrid adapter, one can simultaneously read the digital
output on a PC while measuring the analog output on a voltmeter or data acquisition system!
This unique hybrid output feature enables developers to monitor the sensor output on a PC while
debugging their embedded application which samples the analog output.
These units have a variety of features, including:
Digital and Analog (0-5V DC) output
Wired (Analog or Digital USB) and Wireless outputs (XBee Wireless, WiFi or
Bluetooth)
Rugged construction
Small sizes
High data output rates (> 500 Hz)
Versatile shapes and patterns
Sensitive readings for increased accuracy
Reduced environmental effects
Load sensors are available in a variety of sizes and capacities from 2 lbs to 10,000 lbs to suit
different engineering applications. Some models are only about a half inch diameter and only 0.1
inches high, so they can fit into tight locations such as when used in a medical device
application. While the standard circular shape works for most applications, custom fittings are
also available.
Loadstar Sensors, Inc. makes capacitive load cells with both analog and digital outputs. We also
sell a variety of PC friendly networking accessories and indicators in addition to our weight
based measurement and control software.

pH measurement
A very important measurement in many liquid chemical processes
(industrial, pharmaceutical, manufacturing, food production, etc.)
is that of pH: the measurement of hydrogen ion concentration in a
liquid solution. A solution with a low pH value is called an "acid,"
while one with a high pH is called a "caustic." The common pH scale
extends from 0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong caustic), with 7 in the
middle representing pure water (neutral):

pH is defined as follows: the lower-case letter "p" in pH stands for the
negative common (base ten) logarithm, while the upper-case letter
"H" stands for the element hydrogen. Thus, pH is a logarithmic
measurement of the number of moles of hydrogen ions (H+) per litre
of solution. Incidentally, the "p" prefix is also used with other types of
chemical measurements where a logarithmic scale is desired, pCO2
(Carbon Dioxide) and pO2 (Oxygen) being two such examples.

The logarithmic pH scale works like this: a solution with 10-12 moles
of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 12; a solution with 10-3 moles of H+
ions per liter has a pH of 3. While very uncommon, there is such a
thing as an acid with a pH measurement below 0 and a caustic with
a pH above 14. Such solutions, understandably, are quite concentrated
and extremely reactive.
While pH can be measured by color changes in certain chemical powders
(the "litmus strip" being a familiar example from high school chemistry
classes), continuous process monitoring and control of pH requires a
more sophisticated approach. The most common approach is the use
of a specially-prepared electrode designed to allow hydrogen ions in
the solution to migrate through a selective barrier, producing a
measurable potential (voltage) difference proportional to the solution's
pH:

The design and operational theory of pH electrodes is a very complex
subject, explored only briefly here. What is important to understand is
that these two electrodes generate a voltage directly proportional to
the pH of the solution. At a pH of 7 (neutral), the electrodes will produce
0 volts between them. At a low pH (acid) a voltage will be developed
of one polarity, and at a high pH (caustic) a voltage will be developed
of the opposite polarity.

An unfortunate design constraint of pH electrodes is that one of them
(called the measurement electrode) must be constructed of special
glass to create the ion-selective barrier needed to screen out hydrogen
ions from all the other ions floating around in the solution. This glass is
chemically doped with lithium ions, which is what makes it react
electrochemically to hydrogen ions. Of course, glass is not exactly what
you would call a "conductor;" rather, it is an extremely good insulator.
This presents a major problem if our intent is to measure voltage between
the two electrodes. The circuit path from one electrode contact, through
the glass barrier, through the solution, to the other electrode, and back
through the other electrode's contact, is one of extremely high resistance.
The other electrode (called the reference electrode) is made from a
chemical solution of neutral (7) pH buffer solution (usually potassium
chloride) allowed to exchange ions with the process solution through a
porous separator, forming a relatively low resistance connection to the
test liquid. At first, one might be inclined to ask: why not just dip a metal
wire into the solution to get an electrical connection to the liquid? The
reason this will not work is because metals tend to be highly reactive
in ionic solutions and can produce a significant voltage across the
interface of metal-to-liquid contact. The use of a wet chemical interface
with the measured solution is necessary to avoid creating such a voltage,
which of course would be falsely interpreted by any measuring device
as being indicative of pH.

Here is an illustration of the measurement electrode's construction.
Note the thin, lithium-doped glass membrane across which the pH
voltage is generated:

Here is an illustration of the reference electrode's construction. The
porous junction shown at the bottom of the electrode is where the
potassium chloride buffer and process liquid interface with each other:

The measurement electrode's purpose is to generate the voltage
used to measure the solution's pH. This voltage appears across the
thickness of the glass, placing the silver wire on one side of the voltage
and the liquid solution on the other. The reference electrode's purpose
is to provide the stable, zero-voltage connection to the liquid solution
so that a complete circuit can be made to measure the glass electrode's
voltage. While the reference electrode's connection to the test liquid
may only be a few kilo-ohms, the glass electrode's resistance may
range from ten to nine hundred mega-ohms, depending on electrode
design! Being that any current in this circuit must travel through both
electrodes' resistances (and the resistance presented by the test liquid
itself), these resistances are in series with each other and therefore
add to make an even greater total.