ESL-English As Second Language

1
Introduction
This is a course of lessons and practice on the system of English. It is divided into eighty-six sections.
Each section covers an area of basic grammar and contains a number of exercises. The exercises are
not all the same length. Some exercises have only five questions, but others have up to nine
questions. This is because some areas of grammar are more important than others. This course tests
your knowledge of English grammar and, more importantly, it gives you practice in using your
knowledge to make correct and appropriate sentences. When you do the exercises, you will see that
grammar is not just a game. Grammar has meaning - if you change some of the grammar in a
sentence, you also change its meaning.
About "Use of Mobile Learning to Prepare ESL Adults for the Workplace"
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Mobile ESL Author Visit and Workshop
Table of Contents Page
A. The Basic Sentence (Units 1-7) 05 - 20
B. Questions (Units 8-13) 21 - 37
C. Verbs (Units 14-41) 38 - 108
D. The Passive (Units 42-44) 109 - 116
E. The Noun Phrase (Units 45-60) 117 - 151
F. Types of Sentences (Units 61-63) 152 - 161
G. Adjectives and Adverbs (Units 64-67) 162 - 168
H. Comparison (Units 68-70) 169 - 175
I. When? (Units 71-73) 176 - 185
J. Where? (Units 74-79) 186 - 199
K. How and Why? (Units 80-82) 200 - 207
L. Connecting Ideas (Units 83-86) 208 - 217
M. Appendices 218 - 233
A. The Basic Sentence (Unit 1-7)
1. The Basic Sentence, ex. 1.1 05
2. The Subject, ex. 2.1, 2.2 07
3. The Verb, ex. 3.1 09
4. Subject and Verb, ex. 4.1, 4.2 11
5. Negative Sentences, ex. 5.1 13
6. Short Forms, ex. 6.1 15
7. Word Order, ex. 7.1, 7.2 17
B. Questions (Unit 8-13)
8. Question Words, ex. 8.1, 8.2 21
9. Making Questions, ex. 9.1, 9.2 25
10. What can you ask?, ex. 10.1 29
11. Short Answers, ex. 11.1, 11.2 31
12. Tag Questions, ex. 33
13. Making Questions, ex. 13.1, 13.2 35

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C. Verbs (Unit 14-41)
14. Verb Forms, ex. 14.1, 14.2, 14.3 38
15. Using the Verb Forms, ex. 15.1, 15.2 41
16. The Verb Be, ex. 16.1 44
17. Auxiliary Verbs: Do/Have/Be, ex. 17.1, 17.2 46
18. Imperative , ex. 18.1 48
19. Present Simple -- Formation, ex. 19.1, 19.2 50
20. Present Simple -- Use, ex. 20.1 52
21. Past Simple, ex. 21.1 54
22. Present Continuous, ex. 22.1, 22.2 56
23. Past Continuous, ex. 23.1, 23.2 58
24. Present Perfect -- Formation, ex. 24.1 61
25. Present Perfect -- Use, ex. 25.1 63
26. Past Perfect, ex. 26.1, 26.2, 26.3, 26.4 65
27. Modal Verbs, ex. 27.1, 27.2, 27.3, 27.4 68
28. Can 73
29. Could, ex. 29.1 74
30. May and Might, ex. 30.1, 30.2 76
31. Will and Shall, ex. 31.1 78
32. Would, ex. 32.1 80
33. Must and Should, ex. 33.1, 33.2 82
34. Have to/Need to/Needn't, ex. 34.1 84
35. Necessity and Advice, ex. 35.1, 35.2 87
36. Other Modal Constructions, ex. 36.1, 36.2 89
37. Be Going to, ex. 37.1, 37.2, 37.3 92
38. Used to, ex. 38.1, 38.2 95
39. Verbs and Present Time, ex. 39.1, 39.2 98
40. Verbs and Past Time, ex. 40.1, 40.2, 40.3 101
41. Verbs and Future Time, ex. 41.1, 41.2 105
D. The Passive (Unit 42-44)
42. Passive Sentences, ex. 42.1, 42.2 109
43. Passive Verb Formations, ex. 43.1, 43.2, 43.3 112
44. Using the Passive, ex. 44.1, 44.2 115
E. The Noun Phrase (Unit 45-60)
45. Nouns & Noun Phrases 117
46. Plurals of Unit Nouns, ex. 46.1, 46.2 118
47. Mass Nouns, ex. 47.1 120
48. Proper Nouns and Verbal Nouns, ex. 48.1, 48.2 122

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49. Genitive, ex. 49.1, 49.2, 49.3 124
50. Personal Pronouns, ex. 50.1 128
51. A/An/Some/Any, ex. 51.1, 51.2, 51.3 131
52. The 134
53. Nouns Without The or A 135
54. The Correct Article, ex. 54.1, 54.2, 54.3, 54.4 136
55. This/That/These/Those, ex. 55.1 139
56. Mass and Unit in Sentences, ex. 56.1, 56.2 141
57. Quantity, ex. 57.1, 57.2, 57.3 143
58. Both/Either/Neither, ex. 58.1 146
59. One, ex. 59.1, 59.2 148
60. Relative Clauses, ex. 60.1 150
F. Types of Sentences (Unit 61-63)
61. Empty Subjects, ex. 61.1 152
62. Simple Sentence Types, ex. 62.1, 62.2 154
63. Complex Sentence Types, ex. 63.1, 63.2, 63.3 158
G. Adjectives and Adverbs (Unit 64-67)
64. Adjectives and Adverbs 162
65. Position of Adjectives 163
66. Position of Adverbs, ex. 66.1 164
67. Some Important Adverbs, ex. 67.1, 67.2 167
H. Comparison (Unit 68-70)
68. Forms for Comparison, ex. 68.1 169
69. Comparing Two, ex. 69.1, 69.2, 69.3 171
70. Comparing Three or More, ex. 70.1 174
I. When? (Unit 71-73)
71. Adverbs of Time, ex. 71.1, 71.2, 71.3 176
72. Prepositions of Time, ex. 72.1, 72.2, 72.3 179
73. How Often?, ex. 73.1, 73.2 182
J. Where? (Unit 74-79)
74. In the World, ex. 74.1, 74.2 186
75. In a Town, ex. 75.1, 75.2 189
76. Outdoors, ex. 76.1, 76.2, 76.3 191
77. Indoors, ex. 77.1 194
78. In a Room 196
79. Objects and People, ex. 79.1, 79.2, 79.3 197
K. How and Why? (Unit 80-82)
80. How?, ex. 80.1 200
81. Purpose and Use, ex. 81.1, 81.2 202
82. Reason and Consequence, ex. 82.1, 82.2, 82.3 205
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L. Connecting Ideas (Unit 83-86)
83. Similar Ideas, ex. 83.1, 83.2, 83.3 208
84. Opposite Ideas, ex. 84.1, 84.2 211
85. Sequence of Events, ex. 85.1, 85.2, 85.3 213
86. Conditions, ex. 86.1 215
M. Appendices
APPENDIX 1: THE ALPHABET 218
APPENDIX 2: USING CAPITAL LETTERS 218
APPENDIX 3: BASIC PUNCTUATION 219
APPENDIX 4: SPELLING AND SPEAKING 220
APPENDIX 5: SPELLING: -s FORM OF VERBS AND NOUNS 221
APPENDIX 6: SPELLING: -ing FORMS 222
APPENDIX 7: SPELLING: -ed/-er/-est FORMS 223
APPENDIX 8: SPELLING: -ly ADVERBS 224
APPENDIX 9: NUMBERS 224
APPENDIX 10: IRREGULAR VERBS FOR REFERENCE 226
APPENDIX 11: IRREGULAR VERBS FOR LEARNING 230
APPENDIX 12: TELLING THE TIME 232
APPENDIX 13: DATES 233
Source code for this project can be downloaded here
Acknowledgements
Sponsors: Canadian Council on Learning, Alberta Science and Research Authority, Canada
Foundation for Innovation, Athabasca University, Canadian Virtual University, National
Adult Literacy Database
Author: Dr. J ames O'Driscoll
Project Directors: Dr. Rory McGreal, Dr. Mohamed Ally, Steve Schafer
Team members: Billy Cheung, Colin Elliott, Mattana Chan, Maureen Hutchison, Regina
Wasti, Shubhash Wasti, Tony Tin, Tracey Woodburn, Yang Cao
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www.eslau.ca/

5

A. The Basic Sentence (Unit 1-7)
Unit 1: THE BASIC SENTENCE
Every sentence has a subject and a verb.
Subject and verb
works is not a sentence because we do not learn who or what works; there is a verb, but no subject.
J ohn is not a sentence; there is no verb.
J ohn works is a sentence; there is a subject (John) and a verb (works).
J ohn, the manager of the store is not a sentence; there is no verb. We do not learn how J ohn and the
manager of the store go together.
Here are some sentences:
[s]:Subject, [v]:Verb
[s] J ohn [v] is the manager of the store.
[s] J ohn [v] works for the manager of the store.
[s] J ohn [v] is talking to the manager of the store.
[s] The mountains of Nepal [v] are the highest in the world.
[s] The house on the hill [v] is very old.
Word order
If a sentence tells us something (a statement), the verb goes after the subject. If a sentence asks us
something (a question), one word of the verb goes before the subject.
STATEMENT [s] J ohn [v] is riding a bicycle.
QUESTION [v] Is [s] J ohn [v] riding a bicycle?

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Exercise 1.1: The Sentence
Look at the words below. Are they sentences or not? Answer True or False.
Example: She student. Answer: False.
1. J ohn a manager.
True False
2. J ohn is a manager.
True False
3. Works six days a week.
True False
4. He works six days a week.
True False
5. Are you a student?
True False
6. I a student.
True False
7. I work
True False
8. He very happy about it.
True False
9. Is he happy about it?
True False

Exercise 1.1: The Sentence
Look at the words below. Are they sentences or not? Answer True or False.
Example: She student. Answer: False.
1. J ohn a manager.
Correct. The correct answer is False.
2. J ohn is a manager.
Correct. The correct answer is True.
3. Works six days a week.
4. He works six days a week.
6. I a student.
7. I work.
8. He very happy about it.
9. Is he happy about it?
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Unit 2: THE SUBJECT
The subject of every sentence is either SINGULAR (=one) or PLURAL (=two or more).
The subject of a sentence is always one of these (with examples):
1st person
SINGULAR: I
PLURAL: we, J ohn and I
2nd person
SINGULAR: you
PLURAL: you, you and Maria
3rd person
SINGULAR: he, she, it, J ohn, Mrs J ones, the manager, the manager of the bookshop, the manager
of the store on the corner, a friend, one of my friends, money, swimming, England
PLURAL: they, Mr and Mrs J ones, people, the women, some of my friends from the store,
swimming and riding, France and England, money problems
The subject can be one word or more than one word.
With 3rd person, it is important to know if the subject is singular or plural because the form of the
verb is sometimes different (Unit 4). Only one word of the subject tells you the answer. For example:
one in "one of my friends" is singular.
problems in "money problems" is plural.
subjects with and are plural.
NOTICE: We use I, you, we, they for both men and women.

8

Exercise 2.1: The Subject
Find the subject in the sentences below.
Example: The new factory is opening tomorrow.
Subject: The new factory
1. The Nile is the longest river in Africa.
Subject: Correct. The Nile
2. My luggage has been lost.
Subject: Correct. My luggage
3. Oranges and apples are both very cheap here.
Subject: Correct. Oranges and apples
4. Maria is working at the factory.
Subject: Correct. Maria
5. The factory makes spare parts for cars.
Subject: Correct. The factory

Exercise 2.2: Singular or Plural
Find the word that decides whether the subject is singular or plural.
Example: One of my days at school
The Word: One
1. One of the best students in the class
Word: Correct. One
2. Money problems
Word: Correct. Problems
3. The result of yesterday's matches
Word: Correct. Result
4. Tomorrow's program
Word: Correct. Program
5. The doors of the car
Word: Correct. Doors
6. The company's employees
Word: Correct. Employees

The Nile
My luggage
Oranges and apples
Maria
The factory
One
problems
result
program
doors
employees
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Unit 3: THE VERB
The verb of a sentence can be:
one word - He works in an office
two words - He is working in the office
three words - He has been working in the office
or even four words - He must have been working in the office
In the sentences above, work (works and working) is an example of a LEXICAL VERB. Lexical
verbs give basic information. Every simple sentence has one lexical verb in it.
In the sentences above, the words between He and work are examples of AUXILIARY VERBS.
There are not many auxiliary verbs. They are: do, have, be, can, could, will, would, shall, should,
may, might, must.
They are very important because we can use them together with lexical verbs. For example:
[a]:AUXILIARY [l]:LEXICAL
Where [a] shall I [l] meet you?
[a] Is J ohn [l] coming to the party? No, he [a] is not.
He [a] does not [l] like parties, [a] does he?
[a] Have they [l] finished? Yes, they [a] have.
We use auxiliary verbs to:
make a negative sentence (Unit 5)
make a question (Unit 9)
give a short answer (Unit 11)
make a tag question (Unit 12)
make passive sentences (Unit 43)
show what we feel about what we are saying (Unit 27)
and in continuous and perfect verb formations (Unit 15)
To learn about do, have, be as auxiliaries, look at Unit 17.
The other auxiliaries are called MODAL VERBS. You can learn about them in Unit 27.

10

Exercise 3.1: The verb
Find the verb in the sentences below.
Example: The factory is opening tomorrow.
The Verb: is opening
Verb: Correct. Are
2. Yes , I am.
Verb: Correct. Am
3. J ohn plays football.
Verb: Correct. Plays
4. He has been playing football the whole afternoon.
Verb: Correct. Whole
5. I like coffee.
Verb: Correct. Like
6. I would like some coffee now.
Verb: Correct. Would like
7. I have seen that film three times.
Verb: Correct. Have seen
8. My wallet has been stolen.
Verb: Correct. Has been stolen
9. We often think about you.
Verb: Correct. Think

Are
am
plays
whole
like
would like
have seen
has been stolen
think
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Unit 4: SUBJECT AND VERB
With past tense verbs, the formation of the verb is the same for all subjects. But in the present tense,
the first word of the verb changes for 3rd person singular (Unit 2). However, the verb be is different.
All verbs except be
PRESENT TENSE
3rd person singular (Unit 2) -- use the s form (Unit 14):
She likes hot weather.
This heater uses gas.
The game has finished.
Does he play tennis?
All other persons -- use base form (Unit 14):
I like hot weather.
These heaters use gas.
The games have finished.
Do you play tennis?
NOTICE: Only the first word of the verb changes.
We say: The game has finished. (NOT has finisheds)
Does he play tennis? (NOT does he plays )
NOTICE: Modal verbs (Unit 27) do not have an s form.
We say:
He will come. (NOT wills come )
PAST TENSE
We use the past form (Unit 14) for all persons.
The verb be
1ST PERSON SINGULAR:
Present: I am tired.
Past: I was tired.
Present: I am going home.
Past: I was going home.
3RD PERSON SINGULAR:
Present: Maria is tired.
Past: Maria was tired.
Present: She is going home.
Past: She was going home.
ALL OTHER PERSONS:
Present: You are tired.
Past: You were tired.
Present: We are going home.
Past: We were going home.
Present: They are sleeping.
Past: They were sleeping.
NOTICE: The other forms of be (be, been, being - Unit 16) are the same for all persons.

12

Exercise 4.1: Agreement with the verb "be" - present tense
Fill in the blank with am, is or are.
Example: Where ____ the children?
Answer: Where are the children?

1. We __are__ very happy.
Correct.
2. My friend J ohn __is__ there with me.
Correct.
3. __Are__ Maria and you coming to the party this evening?
Correct.
4. Sorry, __am__ I taking your seat?
Correct.
5. We __are__ computer technicians.
Correct.

Exercise 4.2: Agreement with the verb "be" - past tense
Fill in the blank with was or were.
Example: Where ____ the children yesterday?
Answer: Where were the children yesterday?

1. I __was__ born in 1966.
Correct.
2. We __were__ good students.
Correct.
3. The company's employees __were__ not very rich.
Correct.
4. The car doors __were__ locked
Correct.
5. One of the players __was__ very good.
Correct.

are
is
are
am
are
was
were
were
were
was
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Unit 5: NEGATIVE SENTENCES
We put not after the first word of the verb. In speaking, we often use the short form (n't).
With the verb be
I am not a thief.
They aren't coming.
It wasn't very cold there.
He is not a teacher.
With one-word verb formations
Put the correct form of the verb do (Unit 15) before not.
[A]:AFFIRMATIVE, [N]:NEGATIVE
[A] Heworks on Fridays.
[N] Hedoes not work on Saturdays.
[A] These shops sell food.
[N] They do not sell food.
[A] They arrived by bus.
[N] They didn't arrive by train.
With other verb formations
Put not after the first auxiliary verb.
I haven't seen him for five years.
Our team has not been beaten this season.
He wouldn't have gone if he had known.
They aren't doing math this term.
Word agreement
Look at the different words in AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE sentences.
[A] J ohn is going somewhere but
[N] Maria isn't going anywhere.
[A] J ohn has got some money but
[N] Maria hasn't got any money.
[A] They have got a lot of money but
[N] we haven't got much money.
[A] I've got a lot of friends but
[N] he hasn't got many friends.
[A] J ohn and Maria have already left but
[N] we haven't left yet.
[A] J ohn is leaving too and
[N] Maria isn't staying either.

14

Exercise 5.1: Sentences with "not"
Complete the sentence in Column A by choosing the correct phrase from Column B. Type the letter
of the sentence you choose in the numbered box.
Question 1
Column A
1. These shops sell food but they _E___.
2. Maria passed the math exam but she _D___.
3. She knows Mario but she _A___.
4. I went to Italy but I _C___.
5. It has been raining but it _B___.
Column B
A. does not know J ohn.
B. has not been snowing.
C. did not go to France.
D. did not pass the physics exam.
E. do not sell drinks.
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

E D A C B
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Unit 6: SHORT FORMS
When people speak, they usually make some words shorter. We can show this in writing with an
apostrophe: ('). Here are some important examples.
Not
isn't -- is not
aren't -- are not
wasn't -- was not
don't -- do not
can't -- cannot
didn't -- did not
wouldn't -- would not
hasn't -- has not
haven't -- have not
NOTICE ESPECIALLY: won't =will not
NOTICE: We say: I'm not, NOT amn't.
Be
I'm -- I am
she's -- she is
you're -- you are
it's -- it is
he's -- he is
they're -- they are
NOTICE: We can shorten be or not but not both together. For example, we can say it's not or it
isn't but NOT it'sn't.
Will
I'll -- I will
they'll -- they will
Would
I'd -- I would
you'd -- you would
Have
I've -- I have
it's -- it has
I'd -- I had
they've -- they have
he's -- he has
you'd -- you had
NOTICE: 's can be is or has or GENITIVE (Unit 49)
Examples: Maria's going or Maria's gone or Maria's pen
NOTICE: 'd can be had or would
Examples: He'd gone or He'd go
NOTICE: We always use short forms in tag questions (Unit 12), but we do not use them in
affirmative short answers (Unit 11), or in questions asking for yes or no or when we want to say
something strongly
(I am sorry =I'm very sorry).

16

Exercise 6.1: Short forms - reading
What are the full forms of the underlined words?
Example: What's your name?
Answer: is
1. This exercise isn't very difficult.
Correct. Not
2. It's easy.
Correct. Is
3. It won't take much time.
Correct. Will not
4. I think I'll be finished in five minutes.
Correct. I will
5. I've answered four questions already.
Correct. Have
6. J ohn's already done all of them.
Correct. Has
7. He's going home now.
Correct. Is
8. He's got a new car.
Correct. Has

not
is
will not
I will
have
has
is
has
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Unit 7: WORD ORDER
These two sentences have opposite meanings:
Brazil beat Spain 4-2. Brazil won and Spain lost.
Spain beat Brazil 4-2. Spain won and Brazil lost.
The form of the words in these sentences cannot help us to understand that their meanings are
different. Only the order of the words tells us the meaning. Word order is very important in English.
Here are some basic rules.
In statements, the subject always comes before the verb.
[s] J ohn [v] woke up.
[s] He [v] could not sleep after that.
Each night[s] he [v] had the same problem.
[s] The airport [v] was nearby.
[s] The planes [v]used to make a terrible noise.
In questions a part of the verb must come before the subject (Unit 9).
Only adverbs (Unit 64) can go between subject and verb, especially
A. frequency adverbs (Unit 73):
[s] They never [v] have time to watch TV.
B. these words: almost, already, also, just, nearly and still
[s] They also [v] work in the evenings.
No other kind of word can go in this position.
If subject and verb alone are not enough to complete the sentence, the other part of the sentence goes
after them (never before them).
For example: J ohn was, J ohn bought, J ohn gave, J ohn put
are not good sentences by themselves. They need something else to complete them.
[C]:CORRECT, [W]:WRONG
[C] J ohn was a student.
[W] John a student was.
[W] A student John was.
[C] J ohn bought a book.
[W] John a book bought.
[W] A book John bought.
[C] J ohn gaveMaria the book.
[W John Maria the book gave.
[W] Maria the book John gave.

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[C] J ohn put the book on the table.
[W] John the book on the table put.
[W] The book on the table John put.
NOTICE: Different verbs need different kinds of words to complete a sentence (Units 62 and 63).
If we want to put in some extra information about the sentence, it must go at the beginning or the end
(not anywhere in the middle).
[E]:EXTRA, [B]:BASIC
[B] J ohn was a student [E] in Vancouver for five years.
[E] In the town [B] J ohn bought a book [E] to give to Maria.
[B] J ohn gave Maria the book [E] for her birthday.
[B] J ohn put the book here [E] last night.
[E] In November [B] the weather became cold.
[E] In the end [B] I found the book [E] in the bedroom.

19

Exercise 7.1: Subject and verb
Find the word or words which form the subject and the word or words which form the verb.

Example: My cousin has always had good luck in life.
Answer: Subject: My cousin, Verb: has...had
1. Do you like football?
Subject: Correct. You
Verb: Correct. Do.like
2. Why don't you try it some time?
Subject: Correct. You
Verb: Correct. Donttry
3. The bank opened at nine o'clock.
Subject: Correct. The bank
Verb: Correct. Opened
4. Ten minutes later, the robbers arrived.
Subject: Correct. The robbers
Verb: Correct. Arrived
5. The bank clerks gave the robbers all the money.
Subject: Correct. The bank clerks
Verb: Correct. Gave

Exercise 7.2: Word order
Change the order of the words or groups of words to make a correct sentence.
Example:
1. am
2. very happy
3. I
Answer: 312
Question 1
1. is
2. terrible
3. the weather today
Correct order: Correct. 3. the weather today 1.is 2.terrible
Question 2
1. stronger and stronger
2. getting
3. the wind
4. is
Correct order: Correct. 3. the wind 4.is 2.getting 1.stronger and stronger

you
Do...like
you
don't...try
the bank
opened
the robbers
arrived
the bank clerks
gave
312
3421
20

Question 3
1. all ferryboats
2. been
3. cancelled
4. have
Correct order: Correct. 1. all ferryboats 4.have 2.been 3.cancelled
Question 4
1. feeling
2. the passengers
3. were
4. very sick
Correct order: Correct. 2. the passengers 3.were 1.feeling 4.very sick
Question 5
1. on that boat
2. travelling
3. was
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 3.was 2.travelling 1.on that boat
Question 6
1. not
2. enjoy myself
3. I
4. did
Correct order: Correct. 3. I 4.did 1.not 2.enjoy myself
Question 7
1. had
2. I
3. been feeling well
4. not
Correct order: Correct. 2. I 1.had 4.not 3.been feeling well
Question 8
1. after the journey
2. much worse
3. felt
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 3.felt 2.much worse 1.after the journey
Question 9
1. by
2. bad weather
3. never travel
4. boat in
Correct order: Correct. 3. never travel 1.by 4.boat in 2.bad weather

1423
2314
4321
3412
2143
4321
3142
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B. Questions (Unit 8-13)

Unit 8: QUESTION WORDS
Question words ask for new information. They go at the beginning of the sentence.
Basic question words
Some examples of BASIC QUESTION WORDS with ANSWERS:
Who ...?
John bought an MP3 player.
What ...?
J ohn bought an MP3 player.
When ...?
He bought it yesterday.
Where ...?
He bought it at the electronics store.
Which...?
He got the small MP3 player (not the big one).
How ...?
He carried it homecarefully.
Whose ...?
It is John's MP3 player.
Why ...?
He bought it to listen to music.
NOTICE: Instead of why, we can say: What did he buy it for?
How + word
How big ...?
The MP3 player was quite small.
How small ...?
The MP3 player was quite small.
How much ...?
The MP3 player cost one hundred dollars.
How many dollars ...?
The MP3 player cost one hundred dollars.

22

How long ... (for) ?
He saved to buy it for over two months.
How far ...?
It's five kilometres to the electronics store.
How often...?
J ohn goes there three times a week.
What kind of ... ?
This is a way to ask about something so that we can tell it from other types of the same thing.
What kind of MP3 player ...?
It's a small, 10-gigabyte memory one.
What kind of car ...?
It was a Toyota sport-utility vehicle.
What ... like?
This is a way to ask for a very general description.
What is the weather like there?
It's hot and humid.
What is J ohn like?
He's a very friendly person.

23

Example:
1. am
2. very happy
3. I
Answer: 312
Question 1
1. are you going
2. ?
3. where
Correct order: Correct. 3.where 1.are you going 2.?
Question 2
1. were they doing
2. what
3. last night
4. ?
Correct order: Correct. 2.what 1.were they doing 3.last night 4.?
Question 3
1. university
2. did he go to
3. ?
4. which
Correct order: Correct. 4.which 1.university 2.did he go to 3.?
Question 4
1. does that painting cost
2. ?
3. much
4. how
Correct order: Correct. 4.how 3.much 1.does that painting cost 2.?
Question 5
1. like
2. is the weather
3. ?
4. what
Correct order: Correct. 4.what 2.is the weather 1.like 3.?

312
2134
4123
4312
4213
24

Exercise 8.2: Using question words
Look at the part of the sentence in italics. This part is the answer to a question. How does the
question begin? Choose your answer from the choices provided for each question.
Example: That car can go at 200 km/h.
Answer: How fast...?
1. He is at least seventy years old.
Correct. How old.?
2. He was born a very long time ago.
Correct. When.?
3. He had three brothers and two sisters.
Correct. How many.?
4. He went to elementary school in Vancouver.
Correct. Where.?
5. Vancouver is 800 kilometres from Edmonton.
Correct. How far.?

How old...?
When...?
How many...?
Where...?
How far...?
25

Unit 9: MAKING QUESTIONS
Question formation is usually different from the formation of statements. We either change the word
order or use do.
With be (Unit 16)
Put the verb before the subject.
[S]:STATEMENT, [Q]:QUESTION
[S] They are French.
[Q] Are they French?
[S] His father's name is Patrick.
[Q] What is his father's name?
With one-word verb formations
Put the correct form of the verb do before the subject.
Present tense: 3rd person singular (Unit 2)
[S] She works in a bank.
[Q] Does she work in a bank?
Present tense: all other persons
[S] They live near the airport.
[Q] Where do they live?
Past tense:
[S] They left last week.
[Q] When did they leave?
NOTICE: After do, use only the base form of the verb.
We say:
Does he work? NOT does he works
Did she go? NOT did she goes
NOTICE: Do can also be the lexical verb (Unit 3) of a sentence. For example:
We say:
What do you do?
What does he do?
What did she do?

26

Put the first word (only) of the verb before the subject.
[S] They are watching television.
[Q] Are they watching television?
[S] I can see the plane.
[Q] Can you see the plane?
[S] She has gone to England to study.
[Q] Why has she gone to England?
[S] The new airport will be built here.
[Q] Where will the new airport be built?
[S] It has been snowing for two hours.
[Q] How long has it been snowing?
NOTICE: It does not matter how many words there are in the subject. One word of the verb always goes
before it.
We say:
Do the people who live on the corner have another house?
When will the new terminal for the Toronto Airport be finished?
BUT if the question word is also the subject, we do not put anything before it (Unit 10).
Word agreement
We normally use 'negative words' (Unit 5) with questions:
Have you got any money?
NOT some
Have you finished yet?
NOT already
But if we think or hope that the answer to the question will be yes, we can use 'affirmative words':
Have you got some money?
You are my friend, and I want to borrow some from you.
Have you finished already?
It seems to me that you are finished, but this surprises me.
It is better to ask Would you like some coffee? Because we hope the answer will be yes. It is friendly.

27

Example:
1. am
2. very happy
3. I
Answer: 312
Question 1
1. ?
2. like
3. you
4. tomatoes
5. do
Correct order: Correct. 5. do 3.you 2.like 4.tomatoes 1.?
Question 2
1. does
2. belong to
3. that car
4. ?
5. who
Correct order: Correct. 5. who 1.does 3.that car 2.belong to 4.?
Question 3
1. you
2. do
3. ?
4. when we arrive
5. know
Correct order: Correct. 2. do 1.you 5.know 4.when we arrive 3.?
Question 4
1. where he is
2. ?
3. you
4. know
5. do
Correct order: Correct. 5. do 3.you 4.know 1.where he is 2.?
Question 5
1. you
2. have
3. been doing
4. ?
5. what
Correct order: Correct. 5. what 2.have 1.you 3. been doing 4.?

53241
51324
21543
53412
52134
28

Exercise 9.2: Making questions
Complete the questions in Column A by using phrases from Column B to fill in the blanks. Type the
letter you choose in the numbered box.
Question 1
Column A
1. Where __E__ go yesterday? I went to school.
2. __C__ come to the party? Yes, I will if I have time.
3. When __B__ up this morning? I got up at half past six.
4. Why __A__ driving so slowly? There's a police car behind us.
5. Why __D__ finish that report? Because I was too tired.
Column B
A. are you
B. did you get
C. Will you
D. didn't you
E. did you
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

E C B A D
29

Unit 10: SUBJECT QUESTIONS
To ask a question about the subject of a sentence, the word order is exactly the same as the word
order for a statement. The form of the verb is exactly the same too.
Look at this statement:
[s] J ohn [v] met Maria at the station.
Now look at these two questions and answers:
[Q]:QUESTION, [A]:ANSWER
[Q] Who did J ohn meet?
[A] Maria (not the subject)
[Q] Who met Maria?
[A] J ohn (the subject)
In the second sentence, we are asking about the subject of the sentence. Here are some more
examples of subject questions:
Something happened in the kitchen.
What happened in the kitchen?
Someone knows a lot about physics.
Who knows a lot about physics?
Someone's writing is the best.
Whose writing is the best?
Some students are leaving on Monday.
Which students are leaving on Monday?
Hundreds of workers have been given a pay raise.
How many workers have been given a pay raise?
NOTICE: We do not use when or where in subject questions.

30

Exercise 10.1: What can you ask?
Please make correct sentences using the words below.
Question 1
1. which
2. are arriving
3. teams
4. tomorrow?
Correct order: Correct. 1.which 3.teams 2.are arriving 4.tomorrow?
Question 2
1. many
2. how
3. arrived late?
4. students
Correct order: Correct. 2.how 1.many 4.students 3.arrived late?
Question 3
1. did
2. who
3. Carrie
4. meet?
Correct order: Correct. 2.who 1.did 3.Carrie 4.meet?
Question 4
1. Carrie
2. met
3. at the station?
4. who
Correct order: Correct. 4.who 2.met 1.Carrie 4.at the station?
Question 5
1. what
2. in the
3. happened
4. classroom?
Correct order: Correct. 1.what 3.happened 2.in the 4.classroom?

1324
2143
2134
4213
1324
31

Unit 11: SHORT ANSWERS
We can use short answers to answer (1) questions which ask for 'yes' or 'no' and (2) subject questions
(Unit 10). The verb of a short answer contains only the first auxiliary (Unit 3).
With the verb be
[Q]:QUESTION, [A]:SHORT ANSWER
[Q] Are they students?
[A] Yes, they are.
[Q] Is he at home?
[A] No, he is not.
[Q] Who was the winner?
[A] J ohn was.
With present and past simple (Units 19, 21)
[Q] Does he drive a Mercedes?
[A] No, he doesn't.
[Q] Did J ohn meet Maria at the airport?
[A] Yes, he did.
[Q] Who gave you all that money?
[A] My father did. NOT my father gave
[Q] Who lives in that house?
[A] J ohn does. NOT John lives
NOTICE: Question: Does he drive a Mercedes?
CORRECT ANSWERS:
Yes.
Yes, he does.
Yes, he drives a Mercedes.
WRONG ANSWERS:
Yes, he drives.
Yes, he does drive.
[Q] Are they having a party?
[A] Yes, they are.
[Q] Will Canada win the World Cup?
[A] No, they won't. (will not)
[Q] Have you been working hard?
[A] No, I haven't.
[Q] Who has got a light green car?
[A] J ohn has.
NOTICE: We normally use the short form of not (n't) in short answers.

32

Exercise 11.1: Short answers
Answer the questions in column A with a short answer. Match the questions with a suitable answer
from the choices provided in column B.
Question 1
Column A
1. Are you a student? (C)
2. Was English difficult for you at first? (A)
3. Who first taught you English? (E)
4. Can you help me, please? (B)
5. What's your favourite subject at school? (D)
Column B
A. Yes, it was.
B. Yes, I can.
C. Yes, I am.
D. Geography is.
E. My teacher did.
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 11.2: Short Answers
Choose the correct short answers to the questions below.
1. Are they having a party?
Correct. Yes, they are
2. Does she work here?
Correct. Yes, she does
3. Will you drive me home?
Correct. No, I wont
4. Who usually sits here?
Correct. Cathy does
5. Who has got my book?
Correct. I have

C A E B D
Yes, they are.
Yes, she does.
No, I won't.
Cathy does.
I have.
33

Unit 12: TAG QUESTIONS
We can use tag questions in speaking, and sometimes in writing, at the end of a sentence. We use
only the first auxiliary verb -- the same as with short answers (Unit 11).
Affirmative sentences
With AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES (+) use a NEGATIVE TAG (-).
He was on the team last year, wasn't he?
She has been swimming, hasn't she?
We should have left earlier, shouldn't we?
With one-word verb formations, use the correct form of the verb do (Unit 15):
You like rock music, don't you? (NOT liken't you?)
He studies hard, doesn't he?
They went yesterday, didn't they?
Negative sentences
With NEGATIVE SENTENCES (-) use an AFFIRMATIVE TAG (+).
J ohn is not an accountant, is he?
You don't like classical music, do you? NOT like you?
She hasn't been playing tennis, has she?
The students couldn't do the test, could they?
Using tag questions
TO CHECK SOMETHING
You play football, don't you?
J ohn doesn't like milk, does he?
WHEN YOU WANT SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING
It's a lovely day, isn't it? (I want you to agree.)
You're a mechanic, aren't you? (I want help with my car.)
TO SHOW SURPRISE (WITH NEGATIVE STATEMENTS ONLY)
You don't play football, do you? (I have just learnt that you play football, but this surprises me).

34

Exercise 12.1: Tag questions
Complete the sentence in column A using a 'tag question' to fill in the blank. Match the questions
with a suitable answer from the choices provided in column B.
Question 1
Column A
1. It was a wonderful match, __E__?
2. They're the best in the country, __D__?
3. She couldn't have arrived already, __C__?
4. He doesn't like studying English, __A__?
5. You spent five years in China, __B__?
Column B
A. does he?
B. didn't you?
C. could she?
D. aren't they?
E. wasn't it?
Answer: 1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

E D C A B
35

Unit 13: INDIRECT QUESTIONS AND 'NON-
QUESTIONS'
Direct and indirect questions
Where is the bank? is a DIRECT QUESTION.
Do you know where the bank is? is an INDIRECT QUESTION. It is a polite way of getting
information.
Do not use question formation (Unit 9) after the question word because you have
already used it before the word.
Could you tell me how much it costs? (NOT does it cost)
Do you know where the toilets are? (NOT are the toilets)
Can you ask him when we can leave? (NOT can we leave)
Could you tell me what they are doing? (NOT are they doing)
For an indirect question without a question word, use if:
Could you tell me if the flight from New York has arrived?
Do you know if the flight to New York has left yet?
Reported questions
These questions tell us about questions, but they do not ask them. They are REPORTED
QUESTIONS.
She wants to know when the course begins. (NOT does ... begin)
He wants to know where he can smoke. (NOT can he smoke)
Statements with question words
Here are some more statements with question words:
I can't remember where I have put them. (NOT have I put)
I'd like to know what you saw there. (NOT did you see)
They haven't decided where they will go. (NOT will they go)
Exclamation
An exclamation shows interest or surprise. They use question words but, again, they are not
questions.
What a beautiful day it is! (NOT is it)
Look how fast they are going! (NOT are they going)

36

Exercise 13.1: What can you ask?
Make a suitable question for each situation described below. Make a suitable question from the
following choices.
1. You are looking for the bank. You ask somebody on the street.
Correct. Can you tell me where the bank is?
2. You are making a drink for a friend.
Correct. Would you like tea or coffee?
3. You want to meet with Maria. You ask her.
Correct. Can we meet on Friday?
4. You have just given your opinion. You want to know if other people agree with you or not.
Correct. What do you think?
5. Your friend has bought a beautiful new dress. You want to compliment her
Correct. What a pretty dress?

Can you tell me where the bank is?
Would you like tea or coffee?
Can we meet on Friday?
What do you think?
What a pretty dress!
37

Exercise 13.2: Indirect Questions and Non-questions
Example:
1. ?
2. could
3. me, please
4. you help
Answer: 2431
Question 1
1. do you know
2. where
3. the bank
4. ?
5. is
Correct order: Correct. 1.do you know 2.where 3.the bank 5.is 4.?
Question 2
1. where he
2. can
3. to know
4. he wants
5. smoke
Correct order: Correct. 4.he wants 3.to know 1.where he 2.can 5.smoke
Question 3
1. ?
2. tell me
3. how
4. could you
5. to spell that
Correct order: Correct. 4.could you 2.tell me 3.how 5.to spell that 1.?
Question 4
1. I
2. haven't decided
3. will
4. when I
5. leave
Correct order: Correct. 1.I 2.haven't decided 4.when I 3.will 5.leave
Question 5
1. who is coming
2. ask
3. can you
4. with him
5. ?
Correct order: Correct. 3.can you 2.ask 1.who is coming 4.with him 5.?

12354
43125
42351
12435
32145
38

C. Verbs (Unit 14-41)

Unit 14: VERB FORMS
English verbs have very few forms. Most verbs are REGULAR and have four forms. It is easy to
make these forms because they all change in the same way. But some important verbs are
IRREGULAR, and we make their forms in different ways. Only the verb be (Unit 16) has more than
five forms.
Base form
This is the form you can find in a dictionary.
EXAMPLES: work/ hurry/ do/ live/ have/ cut
-s form
HOW TO FORM IT: Add s
PROBLEMS: Verbs ending in ch/ sh/ o/s / y/ z change spelling (Appendix 5).
EXAMPLES: works/ lives/ cuts/ hurries/ has/ does
-ing form
HOW TO FORM IT: Add ing
PROBLEMS: Verbs ending in e or 1 vowel +1 consonant change spelling (Appendix 6).
EXAMPLES: working/ living/ cutting/ hurrying/ having/ doing
Past form
HOW TO FORM IT: Add ed
PROBLEMS: Verbs ending in e or y change spelling (Appendix 6).
Irregular verb forms are different (Appendix 10).
EXAMPLES: worked/ lived/ hurried/ cut/ had/ did
Past participle
HOW TO FORM IT (REGULAR VERBS): With regular verbs, use the same as the past form
(ed).
EXAMPLES: worked/ lived/ hurried/
HOW TO FORM IT (IRREGULAR VERBS): Irregular verb forms are sometimes the same as
their past forms and sometimes different (Appendix 10).
EXAMPLES: cut/ had/ done

39

Exercise 14.1: The -s form
Fill in the blank with the -s form of the verb in the brackets.
Refer to Appendix 5 if you are having trouble with the -s form.
Example: She ____ (like) watching TV.
Answer: She likes watching TV.
1. He ____ (work) at the local school.
Correct. Works
2. He ____ (study) physics in his free time.
Correct. Studies
3. He ____ (wash) his car every weekend so that it is always clean.
Correct. Washes
4. He ____ teach) Computer Science.
Correct. Teaches
5. Kaylee ____ (go) to work everyday.
Correct. Goes

Exercise 14.2: The -ing form
Fill in the blank with the -ing form of the verb in the brackets.
Refer to Appendix 6 if you are having trouble with the -ing form.
Example: I am ____ (work) late this week.
Answer: I am working late this week.
1. When are they __coming__ (come)?
Correct.
2. Stop __worrying__ (worry)!
Correct.
3. I saw a man __lying__ (lie) on the road.
Correct.
4. When are they __going__ (go)?
Correct.
5. They were __having__ (have) lunch together everyday.
Correct.

works
studies
washes
teaches
goes
coming
worrying
lying
going
having
40

Exercise 14.3: The past tense form
Fill in the blank with the -ed form of the verb in the brackets.
Refer to Appendix 6 or Appendix 10 (irregular) if you are having trouble with the -ed form.
Example: I ____ (work) late last week.
Answer: I worked late last week.
1. I __made__ (make) a cake.
Correct.
2. A car __hit__ (hit) me.
Correct.
3. I __fell__ (fall) down
Correct.
4. Andy __thought__ (think) it was a boring class.
Correct.
5. Yesterday I __felt__ (feel) very sick.
Correct.

made
hit
fell
thought
felt
41

Unit 15: USING THE VERB FORMS
Unit 14 tells you the names of the different forms and how to make them. This unit tells you when to
use them.
Base form
IN PRESENT TENSE (except for 3rd person singular)
EXAMPLES: We live near you.
Have you lived here long?
Do you live here?
AFTER AUXILIARY VERB DO (Unit 17)
EXAMPLE: Did you live there?
IN IMPERATIVES (Unit 18)
EXAMPLE: Have a seat!
AFTER TO
EXAMPLE: I wanted to go home.
AFTER MODAL VERBS (Unit 27)
EXAMPLE: You must hurry.
-s form
Use only in third person singular (Unit 2) of present tense.
EXAMPLES: He lives near you.
Has he lived here long?
Does he live here?
Past form
Use only in past tense.
EXAMPLES: They lived near you.
He had lived with them.
Did you live here?
-ing form
IN CONTINUOUS FORMATIONS (Units 22, 23, 24)
EXAMPLES: He is living with them.
She has been swimming.
AS A NOUN (Unit 48)
EXAMPLE: Living here is very nice.
Past participle
IN PERFECT FORMATIONS (Unit 24)
EXAMPLE: He has lived in many places.
IN PASSIVE FORMATIONS (Unit 43)
EXAMPLE: Tea is drunk everywhere.
NOTICE: The forms of be and their uses are in Unit 16.

42

Example:
1. have
2. working hard
3. been
4. I
Answer: 4132
Question 1
1. stronger and stronger
2. getting
3. the wind
4. is
Correct order: Correct. 3. the wind 4.is 2.getting 1.stronger and stronger
Question 2
1. feeling
2. the passengers
3. were
4. very sick
Correct order: Correct. 2. the passengers 3.were 1.feeling 4.very sick
Question 3
1. not
2. enjoy myself
3. I
4. did
Correct order: Correct. 3. I 4.did 1.not 2.enjoy myself
Question 4
1. gone
2. have
3. I should
4. by plane
Correct order: Correct. 3. I should 2.have 1.gone 4.by plane
Question 5
1. give
2. some advice
3. let me
4. you
Correct order: Correct. 3. let me 1.give 4.you 2.some advice

3421
2314
3412
3214
3142
43

Exercise 15.2: The correct verb form
Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in the brackets.
Example: I have ____ (go) to lunch.
Answer: I have gone to lunch.
1. Dinosaurs were some of the biggest animals that have ever __lived__ (live) on the earth.

2. Scientists have __discovered__ (discover) a lot about these creatures.

3. They are always __finding__ (find) new information.

4. Lately, scientists have been __studying__ (study) a new idea.

5. The idea is that dinosaurs might have __had__ (have) warm blood - just like us!

lived
discovered
finding
studying
had
44

Unit 16: THE VERB "BE"
The verb be is unusual because it has eight (8) forms.
We use the base form be . . .
IN IMPERATIVES (Unit 18)
EXAMPLES: Be quiet! I can't hear.
AFTER TO
EXAMPLES: Try to be quiet, please.
AFTER MODAL VERBS (Unit 27)
EXAMPLES: You must be quieter than that.
They will be made here soon.
We use three (3) forms, am/ is/ are, for present tense
EXAMPLES: I am trying to be quiet.
He is very quiet.
These cars are made in J apan.
We use two (2) forms, was/ were, for past tense
EXAMPLES: I was trying to be quiet.
He was very quiet all the time.
They were made very well.
NOTICE: If you are not sure about which form to use (am or is or are or was or were), look at Unit
4.
We use being . . .
IN CONTINUOUS FORMATIONS (Unit 22)
EXAMPLES: You are being very quiet.
They are being made here now.
AS PART OF THE SUBJECT
EXAMPLES: Being quiet is hard for children.
We use been . . .
IN PERFECT FORMATIONS (Units Unit 24, Unit 26)
EXAMPLES: He had been quiet for a long time.
They have been made here for years.
We've been making them quickly.
NOTICE: Every passive formation (Unit 43) has a form of the verb be in it.
NOTICE: Unit 17 tells you more about be as an auxiliary verb.

45

Exercise 16.1: The verb "be"
Please decide if each sentence is correct or incorrect. Select True if it is correct and False if it is
incorrect.
Example: I've been to see the doctor.
Answer: True.
1. You should have being more careful.
True False
The correct answer is "False". Correct. The corrected sentence is "You should have been more
careful."
2. You should always be careful when you cross the road.
True False Correct. The correct answer is "True".
3. The road is being repaired.
4. It has being repaired three times before.
True False
The correct answer is "False" Correct. It has been repaired three times before.
5. Don't been so stupid again.
True False
The correct answer is "False". Correct. The corrected sentence is "Don't be so stupid again."
6. Be careful on the roads is important in a busy town.
True False
The correct answer is "False". Correct. The corrected sentence is "Being careful on the roads is
important in a busy town."

46

Unit 17: AUXILIARY VERBS: "DO/ HAVE/ BE"
We can use do, have and be (Unit 3) as auxiliaries.
With do and have, we use only the base form, -s form or past form (not the -ing form or past
participle -- Unit 14) this way.
For the forms of be, look at Unit 16. If you are not sure which form to use each time, look at Unit 15.
Use do + BASE FORM for negatives and questions in one-word verb formations
(Units 19, 21).
EXAMPLES: Money does not grow on trees.
Do they know how to make a fire?
Did you see Halley's Comet?
Use be + -ING FORM for continuous formations.
EXAMPLES: It is getting colder. (Present -- Unit 22)
Am I taking your seat? (Present -- Unit 22)
He was not driving very fast. (Past -- Unit 23)
I must be dreaming. (with modals -- Unit 27)
We have been swimming. (Perfect -- Unit 24)
Use be + PAST PARTICIPLE for passive formations.
EXAMPLES: Dates are grown in Arabia.
Were you shocked by the news?
It was not taken yesterday.
Use have + PAST PARTICIPLE for perfect formations.
EXAMPLES: Traffic has become a big problem. (Present -- Unit 24)
Have you done your homework? (Present -- Unit 24)
I hadn't learnt English before. (Past -- Unit 26)
They have been swimming. (Continuous -- Unit 24)
I must have lost it. (with modals -- Unit 27)
NOTICE: Do, have and be can also be lexical verbs (Unit 3):
EXAMPLES: Why did[auxiliary] you do[lexical] it?
I have[auxiliary] never been[lexical] there.
Has[auxiliary] he had[lexical] enough?
I am[lexical] tired.

47

Exercise 17.1: The correct auxiliary - present.
incorrect.
Example: How many children do you have?
Answer: True.
1. They has missed a whole week of school.
True False Correct. The corrected sentence is "They have missed a whole week of
school."
2. They say they are going to come next week.
True False Correct. They say they are going to come next week.
3. Have you seen them lately?
True False Correct. Have you seen them lately?
4. Is she been told about this?
True False Correct. The corrected sentence is "Has she been told about this?"
5. She do not know the answer.
True False Correct. The corrected sentence is "She does not know the answer."

Exercise 17.2: The correct auxiliary - past.
Fill in the blank with did, had, was or were.
Example: What ____ he doing at the time?
Answer: What was he doing at the time?
1. The train __did__ not arrive on time this morning.
Correct.
2. I __did__ not mind at first.
Correct.
3. I __was__ reading a very interesting book.
Correct.
4. I __did__ not notice that the station was very quiet.
Correct.
5. I __had__ been waiting at the station for an hour.
Correct.

did
did
was
did
had
48

Unit 18: IMPERATIVE
The imperative is very simple. J ust use the base form of the verb (Unit 14). We do not usually write
or say the subject of an imperative sentence, but we understand it is 'you' (singular or plural).
Form
AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE EXAMPLES:
AFFIRMATIVE: Come here!
Be quiet!
Heat the milk.
NEGATIVE: Do not feed the animals.
Don't be angry!
Do not overheat.
Some uses
An imperative sentence means that we want someone to do, or not to do, something.
WRITTEN SIGNS AND NOTICES
EXAMPLES: REDUCE SPEED NOW (a road sign)
KEEP OFF THE GRASS (in a park)
DO NOT LEAN OUT OF THE WINDOW (on a train)
FASTEN SEAT BELTS (on a plane)
INSTRUCTIONS
EXAMPLES: Bake for thirty minutes. Do not overcook.
Turn right at the traffic lights and then take the second turn on the left.
COMMANDS
EXAMPLE: Wake up! It's half past eight.
REMINDERS
EXAMPLE: Don't forget the book tomorrow.
FRIENDLY EXPRESSIONS
EXAMPLES: Come in and sit down! [welcoming]
Have a seat! [offering]
Let's have a break now. [suggesting]
Don't worry! [sympathizing]
Be careful! [warning]
Have a good trip! [saying goodbye]
Take care of yourselves. [saying goodbye]
Have a nice weekend! [saying goodbye]
NOTICE: To be polite, add please to the end of the sentence:
EXAMPLES: Wait a minute, please.
Fasten your seat belts, please.
NOTICE: To show that you want something very much, put do or please at the beginning of the
sentence:
EXAMPLES: Do show me!
Please tell me!
Do let's go!
Please be careful!

49

Exercise 18.1: Types of sentences
Is this sentence a statement, a question or an imperative?
1. Do not sit on the grass.
Correct. Correct answer is "imperative".
2. Is money the most important thing?
Correct. Correct answer is "question".
3. Should you look for something interesting?
Correct. Correct answer is "question".
4. Fasten seatbelts.
5. You should be careful.
Correct. Correct answer is "statement".
6. Never take a job just because the pay is good.
7. You may find that you are unhappy.
Correct. Correct answer is "statement".
8. Always try to find out about the job first.

imperative
question
question
imperative
statement
imperative
statement
imperative
50

Unit 19: PRESENT SIMPLE -- FORMATION
This formation is very important because we use it very often. The next unit tells you when you can
use it. This unit shows you how to form it.
Affirmative statements
-S FORM
Use the -s form (Unit 14) for 3rd person singular (Unit 2):
EXAMPLES: My father works in a bank.
The Bullet Train travels very fast.
She has two children.
BASE FORM
Use the base form for all other persons:
EXAMPLES: I work at home.
We travel by bus.
They have four children.
Negative statements
does not + BASE FORM
Use does not + base form for 3rd person singular:
EXAMPLES: He does not work at home.
It does not go very fast.
She does not have a car.
do not + BASE FORM
Use do not + base form for all other persons:
EXAMPLES: I do not work there.
We do not go by train.
They do not have a car.
NOTICE: In speaking, we usually say doesn't or don't. (Unit 11) .
Questions
does + BASE FORM
Use does + base form for 3rd person singular:
EXAMPLES: Does he work hard?
When does it open?
Does it rain often?
do + BASE FORM
Use do + base form for all other persons:
EXAMPLES: Do they work hard?
When do we leave?
What do you think?
NOTICE: Do not use do for a subject question. (Unit 10)

51

Exercise 19.1: Present simple
Complete each sentence/question in column A using the set of answers in column B. Be careful with
questions and negatives.
Question 1
Column A
1. How many languages __ C ___?
2. __ A___ in the centre of town?
3. __ E ___ a lot of fruit.
4. How often __ B___ her parents?
5. I __ D ___ coffee. It gives me a headache.
Column B
A. Do you live
B. does she visit
C. does he know
D. don't like
E. She eats
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 19.2: The verb "do"
Fill in the blank with do, does or did.
Example: When ____ you get here?
Answer: When did you get here?
1. __Do__ you two know each other already?
Correct. Correct answer is "do".
2. __Does__ anybody know where the toilets are?
Correct. Correct answer is "does".
3. __Do__ not use that machine.
Correct. Correct answer is "do".
4. __Does__ it snow every winter?
Correct. Correct answer is "does".
5. I __did__ not use to find work so tiring, but now I do.
Correct. Correct answer is "did".

C A E B D
do
does
do
does
did
52

Unit 20: PRESENT SIMPLE -- USE
This formation means 'not past'. It includes 'here and now', but it does not usually tell exactly when.
Everyday life and habits
EXAMPLES: Where does he live?
She wears expensive clothes.
She doesn't work in an office.
We do not work on Fridays.
Do you play tennis?
Facts about the world
EXAMPLES: Money doesn't grow on trees.
It never rains in the summer.
Britain lies off the north-west coast of Europe.
Does Brazil export cocoa?
Feelings and thoughts
EXAMPLES: How many languages do you know?
I believe in God.
She doesn't like coffee.
Characteristics
EXAMPLES: These flowers smell nice.
My car doesn't go very fast.
Instructions
EXAMPLE: You cook it for five minutes, and then put the onions in.
Future arrangements
EXAMPLES: The World Cup begins tomorrow.
The course ends in two weeks.
NOTICE: Present simple or present continuous or present perfect? (Unit 39)

53

Exercise 20.1: Present Simple-Use
Complete each sentence in column A using a set of answers in column B.
Question 1
Column A Column B
1. He does not go to work. 1:E Correct. A. at 100 degrees
2. She always cries. 2:C Correct. B. Now I can make the tea
3. He's not going to work. 3:d Correct. C. at sad movies
4. She's crying. 4:F Correct. D. because it's Saturday
5. Water boils. 5:A Correct. E. on Saturdays
6. The water is boiling. 6:B Correct. F. at that sad movie on the TV
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6:

E C D F A B
54

Unit 21: PAST SIMPLE
This formation means 'not here and not now'. Something happened at a definite past time. Now it is
finished.
Formation
AFFIRMATIVE (past form)
EXAMPLES: I washed before breakfast.
They arrived twenty minutes ago.
NOTICE: Many important verbs do not have an -ed past form. For example:
Brazil won the match. [past of win]
We saw her yesterday. [past of see]
They are irregular. Look at (Appendices 10 and 11.)
QUESTIONS AND NEGATIVES (did + base form)
EXAMPLES: When did they arrive?
They did not arrive until four o'clock.
He didn't wash the car yesterday.
NOTICE: Do not use did for a subject question. (Unit 10)
Use
PAST STATES AND HABITS
EXAMPLES: He lived in Rome for eight years. [but not now]
Shakespeare worked in London all his life. [he is dead now]
PAST EVENTS AT A DEFINITE TIME OR PLACE
EXAMPLES: Did you have a good time on holiday?
Shakespeare died in his home town of Stratford.
IMAGINING (Unit 86)
EXAMPLES: I wish I had a lot of money.
If I did, I'd travel all over the world.
POLITE REQUESTS AND SUGGESTIONS
EXAMPLE: I thought we could go to the cinema together.
NOTICE: Past simple or past continuous or present perfect? (Unit 40)

55

Exercise 21.1: Past simple
Decide whether the sentence is true or false.
Example: The past simple form of ring =rang.
Answer: True.
1. The past tense of fall =fell.
2. The past tense of wake =waked.
True False
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The past tense of "wake" is "woke".
3. The past tense of cut =cutted.
True False
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The past tense of "cut" is "cut".
4. The past tense of clean =clean.
True False
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The past tense of "clean" is "cleaned".
5. The past tense of arrive =arrove.
True False
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The past tense of "arrive" is "arrived".

56

Unit 22: PRESENT CONTINUOUS
This formation usually means 'now -- for a limited period of time'. We use the present tense of the
auxiliary verb be (Unit 17) before the -ing form of the lexical verb (Unit 3).
1- Formation (be + -ing form)
STATEMENTS
EXAMPLES: I am writing this letter to thank you.
Bus fares are going up today.
He is not taking the exam this year.
They aren't having a lesson at the moment.
QUESTIONS
EXAMPLES: Am I disturbing you?
How much are they going up by?
Who is taking the exam this year?
They aren't having a lesson at the moment?
Why aren't they having a lesson?
NOTICE: For spelling problems with the -ing form of the verb, look at Appendix 6.
2- Use
PRESENT ACTIVITY
EXAMPLES: Be quiet! The Prime Minister is speaking.
They are having dinner at the moment.
What are you doing?
TEMPORARY STATE
EXAMPLES: She is staying at the Metropolitan Hotel.
He isn't feeling very well today.
CHANGING STATE
EXAMPLES: Quick! The bus is stopping.
Pollution in the city is getting worse.
FUTURE PLANS
EXAMPLE: We are leaving at ten o'clock tomorrow.
NOTICE: Present continuous or present simple or present perfect? (Unit 39)
Present continuous or going to or will? (Unit 41)

57

Exercise 22.1: Present continuous
Complete each sentence/question in column A using the set of answers in column B. Be careful with
questions and negatives.
Question 1
Column A
1. I __D___ this letter to thank you for the lovely present.
2. I __F___ the typewriter now.
3. How __G___ in your new job?
4. __B___ hard?
5. I hope everything __H___ well.
6. Maria __A___ forward to visiting you next month.
7. When __C___ to visit us?
8. We __E___ very much at the moment.
Column B
A. is looking
B. are you working
C. are you going
D. am writing
E. are not doing
F. am using
G. are you getting on
H. is going
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8:

Exercise 22.2: Present simple or present continuous
Use the verb in the brackets and the present simple or present continuous formation to complete the
sentence.
Example: Oh, sorry! ____ I ____(phone) at a bad time?
Answer: Oh, sorry! Am I phoning at a bad time?
1. That's a nice smell. Somebody __is cooking__ (cook) dinner.

2. J apan __lies__ (lie) off the east coast of Asia.

3. The water __is boiling__ (boil). Now I can make the tea.

4. This medicine __tastes__ (taste) awful.

D F G B H A C E
is cooking
lies
is boiling
tastes
58

Unit 23: PAST CONTINUOUS
This formation usually means 'past -- for a limited period of time'. We use the past tense of the
auxiliary verb be (Unit 17) before the -ing form of the lexical verb (Unit 3).
Formation (be + -ing form)
STATEMENTS
EXAMPLES: I was working all yesterday morning.
He wasn't doing anything.
The climate was changing at the time.
They were not enjoying themselves.
QUESTIONS
EXAMPLES: What were you doing at 9:45 last night?
Where was he going?
Who was helping him?
Use
PAST ACTIVITY OR TEMPORARY HABIT
EXAMPLES: Between 10 and 11 last night, I was reading.
They were getting up early that month.
BACKGROUND ACTIVITY IN THE PAST
EXAMPLES: She was having a bath when the phone rang.
By the time they reached the stadium, the players were already coming onto the
field.
ARRANGEMENTS IN THE PAST
EXAMPLE: Everybody was excited because they were leaving for Paris the next day.
NOTICE: Past continuous or past simple? (Unit 40)
Past continuous or used to? (Unit 40)

59

Exercise 23.1: Past continuous
Example:
1. Why was
2. to the bank
3. ?
4. he going
Answer: 1423
Question 1
1. was hoping
2. Columbus
3. India
4. to find
Correct order: Correct. 2. Columbus 1.was hoping 4.to find 3.India
Question 2
1. feeling
2. the sailors
3. were
4. sick
Correct order: Correct. 2. the sailors 3.were 1.feeling 4.sick
Question 3
1. going
2. ?
3. were you
4. where
Correct order: Correct. 4. where 3.were you 1.going 2.?
Question 4
1. what
2. doing
3. ?
4. were they
Correct order: Correct. 1. what 4.were they 2.doing 3.?
Question 5
1. for me
2. waiting
3. my friends
4. were
Correct order: Correct. 3. my friends 4.were 2.waiting 1.for me

2143
2314
4312
1423
3421
60

Exercise 23.2: Past simple or past continuous
Use the verb in the brackets and the past simple or the past continuous formation to complete the
sentence.
Example: I ____ (watch) TV when the phone (ring).
Answer: I was watching TV when the phone rang.
1. We __were watching__ (watch) TV when the power went off.
Correct.
2. We __won__ (win) the game yesterday.
Correct.
3. We __were winning__ (win) yesterday when the referee stopped the game.
Correct.
4. George __was sleeping__ (sleep) when I called him.
Correct.
5. By the time I __arrived__ (arrive) class was over.
Correct.

were watching
won
were winning
was sleeping
arrived
61

Unit 24: PRESENT PERFECT -- FORMATION
We use the present tense of the auxiliary verb have (Unit 17) before the past participle form (Unit
14).
In the simple formation, the participle is the lexical verb (Unit 3); in the continuous formation, the
participle is been, with the -ing form of the lexical verb after it.
Simple (have + past participle)
STATEMENTS
EXAMPLES: He has worked very hard this term.
The meeting has not started yet.
I have rented a car for two weeks.
They haven't fixed the car yet.
QUESTIONS
EXAMPLES: Have you finished yet?
What has she decided to do?
Why have they left?
Continuous (have been -ing form)
STATEMENTS
EXAMPLES: I have been learning English for four years.
He has not been feeling very well lately.
It's been raining non-stop for days.
QUESTIONS
EXAMPLES: Have you been working hard recently?
What's she been doing?
Why has it been raining so much?
Notes on past participles
Many verbs do not have an -ed participle (Appendices 10 and 11).
Have can be an AUXILIARY and a LEXICAL verb (Unit 3).
EXAMPLES: Have the girls had lunch yet?
We have been having a good time.
Go has two past participles
EXAMPLES: He has gone to Rome. [not here now]
He has been to Rome. [went and returned]
NOTICE: Unit 25 tells you about the use of present perfect.

62

Exercise 24.1: Present perfect simple
Example:
1. you
2. for years
3. seen
4. I have not
Answer: 4312
Question 1
1. hundreds of old people
2. they
3. helped
4. have
Correct order: Correct. 2. they 4.have 3.helped 1.hundreds of old people
Question 2
1. ?
2. you ever been
3. have
4. to Canada
Correct order: Correct. 3. have 2.you ever been 4.to Canada 1.?
Question 3
1. how long
2. ?
3. has he
4. had that bicycle
Correct order: Correct. 1. how long 3.has he 4.had that bicycle 2.?
Question 4
1. me
2. you haven't
3. in years
4. visited
Correct order: Correct. 2. you haven't 4.visited 1.me 3.in years
Question 5
1. haven't
2. Chinese food before
3. eaten
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 1.haven't 3.eaten 2.Chinese food before

2431
3241
1341
2413
4132
63

Unit 25: PRESENT PERFECT -- USE
Both the simple and the continuous formation (Unit 24) mean, very generally, 'past time and present
time together'.
Continuation up to the present time
EXAMPLES: I've lived here all my life. =I was born here, I live here now.
He has been working there for five years now. =He started here five years ago and
he works there now.
How long have you known J ohn? =When did you first meet?
We haven't seen each other since last J anuary. =Last J anuary was the last time we
saw each other.
A past event which is important for now
EXAMPLES:
Look! The sun has come out.
So now the weather is fine.
Look! It's been snowing.
So now the ground is white.
Have you seen J ohn?
I want to speak to him.
Help! Somebody has taken my wallet.
General experiences in life (simple formation only)
EXAMPLES: It's the most beautiful place I've ever seen in all my life.
They've been to Thailand hundreds of times.
Have you ever eaten snake?
Simple and continuous formation
The meanings of the simple and continuous formations are basically the same but sometimes they are
a little different.
EXAMPLES: They have built a new stadium.
Now it is finished.
They've been building a new stadium.
It is probably not finished.
Units 39 and 40 tell you more about the difference.
NOTICE: Have got is grammatically present perfect but it usually has a present simple meaning
(Unit 20):
EXAMPLES: Have you got a brother called J ohn? =Do you have . . . ?
I've got a terrible headache. =Now
NOTICE: Present perfect or present continuous? (Unit 39)
Present perfect or past simple? (Unit 40)
64

Exercise 25.1: Present Simple / Continuous / Perfect
Choose the correct verb to complete the sentence.
Example: Oh, no! I _____ (lose) my wallet.
Answer: I have lost my wallet. (present perfect)
1. Can you help me, please? I __am looking__ (look) for the bank.
Correct.
2. I __have known__ (know) my best friend for years.
Correct.
3. He's from Calgary, like me. He __comes__ (come) from my hometown.
Correct.
4. Be quiet and listen! The teacher __is speaking__ (speak).
Correct.
5. I __have had__ (have) this car since 1985.
Correct.

am looking
have known
comes
is speaking
have had
65

Unit 26: PAST PERFECT
This formation means 'double past -- a time before another time in the past'. We use the past tense of
the auxiliary verb have (Unit 17) before the past participle (Unit 14). Don't forget that many
participles are irregular (Appendix 10).
Formation (had + past participle)
STATEMENTS
EXAMPLES: They had all worked very hard that day.
She had gone by air to save time.
I hadn't put the address at the top.
QUESTIONS
EXAMPLES: Had you seen the man before?
How much had he taken?
NOTICE: There is also a continuous formation. The past participle is been and the -ing form
follows:
EXAMPLES: The weather had been getting worse all day.
He had not been expecting me.
Had they been fighting?
NOTICE: Had can be an AUXILIARY and a LEXICAL verb (Unit 3).
EXAMPLE: For three days, the men had not had any food.
use
To give the situation or the background to a story that began in the past:
EXAMPLES: When we got to the coast, they all cried out in surprise. It was the first time they had
ever seen the sea.
We did not think we could win the match. Our best player had broken his leg in a car
accident two days before.
The teams had been playing for ten minutes when the rain began.
NOTICE: We can use the past perfect to show which happened first:
EXAMPLES: I tried to open the door but somebody had locked it from the other side.
[First somebody locked it, then I tried to open it.]
I tried to open the door but somebody locked it from the other side.
[These two things happened at the same time.]

66

the order of the words or groups of words to make a correct sentence.
Example:
1. had ever
2. I
3. seen
4. It was the most beautiful house
Answer: 4213
Question 1
1. trouble with my tooth
2. having
3. I
4. had been
Correct order: Correct. 3. I 4.had been 2.having 1.trouble with my tooth
Question 2
1. had
2. I
3. had already
4. lunch
Correct order: Correct. 2. I 3.had already 1.had 4.lunch
Question 3
1. he
2. worked
3. had never
4. in a factory
Correct order: Correct. 1. he 3.had never 2.worked 4.in a factory
Question 4
1. had never
2. I
3. a more exciting game
4. watched
Correct order: Correct. 2. I 1.had never 4.watched 3.a more exciting game
Question 5
1. watching
2. had been
3. I
4. TV
Correct order: Correct. 3. I 2.had been 1.watching 4.TV

3421
2314
1324
2143
3214
67

Exercise 26.2: Past perfect continuous
Complete the sentence with a suitable verb from the following choices below.
Example: I wanted to know what she ____ (say).
Answer: I wanted to know what she had been saying.
1. They __had been stealing__ things from the company for five years.
Correct.
2. I __had not been feeling__ very well for several days, so I called the doctor.
Correct.
3. The storm __had been getting__ worse all day.
Correct.
4. He __had not been waiting__ for me.
Correct.
5. __Had they been watching__ a movie?
Correct.
Exercise 26.3: Past perfect simple
Example: I ____ him since 1986.
Answer: I had not seen him since 1986.
1. They __had finishing__ when I arrived.
Correct.
2. I __had seen__ these animals before, but only on TV.
Correct.
3. I __had watched__ that TV show last weekend.
Correct.
4. We __had had__ dinner already.
Correct.
5. She __had left__ before we arrived.
Correct.
Exercise 26.4: The verb "have"
Fill in the blank with have, has or had.
Example: ____ you finished that exercise yet?
Answer: Have you finished that exercise yet?
1. __Had__ you ever visited Canada before your trip in 2005?
Correct.
2. My uncle __had__ decided he doesn't need the money.
Correct.
3. I __have__ not done very much work today.
Correct.
4. Before this stroke of good fortune, he __had__ been trying to write a book.
Correct.

had been stealing
had not been feeling
had been getting
had not been waiting
Had they been watching
had finished
had seen
had watched
had had
had left
had
had
have
had
68

Unit 27: MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs are auxiliaries (Unit 3). They never change form. They show what we think or feel about
the lexical verb (Unit 3) in the sentence. The important modals are:
can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should and must.
With verb formation
Put the modal verb before any other verbs. The next verb is always base form (Unit 14).
BEFORE ONE-WORD VERB FORMATIONS
[M]:MODAL [B]:BASE FORM
He [M] can [B] play the piano very well.
The journey [M] might [B] be uncomfortable.
NOTICE: Modals do not have an -s form and we never use an -s form for the next verb. We say: He
might come. NOT mights come or might comes
BEFORE CONTINUOUS FORMATIONS (Unit 17)
[M]:MODAL [B]:be -ing FORM
I [M] will [B] be arriving tomorrow.
She [M] must [B] be learning Arabic.
NOTICE: Always use be after a modal NOT am, is, are, was or were.
BEFORE PERFECT SIMPLE FORMATIONS (Unit 24)
[M]:MODAL [B]:have PAST PARTICIPLE
He [M] may [B] have got lost.
They [M] should [B] have arrived by now.
BEFORE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORMATIONS (Unit 24)
[M]:MODAL [B]:have been -ing FORM
She [M] could [B] have been watching.
She [M] might [B] have been playing.
NOTICE: Always use have after a modal NOT has or had, after a modal.

69

As auxiliary verbs
Modals are the same as other auxiliaries for making:
QUESTIONS (Unit 9) - the modal goes before the subject:
EXAMPLES: [M] Can you help me please?
How many days [M] will you be staying?
NEGATIVE SENTENCES (Unit 5) - the modal goes before not:
EXAMPLES: He [M] couldn't fight his way out of a paper bag.
You [M] might not have succeeded without his help.
NOTICE: We write negative can as one word: cannot (we usually say can't)
NOTICE: In speaking, won't (=will not); shan't (=shall not)
SHORT ANSWERS (Unit 11) - use the modal:
EXAMPLE: [M] Should we tell her about it? Yes, we [M] should.
TAG QUESTIONS (Unit 12) - use only the modal in the tag:
EXAMPLE: We [M] wouldn't have got there on time, [M] would we?
Meaning
The important meanings of each modal verb are in the next units (28-33). Generally, modals say
something about:
HOW TRUE (OR NOT TRUE) SOMETHING IS:
EXAMPLES: After that work, you [M] must be tired. =I am sure you are tired.
He [M] may have got lost. =Perhaps he has got lost.
HOW GOOD (OR BAD) SOMETHING IS:
EXAMPLES: You [M] must work harder. I think it is good to work hard.
They [M] should not do that. I think it is bad to do that.
BE CAREFUL!
The meaning of a modal verb in an affirmative sentence is not always the same as its meaning in a
question or a negative sentence. The next units (28-33) will tell you the exact meanings for each verb.

70

Example:
1. should
2. you
3. have done
4. better than that
Answer: 2134
Question 1
1. how many days
2. be staying?
3. you
4. will
Correct order: Correct. 1. how many days 4.will 3.you 2.be staying?
Question 2
1. known
2. never have
3. would
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 3.would 2.never have 1.known
Question 3
1. it
2. in the mail
3. must
4. have got lost
Correct order: Correct. 1. it 3.must 4.have got lost 2.in the mail
Question 4
1. smoke here
2. should
3. you
4. not
Correct order: Correct. 3. you 2.should 4.not 1.smoke here
Question 5
1. would
2. have
3. she
4. helped you
Correct order: Correct. 3. she 1.would 2.have 4.helped you

1432
4321
1342
3241
3124
71

Complete each sentence/question on the column A to using the set of answers on the column B. Be
careful with questions and negatives.
Question 1
Column A
1. I could __C___ that myself, but you didn't ask.
2. You shouldn't __A___ without lights.
3. When should they __B___?
4. You might __E___ an accident!
5. While you're relaxing, I'll __D___ hard.
Column B
A. have been driving
B. be arriving
C. have done
D. be working
E. have had
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 27.3: Continuous formation
Fill in the blank with the continuous formation of the verb in the brackets.
Example: When will you ____ (leave) for England?
Answer: When will you be leaving for England?
1. Don't just sit there! You should __be helping__ (help) J ohn with the work.
Correct.
2. I want to meet him at the airport. When will he __be arriving__ (arrive)?
Correct.
3. I may __be going__ (go) to England next year.
Correct.
4. He really must __be leaving__ (leave) now, or he'll miss his bus.
Correct.
5. How long will they __be working__ (work) at the hotel?
Correct.

C A B E D
be helping
be arriving
be going
be leaving
be working
72

Exercise 27.4: Perfect simple formation
incorrect.
Example: I could have told you that myself.
Answer: True.
1. I could never have did this without you.
True False
2. You should come to the lesson yesterday.
True False
3. You might have helped me, instead of just standing there.
True False
4. But they can't have got lost; it's easy to find the way.
True False
5. If you had come, we might win.
True False

Exercise 27.4: Perfect simple formation
incorrect.
Example: I could have told you that myself.
Answer: True.
1. I could never have did this without you.
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The corrected sentence is "I could never have done this
without you."
2. You should come to the lesson yesterday.
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The corrected sentence is "You should have come to the
lesson yesterday."
3. You might have helped me, instead of just standing there.
Correct. The correct answer is "True".
4. But they can't have got lost; it's easy to find the way.
Correct. The correct answer is "True".
5. If you had come, we might win.
Correct. The correct answer is "False". The corrected sentence is "If you had come, we might have
won."

73

Unit 28: CAN
Can is a modal verb. Unit 27 shows you how to make correct sentences with it. This unit shows you
when you can use it.
Ability
GENERAL
EXAMPLES: She can speak good English.
Kiwis are birds but they cannot fly.
NOTICE: cannot is one word
NOW
EXAMPLES: Can you hear me?
I can't see anything. It's dark.
FUTURE
EXAMPLE: I'm afraid I can't see you this week but I can next week.
NOTICE: also be able to (Unit 36)
Possibility
GENERAL
EXAMPLE: Canada can be be very cold in the winter.
NOT POSSIBLE
EXAMPLES: He can't be working now. It's much too late.
They can't have got lost. They know the way.
NOTICE: use must (Unit 33) for strong probability
Permission
STATEMENT
EXAMPLES: You cannot drive without a licence.
Passengers can smoke outside of the terminal.
NOTICE: more friendly than may (Unit 30)
REQUEST
EXAMPLES: Can I borrow your pen?
Can I have the red one please?
NOTICE: could (Unit 29) is more polite
Asking for help
EXAMPLES: Can you give me a hand?
Can you tell me the time?
NOTICE: also could (Unit 29); also will (Unit 31)
Polite offers
EXAMPLES: Can I help you?
Can I get you some food?
NOTICE: also will (Unit 31); also shall (Unit 31)
74

Unit 29: COULD
Could is a modal verb. Unit 27 shows you how to make correct sentences with it. This unit shows
you when you can use it.
Possibility
NOW
EXAMPLE: I suppose he could be at home.
FUTURE
EXAMPLE: It could become a big problem.
PAST
EXAMPLE: Surely it could not have got lost in the mail.
IMAGINARY
EXAMPLE: If I had more money, I could buy a car.
IMAGINARY PAST
EXAMPLE: I did my best. I could not have tried any harder.
NOTICE: also may (Unit 30); also might (Unit 30)
NOTICE: for more on imagining, see Unit 86
Asking for
HELP
EXAMPLES: Please could you send me some information about the course.
Could you lend me some money?
NOTICE: also can (Unit 28); also will (Unit 31)
PERMISSION
EXAMPLE: Could I possibly come and see you next week?
NOTICE: also can (Unit 28); also may (Unit 30)
Past tense of can
ABILITY
EXAMPLE: We could not find a seat on the train.
PERMISSION
EXAMPLE: In those days, you could drive without a licence.
POSSIBILITY
EXAMPLE: At that time, you could live like a king on twenty dollars a day.
NOTICE: Luckily, I could get in by the back door. It was possible.
Luckily, I was able to get in by the back door. And I did.
also be able to (Unit 36)
NOTICE: We also use could (NOT can) in sentences with a past tense verb before the modal
(Unit 63).
EXAMPLES: They wanted to know if I could help them.
He said that he could not come on Saturday.

75

Exercise 29.1: Can or Could
Fill in the blank with can or could.

Example: When I was at school I ____ never understand physics.
Answer: When I was at school I could never understand physics.
1. Bees __can__ fly, even though it seems impossible.
Correct. Correct answer is "can".
2. I __couldn't get to the shops today. They closed early.
Correct. Correct answer is "could".
3. He asked me if I __could__ help with the laundry, but I was too busy.
4. Take an umbrella. It __could__ be raining when you get to Vancouver.
5. Take an umbrella. In Vancouver, it __can__ rain at any time.
6. They say they __can__ deliver it next week.
7. They said they __could__ deliver it next week, but I told them not to.
8. You __can__ leave the class when you've finished the exercise.

can
could
could
could
can
can
could
can
76

Unit 30: MAY AND MIGHT
May and might are modal verbs. Unit 27 shows you how to make correct sentences with them. This
unit shows you when to use them.
Possibility
NOW
EXAMPLE: I don't know where J ohn is but he might be helping Peter.
NOTICE: The Canadian winter may be very cold. =this winter
BUT: The Canadian winter can be very cold. =generally
FUTURE
EXAMPLE: Gas prices might fall again soon.
NOTICE: also may
PAST
EXAMPLE: I think you may have caught a cold.
NOTICE: also might; also could (Unit 29)
Permission
STATEMENT
EXAMPLE: Visitors may enter the museum from 9:00 to 5:00 each day.
REQUEST
EXAMPLES: May I come in?
May we think about it for a few days?
NOTICE: May only; do NOT use might
NOTICE: more polite than can (Unit 28) or could (Unit 29)
Might with past tense
We use might (NOT may) in sentences with a past tense verb before the modal (Unit 63).
EXAMPLES: I thought the road might be blocked so I went another way.
He told me that the next winter in Canada might be very cold.

77

Exercise 30.1: May or Might
Fill in the blank with may or might.

Example: You ____ have told me. I came all this way for nothing.
Answer: You might have told me. I came all this way for nothing.
1. I thought he __might___ be able to help me, but he was useless.
Correct. Correct answer is "might".
2. You __may___ leave the class when you've finished the exercise.
Correct. Correct answer is "may".
3. I asked him if I __might___ leave the class early.
4. Passengers __may___ smoke at the back of the plane.
5. Customers __may__ use the staff washroom.

Exercise 30.2: Can / could / might / be able to
Fill in the blank with can, could, might or be able to.
Example: Will you ____ come to my house today?
Answer: Will you be able to come to my house today?
1. Some birds __can___ fly a very long way.
2. There was a party last night but I __could__ n't go.
3. She __can___n't have finished already!
Correct. Correct answers are "could" and "can".
4. I think you should arrive early or you __might___ not get a seat.
5. I thought you __might__ be able to help me.
Correct. Correct answers are "be able to" and "might".

might
may
might
may
may
can
could
can
might
might
78

Unit 31: WILL AND SHALL
Will and shall are modal verbs. Unit 27 shows you how to make correct sentences with them. This
unit shows you when to use them. Notice that we use shall only for 1st person (Unit 2); -'ll is the
short form for both verbs.
Prediction
FOR THE FUTURE
EXAMPLES: We shall all die one day.
Do you think it will rain tomorrow?
The manager will be writing to you soon.
I'll be phoning him tonight.
NOTICE: ALSO be going to, present simple, present continuous: Unit 41 shows you the
differences between them
FOR NOW
EXAMPLE: Don't phone now! They'll probably be having lunch. They usually have lunch at
this time.
PAST IN THE FUTURE
EXAMPLE: By this time tomorrow, I'll have finished all my exams.
Intention
OFFERING
EXAMPLES: He's next door. J ust a minute and I'll get him for you.
If you think it's a good idea, I'll phone him.
Shall I help you with that?
NOTICE: ALSO can (Unit 28) would (Unit 32). Use shall only in questions.
ASKING FOR HELP
EXAMPLES: Will you mail this for me?
What shall I say to her?
NOTICE: could (Unit 29) is more polite
REFUSING
EXAMPLES: The car won't start. ( =will not)
He won't tell me the answer.
PROMISES AND THREATS
EXAMPLES: We'll never forget your kindness.
I'll kill you if you do that again.
MAKING DECISIONS
EXAMPLES: I think I'll visit my parents this weekend.
I'll have coffee, please.
NOTICE: do NOT use be going to (Unit 37)

79

Exercise 31.1: Will and Shall
Example:
1. tomorrow
2. I will
3. you
4. call
Answer: 2431
Question 1
1. do you think
2. we
3. will finish
4. ?
5. in time
Correct order: Correct. 1.do you think 2.we 3.will finish 5.in time 4.?
Question 2
1. have a go
2. if you
3. will
4. I
5. like
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 3.will 1.have a go 2.if you 5.like
Question 3
1. have
2. a green
3. I will
4. salad
Correct order: Correct. 3. I will 1.have 2.a green 4.salad
Question 4
1. he
2. won't eat
3. anything
4. these days
Correct order: Correct. 1. he 2.won't eat 3.anything 4.these days
Question 5
1. call her
2. I
3. shall
4. for you
5. ?
Correct order: Correct. 3. shall 2.I 1.call her 4.for you 5.?

12354
43125
3124
1234
32145
80

Unit 32: WOULD
Would is a modal verb. Unit 27 shows you how to make correct sentences with it. This unit shows
you when to use it. Notice that -'d is the short form.
Imaginary situations
PRESENT AND FUTURE
EXAMPLES: If we hadn't met that time, I wouldn't be here now. (But we met, so I am here now.)
I think he would find the movie very interesting.
ADVICE
EXAMPLES: What would you do in my place?
If I were you, I'd take a long holiday.
NOTICE: ALSO must and should (Unit 33)
PAST TIME
EXAMPLES: They wouldn't have lost if J ohn had been playing for them. (But he wasn't playing.)
If I'd known you were coming, I would have stayed longer. (But I didn't know, so I
left.)
Would + like
ASKING
EXAMPLE: I'd like some information, please.
want, but it is more polite
OFFERS AND INVITATIONS
EXAMPLES: Would you like some coffee?
Would you like to join us?
NOTICE: ALSO can (Unit 28) will (Unit 31)
Polite commands
EXAMPLE: Would you open that suitcase, please, madam?
Past tense of will
REFUSAL
EXAMPLE: My car wouldn't start this morning. (Unit 31)
We use would (NOT will) in sentences with a past-tense verb before the modal (Unit 63).
EXAMPLES: He asked me if I would mail a letter for him. (Unit 31)
I thought I would visit my parents this weekend. (Unit 31)
They said they would be writing to me soon. (Unit 31)
NOTICE: We also use would with mind +-ing form (Unit 48), mind + if (Unit 86) and with
rather (Unit 84).

81

Exercise 32.1: Will / shall / would
Fill in the blank with will, shall or would. Use shall with only one of these sentences.
Example: ____ you like some more coffee?
Answer: Would you like some more coffee?
1. Where __shall__ I put the ashtray?
Correct. Correct answer is "shall".
2. I wondered if we __would__ get it done on time.
Correct. Correct answer is "would".
3. I __would__ certainly like to have a go.
4. I __would__ have had a go, but they didn't let me.
5. If we go tonight, it __will__ be the third time I've seen that film.
Correct. Correct answer is "will".
6. I_ would__ like a green salad, please.
7. I __will__ have a green salad, please.
Correct. Correct answer is "will".
8. __shall__ I help you with that?
Correct. Correct answer is "shall".

shall
would
would
would
will
would
will
shall
82

Unit 33: MUST AND SHOULD
Must and should are modal verbs. Unit 27 shows you how to make correct sentences with them. This
unit shows you when to use them. They have the same kinds of meaning, but must is always stronger
than should.
Commands (must only)
EXAMPLES: You must not leave the room until I say.
Parking permits must be displayed in car windows.
Advice or necessity
GENERAL
EXAMPLE: You shouldn't ever cross the road without looking.
PRESENT AND FUTURE TIME
EXAMPLES: Do you think we should take our coats?
Yes, you must; it might be very cold.
I'm afraid we really must go now.
PAST TIME (SHOULD ONLY)
EXAMPLES: You shouldn't have been rude. It was bad of you.
They should have told him. Why didn't they?
NOTICE: We can also use have to/ need to/ needn't (Unit 34) and sometimes would (Unit 32) for
advice and necessity. The meanings of all the verbs are a little different from each other (Unit 35).
Probability
GENERAL (MUST or have got to)
EXAMPLE: It must be terrible to be in an earthquake.
It has got to be terrible to be in an earthquake. (I have not been in one but I feel sure.)
NOW
EXAMPLES: This isn't my bill. There must be some mistake.
This isn't my bill. There has got to be some mistake. (I am sure there is a mistake.)
I must be dreaming. (I can't believe it.)
He should be in his office. (He is probably there.)
FUTURE TIME
EXAMPLE: Don't worry. You shouldn't have any problems. (I don't think you will have
problems.)
PAST TIME (MUST ONLY)
EXAMPLES: I can't see them anywhere. They must have gone home.(I feel sure that they have gone
home.)
BUT
I saw them just now. They can't have gone home. (I feel sure they have not gone home.)
For strong negative probability, use can't (Unit 28).
NOTICE: Ought to (Unit 36) means the same as should.

83

Exercise 33.1: Must or should
Fill in the blank with must or should.
Example: I don't think he ____ go to school today.
Answer: I don't think he should go to school today.
1. Look at your teeth! You really __must__ go to the dentist.
Correct. Correct answer is "must".
2. You think I'm going to buy that? You __must__ be joking.
3. I was stupid to buy that ring. I __should__ have realized it was a fake.
Correct. Correct answer is "should".
4. It was a mistake to let in that goal. He __must__ be feeling terrible right now.
5. I know I __should__n't have this cake, but I'm going to.

Exercise 33.2: Probability and possibility
Fill in the blank with should, shouldn't, must, can't or might.
Example: After all that work, you ____ be tired.
Answer: After all that work, you must be tired.
1. You __Shouldnt__ find this exam difficult. The other exam was much harder.
Correct. Correct answer is "shouldn't".
2. Call the operator. She __should__ be able to help you. That's her job.
Correct. Correct answers are "should" and "must".
3. You'd better take an umbrella. It __might__ rain.
4. There __must__ be a mistake in this bill. The figures don't add up.
5. I __might__ be going to Toronto, but I haven't decided yet.

must
must
should
must
should
shouldn't
should
might
must
might
84

Unit 34: HAVE TO/ NEED TO/ NEEDN'T
We use these verbs to talk about necessity.
Formation
HAVE TO/ NEED TO
We can make all verb formations with these verbs. For example:
Present simple (Unit 19)
He has to work nine hours a day, but he doesn't have to work very hard.
Let's stop. We don't need to finish today.
Past simple (Unit 21)
Did they have to go out?
Yes, they had to go to the airport.
I needed to buy a number of things, but I didn't have enough money.
Present perfect (Unit 24)
She has had to stay behind to look after the children.
With modal verbs (Unit 27)
I may have to go to Winnipeg soon.
If she takes that job, they will need to move to another city.
NOTICE: We always use base form (Unit 14) after to. We say he had to go (NOT he had to went).
needn't is a modal verb (Unit 27)
EXAMPLE: We needn't finish today.
Use: necessity
GENERAL
EXAMPLES: Students don't usually have to pay tax.
You need to get a visa before you travel.
PRESENT AND FUTURE TIME
EXAMPLES: I have to finish this report today.
We can't find a babysitter; we'll have to stay in tonight.
You needn't write it now. You can do it later.
NOTICE: We also use have got to for present and future necessity (Unit 36).
PAST TIME
EXAMPLES: There were no buses. I had to get a taxi.
He said that they had to go.
NOTICE: The meanings of have to, need to and needn't are not exactly the same (Unit 35).

85

Example:
1. ought
2. you
3. to have done
4. better than that
Answer: 2134
Question 1
1. finish it
2. you
3. n't
4. need
Correct order: Correct. 2. you 4.need 3.n't 1.finish it
Question 2
1. have got
2. work late
3. to
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 1.have got 3.to 2.work late
Question 3
1. wear a uniform?
2. did you
3. to
4. have
Correct order: Correct. 2. did you 4.have 3.to 1.wear a uniform?
Question 4
1. finish the dessert
2. you
3. to
4. don't need
Correct order: Correct. 2. you 4. don't need 3. to 1.finish the dessert
Question 5
1. to
2. need
3. you'll
4. wear a coat
Correct order: Correct. 3. you'll 2.need 1.to 4.wear a coat

2431
4132
2431
2431
3214
86

Question 6
1. I
2. n't
3. have worn my sunglasses
4. need
Correct order: Correct. 1. I 4.need 2.n't 3.have worn my sunglasses
Question 7
1. work late tonight
2. have
3. to
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 2.have 3.to 1.work late tonight
Question 8
1. this work
2. to
3. be finished today
4. has
Correct order: Correct. 1. this work 4.has 2.to 3.be finished today
Question 9
1. to
2. leave tomorrow morning
3. I
4. have
Correct order: Correct. 3. I 4.have 1.to 2.leave tomorrow morning

1423
4231
1423
3412
87

Unit 35: NECESSITY & ADVICE
Which do you use?
must, should (Unit 33)
have to, need to, needn't (Unit 34)
would (Unit 32)
Present and future time -- affirmative
If I were you, I would see a dentist.
I think you should see a dentist.
I think it's a good idea (this is my advice).
You really must see a dentist quickly.
It's very important
I have to see the dentist tomorrow.
(a fact; it is arranged).
He should get a new car. (I think it is necessary.)
He needs to get a new car. (I know it is necessary.)
He has to get a new car. (He knows it is necessary.)
Present and future time -- negative
You don't need to do this exercise; you are good enough already. (I think it is not necessary.)
You don't have to do this exercise if you don't want to. (I am giving you permission not to do it.)
You needn't do this exercise if you don't want to. (I am giving you permission not to do it.)
You shouldn't do this exercise. (I think it's a bad idea.)
You mustn't do this exercise. (I command you not to do it.)
Past time
We had to go out. (It was necessary, so we went out.)
We should have gone out. (It was necessary, but we didn't go out.)
We didn't need to go out. (It was not necessary.)
We didn't have to go out. (It was not necessary, so we didn't.)
We needn't have gone out. (It was not necessary, but we went out.)
We shouldn't have gone out. (We went out; this was bad.)
The verbs answer two questions at the same time: Was it necessary? and Did it happen?

88

Exercise 35.1: Obligation - present and future time
Fill in the blank with must, should, have to or need to.
Example: In Canada, people with dogs ____ have a dog license.
Answer: In Canada people with dogs have to have a dog license.
1. I __Should__ wear glasses when I read, but I don't.
Correct. Correct answer is "should".
2. Important notice: These doors __must__ be kept locked at all times.
3. I __have to__ go to a meeting tomorrow. I hope it doesn't take long.
Correct. Correct answer is "have to".
4. It's alright, you don't __need to or have to__ come to the lesson. I won't mark you absent.
Correct. Correct answers are "need to" and "have to".
5. Passengers __must__ not talk to the driver while the bus is moving or else pay a fine.

Exercise 35.2: Obligation - past time
Complete each sentence/question in column A using a set of answers in column B. Be careful with
negatives.
Question 1
Column A
1. I __E___ see the dentist yesterday. It was horrible.
2. Maria __A___ see the dentist. She's very lucky.
3. I walked back, thinking I __C___ been more careful.
4. He told me that I __D___ been so careless.
5. The teacher said we __B___ to class.
Column B
A. didn't have to
B. didn't need to come
C. should have
D. shouldn't have
E. had to
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

should
must
have to
have to
must
E A C D B
89

Unit 36: OTHER MODAL CONSTRUCTIONS
These constructions are not grammatically the same as modal verbs (Unit 27), but they have a modal
meaning. We always use the base form of the verb (Unit 14) after them.
Be able to
We use it to talk about ability. It is more polite than can (Unit 28) or could (Unit 29).
Will you be able to attend the class today?
I'm afraid I may not be able to attend.
Unfortunately, I wasn't able to attend the class yesterday.
Ought to
We use it for advice, necessity and probability (exactly the same way as should in Unit 33).
You ought not to take it without asking.
I think we ought to have apologized.
It ought to be on the top shelf.
Have got to
We use it to talk about necessity for present or future time (the same as have to in Unit 34).
Have you got to work tomorrow?
I've got to finish this report before I go home.
Had better
We use it for advice and necessity for a particular present or future time. It is stronger than ought to
(above) or should (Unit 33).
I think you'd better get some new clothes for the interview.
We'd better be quick or we'll miss the bus.
You'd better not be late again or I'll be very angry.
NOTICE: We nearly always use the short form of had.

90

Example:
1. ought
2. you
3. to have done
4. better than that
Answer: 2134
Question 1
1. to
2. you
3. be there by now
4. ought
Correct order: Correct. 2. you 4.ought 1.to 3.be there by now
Question 2
1. finish it
2. I was not
3. to
4. able
Correct order: Correct. 2. I was not 4.able 3.to 1.finish it
Question 3
1. better
2. I
3. talk to him
4. had
Correct order: Correct. 2. I 4.had 1.better 3.talk to him
Question 4
1. better be
2. you
3. had
4. more careful
Correct order: Correct. 2. you 3.had 1.better be 4.more careful
Question 5
1. not been
2. able to walk
3. he
4. has
Correct order: Correct. 3. he 4.has 1.not been 2.able to walk

2413
2431
2413
2314
3412
91

Exercise 36.2: The correct verb formation
Please choose the correct word to complete the sentence.
Example: Will you ____ attend class today?
Answer: Will you be able to attend class today?
1. You __had better__ clean up that mess!
Correct.
2. He __ought__ to be home by now.
Correct.
3. I __he better__ be getting on with this work
Correct.
4. I won't __be able__ to come.
Correct.
5. Will you __be able__ to stay?
Correct.

had better
ought
had better
be able
be able
92

Unit 37: BE GOING TO
Going to is a way to talk about future time. We use the auxiliary verb be (Unit 16) before it and the
base form (Unit 14) after it.
Formation (be going to + base form)
STATEMENTS
She is going to have a baby.
I'm really going to try hard.
We are not going to have time to finish.
He wasn't going to tell me.
QUESTIONS
When are you going to see him.
What were you going to say?
Is he going to be at home tonight?
Use
FUTURE INTENTION
J ohn says he's going to be an engineer when he grows up. (This is what he wants to be.)
Are you going to watch the movie this evening?
NOT will you
I'm going to speak to him about it. (I have already decided to do this.)
BUT
I'll speak to him about it. (I am deciding now.)
PREDICTION OF THE NEAR FUTURE
He's going to have an accident if he's not careful. (He's driving very dangerously now.)
Oh dear! I think I'm going to be sick. (I feel a little ill already.)
FUTURE IN THE PAST
I didn't know that you were going to become a policeman. (I am surprised that you are a policeman.)
I was going to tell you the news, but I forgot. (It was my intention to tell you.)
NOTICE: Be going to, or will, or present simple, or present continuous? (Unit 41)

93

Exercise 37.1: Be going to
Example:
1. to go
2. to the beach
3. were going
4. they
Answer: 4312
Question 1
1. late again
2. I
3. am going
4. to be
Correct order: Correct. 2. I 3.am going 4.to be 1.late again
Question 2
1. am not going
2. to tell
3. I
4. you
Correct order: Correct. 3. I 1.am not going 2.to tell 4.you
Question 3
1. to be
2. it
3. a bad winter
4. is going
Correct order: Correct. 2. it 4.is going 1.to be 3.a bad winter
Question 4
1. I
2. to call
3. was going
4. you
Correct order: Correct. 1. I 3.was going 2.to call 4.you
Question 5
1. to leave the house
2. we
3. going
4. were just
Correct order: Correct. 2. we 4.were just 3.going 1.to leave the house
Question 6
1. to go
2. am not going
3. out today
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 2.am not going 1.to go 3.out today
2341
3124
2413
1324
2431
4213
94

Exercise 37.2: Will or be going to
Complete each sentence/question in column A using a word or phrase from column B.
Question 1
Column A
1. It's easy to see that your car _is not going to__ start.
2. _Are____ you just _going to___ sit there all day?
3. I __am going to___ pass that exam if it kills me.
4. He __wasnt going ___ to tell me.
5. Careful! You __re going to have___ an accident!
Column B
A. 're going to have
B. am going to
C. is not going to
D. are...going to
E. wasn't going to
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 37.3: Will or Be going to
Choose the correct word to complete the sentence.
Example: I ____ to go to Calgary next week.
Answer: I am going to go to Calgary next week.
1. My stomach feels terrible! I think I __am going to__ be sick.

2. OK, bring it over here. I __will__ have a look for you.

3. __Will__ you help me carry these books, please?

4. Are you __going to__ watch TV tonight?

5. He's a bad driver! He __is going to__ have an accident if he isnt careful!

C D B E A
am going to
will
Will
going to
is going to
95

Unit 38: USED TO
Used to can be a verb (Unit 3) or an adjective (Unit 64). The meanings of the verb and the adjective
are not the same.
As a verb
It is a past simple formation (Unit 21). Put the base form of the verb after to:
used to go, didn't use to go or Did...use to go?
We use it to talk about habits or states in the past.
Montreal used to be very polluted, but it is cleaner now.
My uncle used to smoke eighty cigarettes a day. He died at forty-five.
I never used to like coffee, but now I drink a lot of it.
We didn't use to watch TV when it was hot.
Did you use to go swimming when you lived in Victoria?
NOTICE: We can also use would for past habit:
Henry VIII of England would often become angry if anyone disagreed with him.
As an adjective
Put get or be before used to.
After used to, use a noun phrase (Unit 45) or a verbal noun (Unit 48).
It means "familiar with". For example:
I am used to working hard. It is not new to me.
I am getting used to the cold weather, but it was difficult for me at first.
Don't worry about the new job. You'll soon get used to it.
He was not used to living on his own, so when he started, it felt very strange.
NOTICE: See the difference in meaning:
He is used to getting up early.
He has got up early for a long time.
He used to get up early.
But now he gets up late.

96

Exercise 38.1: Used to
Example:
1. in the United States
2. they
3. live
4. used to
Answer: 2431
Question 1
1. used to
2. live
3. he
4. next door
Correct order: Correct. 3. he 1.used to 2.live 4.next door
Question 2
1. together
2. we
3. play
4. used to
Correct order: Correct. 2. we 4.used to 3.play 1.together
Question 3
1. he
2. used to
3. be unfriendly
4. never
Correct order: Correct. 1. he 4.never 2.used to 3.be unfriendly
Question 4
1. work so hard
2. didn't
3. he
4. use to
Correct order: Correct. 3. he 2.didn't 4.use to 1.work so hard
Question 5
1. he
2. used to
3. isn't
4. getting up early
Correct order: Correct. 1. he 3.isn't 2.used to 4.getting up early

3124
2431
3241
1324
97

Exercise 38.2: Used to / past simple / past continuous
Complete each sentence/question on the column A to using the set of answers on the column B. Be
careful with negatives.
Question 1
Column A
1. I _D did___ not __use to understand___ anything the new teacher said.
2. I __E___ at the Hyatt Hotel every time I went to Calgary.
3. I __A___ keen on cars, but now I'm a fanatic.
4. Twenty years ago, people __B___ to each other.
5. I never ___C__ English, but now I do.
Column B
A. didn't use to be
B. used to talk
C. used to like
D. did...use to understand
E. used to stay
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

D E A B C
98

Unit 39: VERBS & PRESENT TIME
Which one do you use?
SIMPLE?
Present?: He works
Present perfect?: He has worked
OR
CONTINUOUS?
Present?: He is working
Present perfect?: He has been working
Simple formation
DESCRIBING A STATE
I think you are right. (my opinion)
She has two children.
Do you like pasta?
He comes from London. (It's his home town.)
ALWAYS TRUE ('timeless')
The sun rises in the East.
I have always had trouble with my teeth.
This heater doesn't work.
Let's throw it away.
POINT OF TIME -- the action finishes when you finish speaking
We all wish you good luck.
I beg your pardon.
Continuous Formation
DESCRIBING AN ACTIVITY
I'm thinking about it, but I haven't decided yet.
She is having a bath.
Are you enjoying the pasta?
He's coming from London. (He's traveling now.)
TRUE FOR A PERIOD OF TIME
Look! The sun is rising.
I 've been having trouble with my teeth lately.
This heater isn't working.
But we can try to repair it.
POINT OF TIME -- the action finishes when you finish speaking
We cannot use a continuous formation for this meaning.

99

Perfect formation
We are interested in when something started.
I've been staying here for three days. (I arrived three days ago.)
She has always liked music. (She has liked it from the start.)
Have you lived here long? (I know you live here. I want to know when you started.)
Non-perfect
We are not interested in when something started.
I'm staying here for three days. (A total of three days; I'm not saying when I arrived.)
She likes music. (I'm not saying anything about the past.)
Do you live here? (I want to know if you live here or not.)

100

Exercise 39.1: Present simple or present continuous
Complete the sentence using a suitable verb in the present simple or present continuous form from
the following choices below.
Example: Oh, sorry! ____ at a bad time?
Answer: Oh, sorry! Am I phoning at a bad time?
1. What __are you doing__ here? I thought you left hours ago.
Correct.
2. What __are you doing__ next weekend?
Correct.
3. How many hours __do you work__ every day?
Correct.
4. He __knows__ a lot about computers.
Correct.
5. Are you __enjoying__ the movie?
Correct.

Exercise 39.2: Present: simple / continuous / perfect
Complete the sentence using a suitable verb in the present simple, present continuous or present
perfect form from the following choices below.
Example: Oh no! I ____ my wallet.
Answer: Oh no! I have lost my wallet.
1. He __has collected__ stamps ever since he was a small boy.
Correct.
2. Be quiet and listen! The teacher __is speaking__.
Correct.
3. Sorry, I can't talk now. I __am having__ dinner.
Correct.
4. The phone is ringing. Can somebody __answer__ it?
Correct.
5. She __has been__ on the phone for half an hour now.
Correct.

are you doing
are you doing
do you work
knows
enjoying
has collected
is speaking
am having
answer
has been
101

Unit 40: VERBS & PAST TIME
SIMPLE?
Past?: He worked
Present perfect?: He has worked
Past perfect?: He had worked
OR
CONTINUOUS?
Past?: He was working
Present perfect?: He has been working
Past perfect?: He had been working
Simple formation
ACTIVITIES: did you finish them?
YES
I read a book last night.
It was very exciting.
He had studied Arabic before, so
it was easy for him to understand.
The car is OK now. They have repaired it.
She watched TV last night.
STATES
I didn't know anybody there.
They liked fruit more than anything else.
I believed all his stories.
Continuous Formation
ACTIVITIES: did you finish them?
IT IS NOT IMPORTANT or NO
I was reading a book. That's why I missed the TV show.
He had been studying Arabic for four years and he wanted to practice.
Their hands are dirty because they have been repairing the car.
She was watching TV when the phone rang.
STATES
NOT I wasn't knowing
NOT They were liking
NOT I was believing
You cannot decide to do these things and then stop. They are not actions, so we cannot use the
continuous formation.
NOTICE: If you want to show clearly that the state is now finished, you can use used to (Unit 38).
For example:
I used to believe all his stories, but now I know he's a liar.
102

I didn't use to know anybody there, but now I have lots of friends.
Past simple
Are we interested in exactly when?
YES
I saw the film yesterday.
Did you go to England on your holiday?
He didn't do his homework last night.
Is it important for now?
NO
I broke my leg, so I had to go to the hospital.
It wasn't a comfortable trip. I needed two days to recover from it.
Charles Dickens, the famous author, died at the age of fifty-eight.
(This is history.)
Can it happen again?
NO
Shakespeare wrote many plays.
(He is dead now.)
Present perfect simple
Are we interested in exactly when?
NO
I've seen the film. It's good.
Have you ever been to England?
He has not done his homework yet.
Is it important for now?
YES
Help! I think I've broken my leg.
It hasn't been a comfortable trip. I feel terrible.
Maria J ones, the famous singer, has died at the age of seventy-six.
(This is news.)
Can it happen again?
YES
My friend Sam has written many plays.
(He may write more.)
NOTICE: I was in Toronto for three days. (finished)
I have been in Toronto for three days. (unfinished)
Past perfect
Use past perfect when it is important to show what happened first (Unit 26).

103

Exercise 40.1: Past simple or present perfect
incorrect.
Example: He has not done his homework yet.
Answer: True.
1. I was so worried that I am not sleeping for three days.
True False The corrected sentence is "I was so worried that I did not sleep for three days."
2. I studied English before, so it is easy for me to understand.
True False The corrected sentence is "I have studied English before, so it is easy for me to
understand."
3. John has promised to take me to the hockey game today.
True False
4. I went to Saskatchewan twice last year.
True False
5. I've eaten octopus. It's good.
True False
Exercise 40.2: Past simple or past continuous
Complete the sentence with a suitable verb in the past simple or past continuous form from the
following choices below.
Example: I ____ TV when I heard the phone ring.
Answer: I was watching TV when I heard the phone ring. (past continuous)
1. I __was taking___ a shower when the phone rang.
Correct.
2. We __saw___ that there had been a serious accident.
Correct.
3. We could see it __was snowing___ much too hard to go outside.
Correct.
4. She ___read__ a book last night. She says the ending is fantastic.
Correct.
5. She __was reading___ a book last night when I came over and took her out.
Correct.

was taking
saw
was snowing
read
was reading
104

Exercise 40.3: Past: simple / continuous / perfect
Complete the sentence with a suitable verb in the past simple, past continuous or past perfect form
from the following choices below.
Example: I ____ in the library when I ____ it ____.
Answer: I was working (past continuous) in the library when I realized (past simple) it had closed.
(past perfect)
1. I was late and driving very fast when the police __speeded___ me.
Correct.
2. I was late because a patient __had called___ me.
Correct.
3. The call came just as I __was leaving___ the house.
Correct.
4. The police __ware waiting___ on a side road to catch speeders.
Correct.
5. When they __saw___ me, they drove after me.
Correct.

stopped
had called
was leaving
were waiting
saw
105

Unit 41: VERBS & FUTURE TIME
English does not have a future tense. We can use:
be going to (Unit 37)
present continuous (Unit 22)
OR will (or shall) (Unit 31)
present simple (Unit 19)
Personal plans and intentions
You are deciding now: use will or shall
I think I'll visit my uncle tomorrow.
I think I will take the exam next summer.
J ust a minute and I'll get him for you.
You have already decided, but you have not arranged anything yet: use be going to
I'm going to visit my uncle tomorrow.
"Did you hear that?" asked the teacher. "Tomorrow we're going to have a little test."
He is going to take the exam next summer.
You have made arrangements. Now it is not just your intention - you have done
something about it: use present continuous
I'm visiting my uncle tomorrow.
Your uncle knows this - perhaps he has made plans to welcome you.
The teacher says we're having a test tomorrow.
The teacher has made a plan - a student cannot change it.
He is taking the exam this summer.
He has entered his name for it and paid the exam fee.
NOTICE: Present continuous is a polite way to refuse an invitation because it shows that you cannot
accept (not that you don't want to accept!).
I'm afraid I can't come tomorrow. I'm visiting my uncle.
Prediction
What is your opinion about the future?
General: use will or shall
Do you think they'll win the game?
The world's population will likely reach 9.2 billion in 2050.
This time tomorrow, I'll be relaxing on the beach.

106

Because of the present situation use be going to
If they play like that for the whole game, they're going to lose.
It's cold! And look at the sky! I think it's going to snow.
We need 20 minutes to finish, but there's only 10 minutes left. We're not going to have time.
Because of a fixed arrangement which cannot change: use present simple
My plane leaves at six this evening.
This is the timetable.
The sun rises tomorrow at 6:32.
Because of the time of year.
The course begins next week.
NOTICE: I'll see him today.
This is an intention - you are deciding now.
I'll be seeing him today.
This is a prediction - and it is probably arranged.
NOTICE: The future is never certain. We often use the modal verbs could, may, might (Units 29-
30) and also should (Unit 33) to show how possible we think something is.

107

Exercise 41.1: Verb formations for future time
Example:
1. is
2. leaving
3. my plane
4. this evening
Answer: 3124
Question 1
1. to have
2. I
3. a rest
4. am going
Correct order: Correct. 2. I 4.am going 1.to have 3.a rest
Question 2
1. doing
2. are
3. you
4. anything this evening?
Correct order: Correct. 2. are 3.you 1.doing 4.anything this evening?
Question 3
1. I
2. talk
3. will
4. to him
Correct order: Correct. 1. I 3.will 2.talk 4.to him
Question 4
1. his decision soon
2. we
3. know
4. will
Correct order: Correct. 2. we 4.will 3.know 1.his decision soon
Question 5
1. is going
2. to the library
3. he
4. to go
Correct order: Correct. 3. he 1.is going 4.to go 2.to the library

2413
2314
1324
2431
3142
108

Question 6
1. my grandma
2. with us
3. is
4. coming
Correct order: Correct. 1. my grandma 3.is 4.coming 2.with us
Question 7
1. having
2. she
3. a music lesson
4. is
Correct order: Correct. 2. she 4.is 1.having 3.a music lesson
Question 8
1. take
2. the exam together
3. they
4. will
Correct order: Correct. 3. they 4.will 1.take 2.the exam together
Question 9
1. am
2. my uncle
3. visiting
4. I
Correct order: Correct. 4. I 1.am 3.visiting 2.my uncle
Exercise 41.2: Using Future Time Verbs
Please choose the correct word to complete the sentence.
Example: J ust a minute, I ____ get him for you.
Answer: J ust a minute, I will get him for you.
1. The sun __rises__ (rise) at 7:39 tomorrow.
Correct.
2. Look at those clouds! It __is going to__ (rain)!
Correct.
3. Do you think people __will live__ (live) on the moon one day?
Correct.
4. There is only 1 minute left in the game! We __are going to lose__ (lose)!
Correct.
5. I have to get ready. My plane __leaves__ (leave) at 6:30.
Correct.

1342
2413
3412
4132
rises
is going to rain
will live
are going to lose
leaves
109

D. The Passive (Unit 42-44)

Unit 42: PASSIVE SENTENCES
All sentences are either active or passive.
Active and passive
These two sentences have different meanings:
ACTIVE: J ohn helped the other students.
PASSIVE: J ohn was helped by the other students.
In the active sentence, J ohn did something. In the passive sentence, something happened to J ohn (he
did not do anything).
Agent
Look at these two passive sentences:
The other students were helped by John.
J ohn is the agent because he did something.
J ohn was helped by the other students.
J ohn is not the agent; the agent is the other students.
The agent is the doer of the action.
We use by before the agent in a passive sentence. But many passive sentences do not tell us about the
agent because it is not of interest or not important (Unit 44).
Making active into passive
When you change an active sentence into passive, you change the verb formation and you change the
word order.
[AA]:ACTIVE AGENT,[AV]:ACTIVE VERB,[PV]:PASSIVE VERB,[PA]:PASSIVE AGENT
These two sentences have the same basic meaning:
[AA] Maria [AV] helped the other students.
The other students [PV] were helped by [PA] Maria.
Unit 43 shows you passive verb formations, but don't forget that subject and verb must agree in
number and person (Unit 4).
Unit 44 shows you when to use the passive.

110

Exercise 42.1: Word Order
Example:
1. the other students
2. she was
3. by
4. helped
Answer: 2431
Question 1
1. told
2. my grandfather
3. by
4. I was
Correct order: Correct. 4. I was 1.told 3.by 2.my grandfather
Question 2
1. by
2. arrested
3. he was
4. the police
Correct order: Correct. 3. he was 2.arrested 1.by 4.the police
Question 3
1. the speeding car
2. the animal was
3. by
4. run over
Correct order: Correct. 2. the animal was 4.run over 3.by 1.the speeding car
Question 4
1. they were
2. by
3. beaten
4. the other team
Correct order: Correct. 1. they were 3.beaten 2.by 4.the other team
Question 5
1. surprised
2. my friends
3. I was
4. by
Correct order: Correct. 3. I was 1.surprised 4.by 2.my friends

4132
3214
2431
1324
3142
111

Exercise 42.2: Active or passive with the verb be
Complete each sentence/question on the column A to using the set of answers on the column B.
Question 1
Column A
1. I __D. were surprised___ to hear the news.
2. Maria __A. was helped___ by J ohn.
3. Thirty people __B. were invited___ to the party.
4. They __C. were leaving___ the airport.
Column B
A. was helped
B. were invited
C. were leaving
D. was surprised
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4:

D A B C
112

Unit 43: PASSIVE VERB FORMATIONS
All passive formations have the verb be before a past participle.
Statements (be + past participle)
PRESENT SIMPLE
Tea is drunk everywhere.
These carpets are made by hand.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
They are being held here in 2007.
PAST SIMPLE
This book was written by Shakespeare.
PAST CONTINUOUS
The car was being repaired.
PRESENT PERFECT
She has not been told yet.
PAST PERFECT
They had not been invited to the party.
MODALS BEFORE A SIMPLE FORMATION
It may be locked at any time.
She will be given a prize.
MODALS BEFORE A PERFECT FORMATION
It must have been stolen.
He might have been killed.
BE GOING TO
It is going to be built here.
HAVE TO
The job has to be done by tonight.
USED TO
This place used to be used as a playground.
NOTICE: Irregular past participles are in Appendix 10.
Questions (be + past participle)
As usual, put the first part of the verb before the subject (Unit 9). For example:
PRESENT SIMPLE
How are these carpets made?
PAST SIMPLE
Who was this book written by?
PRESENT PERFECT
Has she been told the news yet?
MODAL
Can we be seen from here?
NOTICE: With have to and used to, use the correct form of the auxiliary do.
Does it have to be done by tonight?

113

Example:
1. the other students
2. she was
3. by
4. helped
Answer: 2431
Question 1
1. a decision
2. made yet?
3. been
4. has
Correct order: Correct. 4. has 1.a decision 3.been 2.made yet?
Question 2
1. told
2. they had not
3. about the meeting
4. been
Correct order: Correct. 2. they had not 4.been 1.told 3.about the meeting
Question 3
1. be
2. where will
3. the 2010 Olympic Games
4. held?
Correct order: Correct. 2. where will 3.the 2010 Olympic Games 1.be 4.held?
Question 4
1. asked yet
2. been
3. has not
4. he
Correct order: Correct. 4. he 3.has not 2.been 1.asked yet
Question 5
1. seen
2. be
3. can we
4. from here?
Correct order: Correct. 3. can we 2.be 1.seen 4.from here?

4132
2413
2314
4321
3214
114

Exercise 43.2: The correct form of "be"
Fill in the blank with am, is, are, was, were, be, been or being.
Example: She has not ____ told yet.
Answer: She has not been told yet.
1. Communication lines have __been___ cut by the storm.
Correct. Correct answer is "been".
2. Could I use your washing machine? Mine is __being___ repaired.
Correct. Correct answer is "being".
3. If you arrive late, you will not __be___ allowed to enter.
Correct. Correct answer is "be".
4. This book __was__ written by Margaret Atwood.
Correct. Correct answer is "was".
5. The Winter Carnival __is__ held in Quebec.
Correct. Correct answer is "is".

Example: When we arrived, the floor _____ in dirt.
Answer: When we arrived, the floor was covered in dirt.
1. Bags should not __be left__ alone at any time.
Correct.
2. In the past, ice had __to be bought__ from the iceman.
Correct.
3. Refreshments will __be provided__ during the intermission.
Correct.
4. Basketball __was invented__ by a Canadian in 1891.
Correct.
5. A new hockey arena __is going to be built__ here next year.
Correct.

been
being
be
was
is
be left
to be bought
be provided
was invented
is going to be built
115

Unit 44: USING THE PASSIVE
Units 42-43 show you how to make correct passive sentences. This unit tells you when you can use
the passive. In general, we use passives more often in writing than in speaking.
When the agent (Unit 42) is obvious
In this sentence:
The enemy soldiers killed hundreds of our soldiers in the battle
We do not really need to know who killed our soldiers; We can already guess because this is what
happens every time there is a battle. So, it is better to write: Hundreds of our soldiers were killed in
the battle.
Here are some more examples:
I was born in 1960. (AGENT: My mother)
There has been heavy snow in the north.
Several roads have been blocked and telephone lines have been cut. (AGENT: The snow)
When the agent is not important
In this sentence:
People make bread from wheat.
we are not really interested in people; we are talking about bread. So, it is better to write:
Bread is made from wheat.
J apan is called 'the Land of the Rising Sun'. (By people)
He was last seen in Montreal in 1976. (By somebody)
The noise could be heard all over town. (By everybody)
Have the dishes been done yet? (By anybody)
When the agent is 'new' information
Look at these two sentences:
'The Tempest' is a great play. Shakespeare wrote it in 1603
When we read the second sentence, we already know about the play (we learnt about it in the first
sentence). But the writer's name is new information. In English, we usually put the new information
after the 'old' in this kind of situation. So, it is better to write:
'The Tempest' is a great play. It was written by Shakespeare in 1603.
The Parthenon in Athens is a fine building. It was built by the Ancient Greeks.
The new information in the second sentence is the Ancient Greeks.
Terrible news! J ohn has been run over by a bus.
We all know J ohn, but we don't know the bus.
There are disagreements about the discovery of America. Some say it was discovered by Columbus
in 1492, but others say it was discovered much earlier by Brendan, an Irish monk.
The new information in the second sentence is the names Columbus and Brendan.
To be polite
It is forbidden to speak to the driver while the bus is moving.
More polite than: We forbid you to speak to the driver while the bus is moving.
Money should not be left in the rooms.
More polite than: You should not leave money in the rooms.

116

Exercise 44.1: Active to Passive
Match the active sentences on the column A with the set of passive sentences on the column B.
Question 1
Column A
1. Finally, an old school friend recognized him. (C)
2. Everybody expected him to win the race. (E)
3. They have closed down that old hotel. (A)
4. They must have told her about it. (B)
5. Nobody will see us from here. (D)
Column B
A. That old hotel has been closed down.
B. She must have been told about it.
C. Finally, he was recognized by an old school friend.
D. We won't be seen from here.
E. He was expected to win the race.
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 44.2: Active or Passive?
Please read the sentences below and choose whether they are active or passive.

Example 1: The earthquake injured thousands.
Answer: Active

Example 2: Thousands were injured by the earthquake.
Answer: Passive
1. Susan broke the washing machine.
Correct. Correct answer is "Active".
2. The washing machine was broken.
Correct. Correct answer is "Passive".
3. The game was stopped because of the rain.
4. The referee stopped the game because of the rain.
Correct. Correct answer is " Active ".
5. Can you tell me where rice is grown?

C E A B D
Active
Passive
Passive
Active
Passive
117

E. The Noun Phrase (Unit 45-60)
Unit 45: NOUNS & NOUN PHRASES
A noun is a word for something in the world. It can describe a person (teacher), a thing (desk), a
place (school), a time (year), a feeling (fear), an action (reply) or an event (lesson).
Form
English nouns have very few forms. There are only two numbers: singular (one) and plural (two or
more). It does not matter how we use a noun in a sentence; the form is usually the same. The form is
sometimes different only with the genitive (Unit 49).
[S]:SINGULAR, [P]:PLURAL
ORDINARY [S] girl [P] girls
GENITIVE [S] girl's [P] girls'
NOTICE: The pronunciation of girls, girl's and girls' is exactly the same.
Types of noun
PROPER NOUNS (Unit 48) are names.
EXAMPLES: J ohn, Paris
MASS NOUNS (Unit 47) have only one form.
EXAMPLES: time, water
UNIT NOUNS have plural (Unit 46) and sometimes genitive forms (Unit 49).
EXAMPLES: hour, cup
Noun phrases
A noun phrase can be:
a noun or pronoun (Unit 50) alone,
for example: girl - her
a group of words with a noun in it,
for example: the table - some of the tables
the big one - both the big tables
In every noun phrase, one noun (or pronoun) is the most important word. The other words 'belong' to
it and give more information about it. You can learn about these other words in Units 51-60.

118

Unit 46: PLURALS OF UNIT NOUNS
Most unit nouns add S to make the plural, but some are irregular.
Regular
girl girls
face faces
but if the word ends with ch / sh / s / x / y / z / fe, the spelling is a little different. Look at Appendix 5
Irregular
Here are some useful examples:
[S] person [P] people
[S] man [P] men
[S] woman [P] women
[S] foot [P] feet
[S] tooth [P] teeth
[S] sheep [P] sheep
[S] fish [P] fish
[S] child [P] children
[S] appendix [P] appendices
[S] nucleus [P] nuclei
Always plural
THINGS WITH TWO HALVES
Those scissors are very sharp.
The pants are too long for me.
I can't see with these glasses.
If we want to count with these words, we use pair:
pair of scissors ( =1 ), four pairs of pants
SOME OTHER WORDS
For example: clothes, customs (at airports), premises, thanks, wages
SOME WORDS do not LOOK PLURAL, but they usually take PLURAL GRAMMAR
Some words do not look plural, but they usually take plural grammar.
For example: The family are all out at the moment. NOT is
The majority think he is right. NOT thinks
The police are questioning him now. NOT is
NOTICE: News is not a plural. It is a mass noun. Mass nouns do not have a plural form (Unit 47).

119

Exercise 46.1: Counting and plurals
Complete the sentence with the correct form of the word in brackets. Use any other necessary words.
Example: He ate three ____ (cheese).
Answer: He ate three pieces of cheese.
1. Many small __villages___(village) were destroyed.
Correct.
2. There were four serious car __crashes___ (crash) this weekend.
Correct.
3. It was autumn, and the __leaves___ (leaf) were falling.
Correct.
4. Some __families___ (family) celebrate Christmas on December 24th.
Correct.
5. We've got three __fish___ (fish) for dinner.
Correct.
6. Three __policemen___ (policeman) came to our school.
Correct.

Exercise 46.2: The correct noun form
Fill in the gap with the correct form of the word in brackets.
Example: The library is a quiet place for _____ (children) to come and read.
Answer: The library is a quiet place for children to come and read.
1. She didn't like these old-fashioned __beliefs__ (belief).
Correct.
2. Do you have a __child__ (child) with long brown hair?
Correct.
3. Is there a place for __children__ (child) here?
Correct.

villages
crashes
leaves
families
fish
policemen
beliefs
child
children
120

Unit 47: MASS NOUNS
Mass nouns do not have a singular or plural form (Unit 45). We cannot say a water or three waters;
we just say water
Important mass nouns
ALL LIQUIDS
coffee, juice, gas, milk, oil, tea, soup, water
SOME FOOD
butter, cheese, flour, food, fruit, rice, honey, meat, parsley, toast, sugar, salt
MATERIALS
cotton, leather, gold, metal, paper, wood
ABSTRACTS
advice, education, information, knowledge, homework, life, love, music, news, time
ALSO
furniture, hair, luggage, money, weather
How to count mass nouns
For many mass nouns (except liquids), we can use bit:
a bit of advice
a little bit of salt
two bits of cheese
For many mass nouns (except liquids and some abstracts), we can use piece:
a piece of bread
two pieces of information
For liquids and some food, we can use containers:
a jar of honey
three cups of coffee
a bottle of water
For liquids, food and material, we can use measuring words:
ten litres of gas
fifty grams of sugar
NOTICE: It is correct to say two coffees, please in a cafe because we understand two cups of
coffee.
NOTICE: Unit 56 shows you other words to use with mass nouns.

121

Exercise 47.1: Counting and plurals
Complete the sentence with the correct form of the word in brackets. Use any other necessary words.
Example: He ate three ____ (cheese).
Answer: He ate three pieces of cheese.
1. I've got three __pages of homework___ (homework) to do this evening.
Correct.
2. There were two important __pieces of news___ (news).
Correct.
3. Why are there three __pairs of pyjamas___ (pyjamas)?
Correct.
4. I'd like five __cups of rice___ (rice), please.
Correct.
5. I've only got two __pieces of luggage___ (luggage).
Correct.
6. How many __pieces of toast___ (toast) do you want?
Correct.
7. Can I have some __pieces of paper___ (paper) to write on?
Correct.
8. Let me give you some __advice___ (advice).
Correct.
9. He's only five __months___ (month) old.
Correct.

pages of homework
pieces of news
pairs of pyjamas
cups of rice
pieces of luggage
pieces of toast
pieces of paper
advice
months
122

Unit 48: PROPER NOUNS & VERBAL NOUNS
These nouns usually have only one form. Proper nouns are either singular or plural; verbal nouns are
mass noun (Unit 47)
Proper nouns
These are names for a particular person (John) or thing (Toyota) or place (Rome) or time (May).
They begin with a CAPITAL LETTER
Mr. and Mrs. Smith, Prime Minister Harper, Africa, Independence Day
Normally, we do not use the. We say:
Maria Not the Maria
Tokyo Not the Tokyo
Pearson Airport Not the Pearson
J anuary Not the January
BUT NOTICE
PLURALS: the Queen Charlotte Islands, the Badlands
RIVERS AND SEAS: the Indian Ocean, the Nile
FAMOUS BUILDINGS: the Acropolis, the Louvre
NAMES WITH OF: the King of Spain, the House of Commons
Verbal nouns
These are the -ing form of the verb (Unit 14) used as a noun.
AS THE SUBJECT
Smoking is bad for you.
AS PART OF THE SUBJECT
Travelling by plane makes me nervous.
AFTER VERBS
He doesn't mind working at night.
Would you mind leaving now? (A polite command.)
I'll do the washing and you do the cooking.
Let's go shopping. (A suggestion.)
My car keeps stopping.
I remember locking the door. (I remember that I did this.)
BUT I'll remember to lock the door. (I won't forget to do it.)
I like listening to music. (Generally.)
BUT I would like to listen to some music. (now)
He stopped talking. (He was talking; then he stopped.)
BUT He stopped to talk. (He was doing something; then he stopped because he wanted to talk.)
AFTER PREPOSITIONS
How about phoning J ohn. (A suggestion.)
He's no good at driving.
Why don't we walk instead of going by car? (A suggestion.)

123

Exercise 48.1: Proper Nouns
What part of the sentence is a proper noun?
Example: Edmonton is in the north part of the province..
Answer: Edmonton.
1. She was born in Canada.
Correct. Canada
2. Mrs. Smith works late every night.
Correct. Mrs. Smith
3. The Royal Alberta Museum is close by.
Correct. Royal Albarta Museum
4. Cathy bought a blue truck.
Correct. Cathy
5. It was a blue Toyota truck.
Correct. Toyota

Exercise 48.2: Verbal Nouns
Fill in the blank with the verb in brackets, using the -ing form or to +base form.
Example: I'd like _____ (see) you tomorrow.
Answer: I'd like to see you tomorrow.
1. I don't really enjoy __travelling__ (travel) by plane.
Correct.
2. I noticed the two men in front of me __smoking__ (smoke).
Correct.
3. They blew smoke at me instead of __apologizing__ (apologize).
Correct.
4. I couldn't believe they kept on __doing__ (do) that.
Correct.
5. Then, they began __arguing__ (argue) with me.
Correct.
6. The other passengers started __to look__ (look) at us.
Correct.

Canada
Mrs. Smith
Royal Alberta Museum
Cathy
Toyota
travelling
smoking
apologizing
doing
arguing
to look
124

Unit 49: GENITIVE
We sometimes need to describe a noun by using another noun with it. We use this other noun:
with the -s ending ('s for singular, s' for plural);
with of before it;
as an adjective (Unit 64).
-S ending
We usually use this:
For PEOPLE:
Maria's father (the father of Maria)
Ahmed's homework (homework which Ahmed must do)
I went to Bill's (the place where Bill lives)
this student's ability (ability which this student has)
a girls' school (a school for girls)
a children's playground (a place where children can play)
an old people's home (a place where old people live)
NOTICE: Plurals without s use 's (NOT s').
For NOUNS OF TIME:
today's program
three weeks' holiday
a few minutes' rest
NOTICE: The noun with the -s ending goes before the noun it describes.
Of
We use this with most other nouns. For example:
the corners of the room (NOT the room's corners)
the history of Canada
the capital of Alberta
NOTICE: The noun with of goes after the noun it describes.
Adjective
We usually usethis when we are talking about a type of something.
car doors (NOT car's doors)
plane ticket (NOT plane's ticket or ticket of a plane)

125

English lessons (NOT English's lessons)
music school (NOT music's school)
hotel room (NOT hotel's room)
NOTICE:
a teacup =a cup you can use for tea
a cup of tea =a cup with tea in it
a shopping bag =a bag you can use for shopping
a bag of shopping =a bag with shopping in it
-s ending and of
Normally we say Maria's cousin or John's book or my father's friends, especially if we have
already mentioned the cousin or the book or the friends. But if we want to be more indefinite, and
especially if we are mentioning them for the first time, we say:
a cousin of Maria's
a book of J ohn's
some friends of my father's
We can also use personal pronouns (Unit 50) this way: an uncle of mine (I am not telling you
which one.)
BUT the second noun must describe a person. We say: a corner of the room (NOT a corner of the
room's)
And we must know which person. We say: a student's book (NOT a book of a student's)

126

Exercise 49.1: The correct noun form
Fill in the blank with the correct form of the word in brackets.
Example: Hello, I'm ____ (Maria) husband.
Answer: Hello, I'm Maria's husband.
1. He doesn't believe in __womens__ (woman) rights.
Correct.
2. He thinks that a __womans__ (woman) place is in the home.
Correct.
3. He said all this to a __woman__ (woman) doctor.
Correct.
4. She said he was one of the rudest __men__ (man) she had ever met.
Correct.
5. She thought __people__ (person) like him should keep quiet.
Correct.

Exercise 49.2: Genitive Noun Phrases
Please choose the sentence with the same meaning as the sentence above.
Example: There is a hospital in the town.
Answer 1: It's the town hospital. (correct)
Answer 2: It's the hospitals town. (incorrect)
1. The people chose him.
Correct. He was the peoples choice.
2. Maria has a boyfriend.
Correct. Hes Marias boyfriend.
3. The game has ended.
Correct. Its the end of the game.
4. This school teaches music.
Correct. Its a music school.
5. Children play in this playground
Correct. Its a childrens playground.

women's
woman's
woman
men
people
He was the people's choice.
He's Maria's boyfriend.
It's the end of the game.
It's a music school.
It's a children's playground.
127

Exercise 49.3: Apostrophe s ('s)
What does the 's stand for in these sentences: is, has or genitive?
Example: What's your name?
Answer: What is your name?
1. J ohn's teacher told him to work harder.
Correct. Correct answer is "genitive".
2. J ohn's been wasting his time ever since he got there.
Correct. Correct answer is "has".
3. The shop's closed its meat counter.
4. The shop's closed on Sundays.
Correct. Correct answer is "is".
5. J ohn's been working there for 2 years.

genitive
has
has
is
has
128

Unit 50: PERSONAL PRONOUNS
We can use a personal pronoun instead of a noun phrase (Unit 45) when we can already understand
who or what.
Form
[S]:SUBJ ECT,[O]:OBJ ECT,[G]:GENITIVE,[R]:REFLEXIVE
[S] I [O] me [G] my [G] mine [R] myself
[S] You [O] you [G] your [G] yours [R] yourself
[S] He [O] him [G] his [G] his [R] himself
[S] She [O] her [G] hers [G] hers [R] herself
[S] It [O] it [G] its[R] itself
[S] We [O] us [G] our [G] ours [R] ourselves
[S] You [O] you [G] your [G] yours [R] yourselves
[S] They [O] them [G] their [G] theirs [R] themselves
Subject pronouns
When the pronoun is the subject of the sentence (Unit 1) or the subject of a clause.
Maria read for a few minutes. Then she went to sleep.
John said that he had to go.
Maria had done the test before so it was easy for her.
These houses are very old. They were built 200 years ago.
Reflexive pronouns
WHEN THE NOUN AFTER THE VERB IS THE SAME AS THE SUBJECT
Maria looked at herself in the mirror. =Maria looked at Maria.
John has hurt himself. =J ohn hurt J ohn.
Enjoy yourselves on holiday! (The subject is you.)
TO POINT STRONGLY TO THE SUBJECT.
I made it myself. (Nobody made it for me.)
NOTICE: He lives by himself. =He lives alone.
Genitive pronouns
When we are talking about who things belong to.
WITH A NOUN
I've lost my book.
Is that your car?
John has changed his mind.
John and Maria are visiting their uncle.

129

WITHOUT A NOUN
This is Maria's book. Where's mine?
Maria is talking to an old friend of hers.
That's my car. Yours is over there.
NOTICE: cut her finger. NOT she's cut the finger
Object pronouns
When we cannot use any of the other pronouns.
Maria had to go because J ohn was waiting for her.
Maria had done the test before so she found it easy.
The students sat with the exam paper in front of them.
Could you help us please?
Who's that? It's me.
Special uses of pronouns
it
FOR THE WEATHER
It's very hot.
It was raining.
FOR THE TIME
It's half past two.
It was very early.
FOR DISTANCE
It's two kilometres to the centre.
FOR IDENTIFYING PEOPLE
Who's that at the door? It's me.
you
FOR ANYONE OR EVERYONE (USUALLY IN SPEAKING)
The buses here are so full that you often have to stand.
You mustn't smoke in a non-smoking area.
they
FOR A GROUP OF PEOPLE WHO YOU DO NOT KNOW PERSONALLY
They say it's going to be a good summer.
They're putting up the price of gasoline.
WITH A SINGULAR MEANING (BECAUSE WE DON'T KNOW IF WE ARE TALKING
ABOUT HIM OR HER)
If anyone has finished, they can go.
Someone hasn't eaten their food.

130

Exercise 50.1: Personal Pronouns
Fill in the blank with the correct personal pronouns.
Example: Have the children taken _____ coats?
Answer: Have the children taken their coats?
1. Hey come back! That's __my__ bicycle you're taking.
Correct.
2. I wished __him__ a safe journey as he left.
Correct.
3. There are five of __us__, so we can't all fit in one car.
Correct.
4. I had already lost my key, and then Maria lost __hers__.
Correct.
5. J ohn can't play tomorrow, he's broken __his__ ankle.
Correct.
6. What a clever child! She's done it all by __herself__.
Correct.
7. The school had problems and nobody knew what to do about __them__.
Correct.
8. __It__ was three o'clock before we left.
Correct.
9. They introduced me to J ohn. He's a friend of __mine__.
Correct.

my
him
us
hers
his
herself
them
It
mine
131

Unit 51: A/ AN/ SOME/ ANY
We can use these words at the beginning of a noun phrase (Unit 45). We use a/ an for singular nouns
(a plate/ an apple) and some/ any for plurals and mass nouns (some plates/ any fruit) (Unit 56).
A or an
use an if the next word begins with a, e, i, o, u:
an aunt, an exam, an idea, an old man, an uncle
BUT if we say u as in you:
a university, a used car
Use a if the next word begins with any other letter:
a cousin, a test, a thought, a young man, a boat
BUT if h is silent:
an hour, an honest man
Some or any
Use some in affirmative sentences:
He's got some news. (Unit 5)
Use any in negative sentences:
I haven't got any news. (Unit 5)
We normally use any in questions (BUT look at Unit 9).
Use
When we are talking about a noun for the first time and we do not understand which:
There is a man at the door.
But I don't know who he is.
She bought some oranges.
I don't know which oranges.
She didn't buy any apples.
A bottle of water, please.
NOT one bottle; (Unit 59)
Also for these words of quantity:
a few, a little, a lot of, a pair, a hundred, a thousand, a million
and for rates:
forty kilometres an hour (NOT the hour), eighty cents a pound
NOTICE: a/ an/ some/ any or the or nothing? (Unit 54)
NOTICE:
something/ anything =a thing
somewhere/ anywhere =a place
someone/ anyone/ somebody/ anybody =a person
132

Exercise 51.1: A/ an/ some/ any
Fill in the blank with a, an, some or any.
Example: I'd like ____ information, please.
Answer: I'd like some information, please.
1. I didn't get __any__ money for it.
Correct. Correct answer is "any".
2. It was __an__ unusual experience.
Correct. Correct answer is "an".
3. My friends gave me __some__ good advice.
Correct. Correct answer is "some".
4. I won't be long, maybe __an__ hour.
5. There is __a__ salesperson on the phone.
Correct. Correct answer is "a".

Exercise 51.2: Some/ any with one, body, thing and where
Fill in the blank with something, anything, somewhere, anywhere, someone/somebody or
anyone/anybody.
Example: I think there's ____ at the door.
Answer: I think there's someone/somebody at the door.
1. Let me tell you __something__.
Correct. Correct answer is "something".
2. I went to school, but there wasn't __anyone/anybody__ there.
Correct. Correct answer is "anyone/anybody".
3. There is __something__ strange going on here.
Correct. Correct answer is "something".
4. I can't remember who, but __someone/somebody__ told me that already.
Correct. Correct answer is "someone/somebody".
5. I am going to the store. Are you sure you don't want __anything__?
Correct. Correct answer is "anything".

any
an
some
an
a
something
anyone/anybody
something
someone/somebody
anything
133

Exercise 51.3: A/ an/ some/ any alone or in compounds
Question 1
Column A
1. I can't find _B. anything____ to write with.
2. There aren't _C. any____ pens in the store room.
3. You're not going _A. anywhere____ until you finish your dinner.
4. Lucy said she got it _D. somewhere____ in Spain.
5. I bought you _E. something____ at the store.
Column B
A. anywhere
B. anything
C. any
D. somewhere
E. something
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

B C A D E
134

Unit 52: THE
We can use the at the beginning of a noun phrase. The form of the never changes: it is the same for
singular, plural and mass nouns. This unit tells you when to use it.
When we can understand which thing / person
FROM THE SITUATION:
It was a terrible journey. The plane was very crowded. (The plane that I travelled on.)
We had a lovely holiday. The weather was wonderful and so was the food.
(The weather and the food on holiday.)
When I got home, I went into the living room and turned on the TV. (The room and the TV in my
house.)
BECAUSE IT IS WELL KNOWN:
The government is increasing taxes again.
When we say which thing / person
The stores in Manulife Place are rather expensive.
I saw her on the Friday before last.
It was the second time he had been there.
The history of your country is very interesting.
Also
WITH MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:
She plays the piano beautifully.
WITH SOME PROPER NOUNS (Unit 48 ).
NOTICE: The, or a/ an/ some/ any, or nothing at all? (Unit 54)

135

Unit 53: NOUNS WITHOUT THE OR A
Sometimes we do not use the or a/ an/ some/ any at the beginning of a noun phrase; we use nothing
at all.
With names
With most names of people, places and times (Unit 48).
Talking generally
We all need water to live. NOT the water
Life is hard. NOT the life
Doctors cure sick people. NOT the doctors
BUT
The water in this bottle is dirty. (Unit 52)
He has had a good life. (Unit 54)
Identifying
With mass nouns:
It's coffee.
and plural nouns:
We are students.
BUT with singular nouns:
I am a student/ It is a cup.
Talking about meals
He has breakfast at six. NOT the breakfast
Why don't you stay for lunch? NOT the lunch
Talking about illnesses
I think I've got flu. NOT the flu
After prepositions
When we are talking about:
TRAVELLING
We went by bus. NOT the bus
SOME PLACES
He was in bed. NOT the school
They went to school early. NOT the school
She's in hospital with a broken leg.
Also with church, prison, university
SOME TIMES OF DAY
at night, at midnight, at sunrise
BUT in the morning, in the afternoon
BUT use the if you are saying which.
We went by the 7:45 bus.
She's in the hospital on Yonge Street.
NOTICE: The, or a/ any/ some/ any, or nothing? (Unit 54)
136

Unit 54: THE CORRECT ARTICLE
Which do you use?
a/ an/ some/ any? some girls
the? the girls
nothing at all? girls
Here are some examples to help you.
1
Oranges are expensive at this time of year. (All oranges)
I like oranges. (In general)
I'd like some oranges, please. (I'm not saying which.)
How much are the oranges? (...in this shop)
Have you got any oranges? (It does not matter which.)
She bought some cheap oranges. (We don't know about any other oranges.)
There were two kinds of oranges in the shop. She bought the cheap ones. (I am saying which.)
2
Information about it is difficult to get. (In general)
He gave me some information. (I am not saying which.)
He gave me some good information. (I am saying what kind but I am still not saying which.)
The information which he gave me was very helpful. (I am saying which.)
If you can give me any information at all, it will be very helpful. (I am not saying which.)
3
J ohn goes to school now. (We are not interested in which.)
It is a very good school. (I am describing a type of school.)
It's the best school in town. (There is only one.)
4
There was a man and a woman at the door. The man was very fat and the woman was very thin.
(In the second sentence, we know which man and which woman.)

137

Exercise 54.1: A/ an/ some/ any or the
Fill in the blank with a, an, some, any or the.
Example: She was ____ best student in our class.
Answer: She was the best student in our class.
1. This is __the__ last time I'm ever going with you.
Correct. Correct answer is "the".
2. Where did you learn to play __the__ saxophone like that?
3. Are there __any__ letters for me today?
4. It is hard to find __a__ good magazine these days.
5. We had __a__ wonderful time on our holiday.

Exercise 54.2: A/ an/ some/ any or zero
Fill in the blank with a, an, some, any or NONE.
Example: What's that? It's ____ salt.
Answer: What's that? It's salt. (NONE)
1. He told us when he was __a__ student.
2. They told us they were _NONE__ students.
Correct. Correct answer is "NONE".
3. __NONE__ good quality meat is difficult to get around here.
4. That's __NONE__ great news. Congratulations!
5. Could I have __some__ sugar, please?
Correct. Correct answer is "some".
6. What! I didn't know you took __NONE__ sugar in your tea.
7. They didn't have __any__ oranges left when I got there.

the
the
any
a
a
a
NONE
NONE
NONE
some
NONE
any
138

Exercise 54.3: The or zero
Fill in the blank with the or NONE.
Example: I like ____ Maria.
Answer: I like Maria. (NONE)
1. I don't like __NONE__ people who don't like me.
2. Maria took __the__ eight o'clock train instead.
3. We got back to __the__ house at ten o'clock.
4. I'm afraid __NONE__ Maria isn't here.
5. She's at __NONE__ work now.
6. After that, she's going to __NONE__ bank.
7. They prefer to work during __the__ day.

Exercise 54.4: The correct article
Fill in the blank with a, an, some, any, the or NONE.
Example: Could you tell me ____ time, please?
Answer: Could you tell me the time, please.
1. We usually have __NONE__ dinner at about eight.
2. However, yesterday we had __an__ early dinner.
3. About 300 million people speak __NONE__ English as their mother tongue.
4. She was born on __the__ third of December.
5. I had my second baby at __NONE__ home.
6. We saw that they were __NONE__ fishermen.

NONE
the
the
NONE
NONE
the
the
NONE
an
NONE
the
NONE
NONE
139

Unit 55: THIS/ THAT/ THESE/ THOSE
You can use this or that or these or those at the beginning of a noun phrase (Whose is this green
jacket?) or alone (Whose is this? Is this yours? This is terrible!).
Form
SINGULAR: this girl, that girl
PLURAL: these girls, those girls
Meaning
HERE AND NOW (I have)
Maria, this is J ohn. J ohn, this is Maria. (Introducing.)
This is a nice restaurant. (In the restaurant now.)
Can I change this sweater, please?
It's too small.
How much are these? (In my hand.)
When is this rain going to stop? (It is raining now.)
These cakes are lovely. (We are eating them now.)
THERE AND THEN (I don't have)
That's J ohn in the blue sweater.
Let's go to that restaurant by the river. (We are at home.)
Can I have a look at that red one in the window?
How much are those apples? (Over there.)
Do you remember that wonderful summer in 1996?
Look at those lovely cakes in the window.
I don't like this book. I prefer that one we used last year.
NOTICE: That's that! =Everything is finished.

140

Exercise 55.1: This/ that/ these/ those
Fill in the blank with this, that, these or those.
Example: Can you pass me ____ pen over there?
Answer: Can you pass me that pen over there?
1. Alright, I'll do it, but __this__ is the last time.
Correct. Correct answer is "this".
2. Do you know __those__ people who live next door?
Correct. Correct answer is "those".
3. I'm glad __that _'s finished.
Correct. Correct answer is "that".
4. What shall I do with __these__ plates here?
Correct. Correct answer is "these".
5. __That__ was one of the worst films I've ever seen.
6. Hello, __this__ is J ohn. How are you?
7. Who was __that__ on the phone?
8. Can you see __that__ bridge? The bank is just on the other side of it.
9. Feel __this__ material. Lovely, isn't it?

this
those
that
these
that
this
that
that
this
141

Unit 56: MASS & UNIT IN SENTENCES
Different words go with different types of noun. Sometimes we use the same word with plural nouns
and mass nouns (1 below), and sometimes we use different words (2 below).
Unit nouns
1
[S] I want an apple.
[P] I want some apples.
[S] I don't want an apple.
[P] I don't want any apples.
[S] It's an apple.
[P] They're apples
[S] A good apple is expensive.
[P] Good apples are expensive.
2
[S] This apple...
[P] These apples...
[S] That apple...
[P] Those apples...
[P] How many apples have you got?
[P] I don't have many apples.
[P] They only have a few apples.
Mass nouns
1
I want some fruit.
I don't want any fruit.
It's fruit.
Good fruit is expensive.
2
This fruit...
That fruit...
How much fruit have you got?
I don't have much fruit.
They only have a little fruit.
NOTICE: Mass nouns use singular verbs and the singular pronoun. For example, we say:
Where is the money? NOT Where are the money
It is in the bank. NOT They are in the bank
The news is good. NOT The news are good
NOTICE: There is a list of important mass nouns in Unit 47.
142

Exercise 56.1: Many/ much/ a lot (of)/ lots (of)
Fill in the blank with many, much, a lot/lots or a lot of/lots of.
Example: There was ____ coffee in the jar.
Answer: There was a lot of/ lots of coffee in the jar.
1. How __many__ litres of gas do we need?
Correct. Correct answer is "many".
2. There is too __much__ noise in here.
Correct. Correct answer is "much".
3. How __many__ times have you been to England?
Correct. Correct answer is "many".
4. I've got so __much__ to do, I don't know where to start.
Correct. Correct answer is "much".
5. He talked __a lot / lots__.
Correct. Correct answer is "a lot/ lots".

Exercise 56.2: A few or a little
Fill in the blank with a few or a little.
Example: There were already _____ people waiting at the gate.
Answer: There were already a few people waiting at the gate.
1. Now add __a little__ water.
Correct. Correct answer is "a little".
2. Now add __a few__ drops of water.
Correct. Correct answer is "a few".
3. I get by with __a little__ help from my friends.
Correct. Correct answer is "a little".
4. We were all there, but only __a few__ of us saw what really happened.
Correct. Correct answer is "a few".

many
much
many
much
a lot/ lots
a little
a few
a little
a few
143

Unit 57: QUANTITY
We can use
any, all, every, a few, a little, a lot of, lots of, many, most, much, no, none of, some
to talk about how much or how many of a noun.
When we are talking about quantity, we can talk about number (general quantity) or we can talk
about percentage (how much or how many of something).
Number
ZERO QUANTITY
There weren't any people in the street.
We didn't go anywhere last night.
There were no people outside. no =not any
The book was no help to me at all.
There was nothing we could do about it.
NOTICE:
nothing =no thing
nowhere =no place
nobody/ no one =no person
SMALL QUANTITY
PLURAL NOUNS
a few people
not many students
MASS NOUNS (Unit 47)
a little time
not much advice
LARGE QUANTITY
There was lots of coffee in the shop.
There were a lot of people in the street.
NOTICE: We can also use many and much. For example: I have had many problems, but usually
only in writing.
Percentage
We can use all the words that we can use for number. For example:
I didn't see any of the hockey game. I was too busy.
Only a few of the students passed the exam.
Many of them didn't have time to finish it.
Notice that we often use of after the quantity-word to introduce what we are talking about.
We also use:
144

NONE OF (zero)
None of the students passed the exam.
I didn't like the film. None of it was any good.
NOTICE: We cannot say no of.
SOME/ SOME OF (more than zero, but less than half)
The exam was very difficult but some students did quite well.
I liked the film but some of the acting was bad.
MOST/ MOST OF (more than half, but less than 100 per cent)
Most people hate going to the dentist.
The exam was very hard. Most of us failed.
ALL/ ALL OF (100 per cent)
All the buses from here go to the station.
The exam was easy. All of us passed.
Every and any
These words go with singular nouns. We can also use them with one/ body/ thing/ where.
EVERY (ALL) = * and * and * and *
Come and see me every day next week.
See me seven times.
I've been everywhere in Europe.
To all places.
Everyone passed the exam.
All the students.
ANY = * or * or * or *
Come and see me any day next week.
Come one day - it doesn't matter which one.
You can go anywhere in Europe with this ticket.
You can choose where to go.
Anyone can pass that exam.
It is very easy.
You can take any bus from here to the station.
They all go to the station, so it doesn't matter which one you take.
NOTICE: We use both, either and neither for two of something (Unit 58).
NOTICE: Appendix 9 tells you about numbers in English.

145

Exercise 57.1: Of after determiners
Fill in the gap with of or NONE
Example: Some ____ people are afraid of heights.
Answer: Some people are afraid of heights. (NONE)
1. Most __of__ our teachers do not like marking homework.
Correct. Correct answer is "of".
2. Some __NONE__ teachers here like marking essays.
3. I didn't see any __NONE__ students here.

Exercise 57.2: No/ none/ some/ any alone or in compounds
Example: _____ was there; the place was empty.
Answer: Nobody was there; the place was empty.
Question 1
Column A
1. We wanted some food, but there was __B___ left.
2. __C___ people have all the luck!
3. Accidents can happen to __A___.
Column B
A. anybody
B. none
C. some
Answer:
1: 2: 3:

Exercise 57.3: Every or any alone or in compounds
Example: He didn't tell _____; it was a complete secret.
Answer: He didn't tell anyone; it was a complete secret.
Question 1
Column A
1. _B. every____ time I come here, it rains.
2. Don't make so much noise; _C. everyone____ is looking at us.
3. We can go _A. anywhere____ you like. It's the same to me.
Column B
A. anywhere
B. every
C. everyone
Answer:
1: 2: 3:
of
NONE
NONE
B C A
B C A
146

Unit 58: BOTH/ EITHER/ NEITHER
We can use these words in noun phrases. We use them when we are talking about exactly two (not
one and not more than two). Both is plural (Both girls are married); either and neither are singular
(Neither of them has children).
Meaning
* AND *
There were cars parked on both sides of the road.
I have two sons. Both of them are engineers.
* OR *
There was no space to park on either side of the road.
I've got two cars, but I don't really like either of them.
NOT * and NOT *
Neither side of the street was lit. It was very dark.
Neither of my two sons is married yet.
With and, or and nor
To show clearly that two things are the same:
Both Argentina and West Germany have won the World Cup twice.
(Argentina has won the World Cup twice and West Germany has won it twice.)
Either Argentina or Brazil will win the next World Cup.
(Argentina might win or Brazil might win; I don't think another team will win.)
Neither Scotland nor Wales has ever won the World Cup.
(Scotland has never won it and Wales has never won it.)
NOTICE: In speaking only, we often use a plural verb with neither.
Neither of my sons are married yet.
Neither Scotland nor Wales have ever won it.

147

Exercise 58.1: Both/ Either/ Neither
Fill in the blank with both, either, or neither.

Example: ____ of them knew. We had to ask somebody else.
Answer: Neither of them knew. We had to ask somebody else.
1. Cars may be parked on __both__ sides of the road.
Correct. Correct answer is "both".
2. Cars may be parked on __either__ side of the road.
Correct. Correct answer is "either".
3. Cars may be parked on __neither__ side; it's against the law.
Correct. Correct answer is "neither".
4. Cars may not be parked on __either__ side; it's against the law.
5. You can't park on __both__ sides of the road at the same time; it's impossible.
6. __Neither__ one of you knows what it's like to be poor.
Correct. Correct answer is "neither".
7. Bus A and Bus B __both__ go to the town square.

both
either
neither
either
both
neither
both
148

Unit 59: ONE
This unit shows you the different ways to use this word. There is also a plural pronoun, ones.
As a number
BEFORE OF:
One of my brothers has just gone to England.
Can I have one of your cigarettes?
BEFORE A NOUN WHEN YOU WANT TO SHOW THE NUMBER CLEARLY:
There is only one way to learn English; you have to practice.
I said one cup of coffee, not two.
As a pronoun
INSTEAD OF A NOUN:
I tried on three dresses. The nicest one was very expensive.
There are four cars here. Which one is yours?
Mine is the one on the right.
I don't usually like bananas, but these ones are delicious.
We have some good players, but the best ones always go and play in other countries.
INSTEAD OF A NOUN PHRASE (UNIT 45):
He was going to make a chicken sandwich, so I asked him to make one for me, too.
People tell me I should get a car but I don't want one.
NOTICE: one is seldom used as a subject pronoun for people.

149

Exercise 59.1: Third Person Pronouns
Fill in the blank with one, ones, it, they or them.

Example: I'm having prawns. ____ taste lovely. Here, try ____.
Answer: I'm having prawns. They taste lovely. Here, try one.
1. If you don't like the red coat, take the blue __one__.
Correct. Correct answer is "one".
2. I don't need the coat. Take __it__ if you want.
Correct. Correct answer is "it".
3. I couldn't get a seat. The best __ones__ were all taken.
Correct. Correct answer is "ones".
4. I see you're making a cup of coffee. Could you make me __one__, too?
5. No, not that box, the other __one__, please!
6. __They__ say it is going to be a nice summer.
Correct. Correct answer is "they".
7. Both of __them__ have children.
Correct. Correct answer is "them.".
8. If anyone has finished, __they__ can go.
Correct. Correct answer is "they".

Exercise 59.2: A/ an or one
Fill in the blank with a, an or one.

Example: I had only _____ chance to pass the exam.
Answer: I had only one chance to pass the exam.
1. There's some cake left. Would you like __a__ piece?
2. There's only __one__ piece left; all the others have been eaten.
3. I've got just __one__ more question left to do.
4. __One__ way or another, I'm going to get there.
one
it
ones
one
one
they
them.
they
a
one
one
one
150

Unit 60: RELATIVE CLAUSES
If we want to give extra information about a noun, and an adjective (Unit 64) is not enough, we can
use a relative clause. Relative clauses often begin with one of the relative pronouns: who, which,
that, where and whose.
1
For people, begin the relative clause with who or that:
I know a man who played hockey for the Edmonton Oilers.
He played hockey.
Do you know the woman that can help us?
She can help us.
2
For things, begin the relative clause with which or that:
I want a word which means 'very surprised'.
It means 'very surprised'.
The two cars that caused the accident drove away.
They caused the accident.
3
For places, begin the relative clause with where:
Britain is one country where they drive on the left side of the road.
They drive on the left side of the road there.
4
For GENITIVE (Unit 49), begin the relative clause with whose:
Do you know the man whose daughter is a doctor?
His daughter is a doctor.
5
We can leave out the relative pronoun:
if it is an OBJ ECT PRONOUN (Unit 50)
The doctor - I go to studied in Canada. (I go to him.)
The students - I know are very friendly. (I know them.)
if the first verb in the relative clause is be.
Did you see the man - standing by the door? (who was standing)
The boy - knocked down by the car was J ohn. (who was knocked)

151

Exercise 60.1: Relative Clauses
Complete each sentence/question on the column A, so that it means the same as the sentence(s) above
it, using the set of answers on the column B.
Example: I know a man. He played hockey for the Edmonton Oilers.
Answer: I know a man who played hockey for the Edmonton Oilers.
Question 1
Column A
1. A grocer sells fruit and vegetables.
A grocer is a _____F_____. Correct.
2. That supermarket stays open late.
That's _____H_____. Correct.
3. I know a place. Beautiful wild flowers grow there.
I know _____A_____. Correct.
4. I saw a very helpful policeman.
The policeman _____I_____. Correct.
5. The family live next door. I met them.
I met _____B_____. Correct.
6. A policeman was taking notes. I saw him.
I saw _____D_____. Correct.
7. People worry about pollution. It is a problem.
Pollution is _____C_____. Correct.
8. I would like to live in a place. There is no pollution there.
I would _____E_____. Correct.
9. Someone had found a photograph on the street. This was it.
It was a _____G_____. Correct.
Column B
A. a place where beautiful wild flowers grow
B. the family who live next door
C. a problem that people worry about
D. a policeman (who was) taking notes
E. like to live in a place where there is no pollution
F. person who sells fruit and vegetables
G. photograph that someone had found on the street
H. the supermarket that stays open late
I. (who) I saw was very helpful
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9:

F H A I B D C E G
152

F. Types of Sentences (Unit 61-63)
Unit 61: EMPTY SUBJECTS
Every sentence must have a subject (Unit 1), but sometimes the subject does not mean anything.
There
We do not usually put new information at the beginning of a sentence.
So instead of [1]: the first sentence, we can write [2]: the second sentence.
[1] A man is at the door.
[2] There is a man at the door.
[1] Books were on the desk.
[2] There were books on the desk.
[1] An accident has happened.
[2] There has been an accident.
[1] A short break will now happen.
[2] There will now be a short break.
[1] Is a bank near here?
[2] Is there a bank near here?
[1] A lot of work is to be done.
[2] There is a lot of work to do.
[1] We were six there.
[2] There were six of us there.
NOTICE: After there, the verb is be.
It
If we want to describe an activity or an event, we often use it as an empty subject.
So instead of [1]: the first sentence, we can write [2]: the second sentence.
[1] Leaning out of the window is dangerous.
[2] It is dangerous to lean out of the window.
[1] Meeting so many old friends was wonderful.
[2] It was wonderful to meet so many old friends.
[1] Seeing her so unhappy is terrible.
[2] It is terrible to see her so unhappy.
[1] Travelling to all those different places must be very interesting.
[2] It must be very interesting to travel to all those different places.
[1] Driving to work takes me twenty minutes.
[2] It takes me twenty minutes to drive to work.
153

Exercise 61.1: Empty Subjects
Complete each sentence/question on the column A beginning with It or There, so that it means the
same as the sentence(s) above it, using the set of answers on the column B.
Example: Seeing you is nice.
Answer: It is nice to see you.
Question 1
Column A
1. Talking to the driver is forbidden.
_____C_____ driver. Correct.
2. This town has four bookstores.
_____H_____ in __________. Correct.
3. Losing your keys is horrible.
_____A_____ keys. Correct.
4. A strange man was at the window.
_____F_____ window. Correct.
5. We must go now.
_____D_____ go. Correct.
6. We have a lot to do today.
_____B_____ for us __________. Correct.
7. I last saw her five years ago.
_____E_____ since I __________. Correct.
8. I still don't know a lot.
_____G_____ that I don't know. Correct.
Column B
A. It is horrible to lose your
B. There is a lot...to do today
C. It is forbidden to talk to the
D. It is time to
E. It has been five years...last saw her
F. There was a strange man at the
G. There is still a lot
H. There are four bookstores...this town
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8:

C H A F D B E G
154

Unit 62: SIMPLE SENTENCE TYPES
All sentences need a subject and a verb. Some sentences do not need anything else to complete them.
But with most sentences, a subject and a verb are not enough. This unit shows you seven basic types
of sentences.
1
SUBJECT + VERB (only)
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB
[S] Maria [V] is working..
[S] They [V] talked.
[S] It [V] has been raining.
Of course, we can add extra information if we want to:
Maria is working very hard these days.
They talked about hockey.
It has been raining for days.
But the extra information is not necessary to make a good sentence.
2
SUBJECT + VERB + NOUN PHRASE (Unit 45)
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB +[N]: NOUN PHRASE
[S] We [V] have found [N] a house.
[S] J ohn [V] is [N] the best player.
[S] The teacher [V] saw [N] me.
These sentences are not complete without the noun phrase.
3
SUBJECT + VERB + ADJECTIVE (Unit 64)
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB +[A]: ADJ ECTIVE
[S] The noise [V] was [A] terrible.
[S] She [V] looked [A] beautiful.
[S] The food [V] tasted [A] lovely.
You can also make sentences of this type with these verbs: become, get, feel, seem, smell, sound.
4
SUBJECT + VERB + NOUN PHRASE + PLACE
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB +[N]: NOUN PHRASE +[P]: PLACE
[S] J ohn [V] put [N] the book [P] on the table.
[S] He [V] left [N] his bag [P] on the train.
We must complete a sentence with put this way.

155

5
SUBJECT + VERB + NOUN PHRASE + NOUN PHRASE
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB +[N]: NOUN PHRASE +[N]: NOUN PHRASE
[S] She [V] gave [N] J ohn [N] a watch.
(gave a watch to J ohn)
[S] J ohn [V] bought [N] Maria [N] a present.
(bought it for Maria)
[S] They [V] showed [N] us [N] the garden.
(showed the garden to us)
[S] He [V] told [N] me [N] a joke.
(told a joke to me)
[S] I [V] lent [N] him [N] my car.
(lent my car to him)
You can also make sentences of this type with these verbs:
ask, bring, find, leave, make, offer, owe, pay, promise, read, sell, send, take, teach, wish.
6
SUBJECT + VERB + NOUN PHRASE + ADJECTIVE
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB +[N]: NOUN PHRASE +[A]: ADJ ECTIVE
[S] I [V] painted [N] the house [A] red.
[S] They [V] kept [N] the man [A] warm.
[S] She [V] made [N] him [A] angry.
You can also make sentences of this type with these verbs:
call, find, get, hate, have, leave, like, prefer, want.
7
SUBJECT + VERB + to + BASE FORM OF VERB (Unit 14)
[S]: SUBJ ECT +[V]: VERB +to +[BF]: BASE FORM OF VERB
[S] Everybody [V] had to [BF] go.
[S] I [V] want to [BF] leave.
NOTICE:
The sentences in 1-7 above show the basic information in the sentence. But we can always add extra
information to them. For example:
2 above We have found a house near the station.
3 above Yesterday, the noise was terrible.
4 above He left his bag on the train by mistake.
5 above She gave J ohn a watch for his birthday.
6 above They kept the man warm with a blanket.
7 above I want to leave as soon as possible.

156

Example:
1. have
2. working hard
3. been
4. I
Answer: 4132
Question 1
1. bought
2. her
3. J ohn
4. a present. Correct order: Correct. 3.J ohn 1.bought 2.her 4.a present
Question 2
1. they
2. waiting
3. kept
4. the man. Correct order: Correct. 1.they 3.kept 4.the man 2.waiting
Question 3
1. lent
2. him
3. I
4. my car. Correct order: Correct. 3.I 1.lent 2.him 4.my car
Question 4
1. he
2. leave
3. had
4. to. Correct order: Correct. 1.he 3.had 4.to 2.leave
Question 5
1. her books
2. on the train
3. left
4. Annie. Correct order: Correct. 4.Annie 3.left 1.her books 2.on the train

3124
1342
3124
1342
4312
157

Exercise 62.2: The correct meaning
Complete each sentence/question on the column A by using the set of answers on the column B, so
that it means the same as the sentence just above it.
Example: The teacher let me leave early.
Answer: The teacher allowed me to leave early.
Question 1
Column A
1. We hope you have a very happy birthday.
We wish _____D_____.
2. He said that I was a liar.
He called _____E_____.
3. You look silly in that hat.
That hat makes _____B_____.
4. She was the boy's geography teacher last year.
She taught _____A_____.
5. When they laughed at him, he became angry.
Their laughter _____C_____.
Column B
A. the boys geography last year
B. you look silly
C. made him angry
D. you a very happy birthday
E. me a liar
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

D E B A C
158

Unit 63: COMPLEX SENTENCE TYPES
Simple sentence types are in Unit 62. This unit shows you some other types of sentence. It also tells
you the most useful verbs which you can use with each type.
NOTICE: To understand NOUN PHRASES, look at Unit 45.
To learn about VERB FORMS, look at Unit 14.
1
VERB + NOUN PHASE + BASE FORM OF VERB
[V]: VERB, [N]: NOUN PHRASE, [BF]: BASE FORM OF VERB
They [V] let [N] the children [BF] leave early.
J ust [V] look at [N] him [BF] run!
In this type, you can also use: feel, hear, help, make, notice, see, watch.
2
VERB + NOUN PHRASE + to BASE FORM OF VERB
[V]: VERB, [N]: NOUN PHRASE, [BF]: to BASE FORM OF VERB
Everybody [V] expects [N] Argentina [BF] to win.
The boss [V] wants [N] us [BF] to work late today.
In this type, you can also use: allow, ask, forbid, get, help, leave, prefer, would like, would love.
3
VERB + NOUN PHRASE + -ing FORM OF VERB
[V]: VERB, [N]: NOUN PHRASE, [I]: -ing FORM OF VERB
I finally [V] got [N] the car [I] working.
They [V] saw [N] him [I] standing there.
In this type, you can also use:
feel, find, hate, have, hear, keep, leave, like, listen to, look at, love, notice, remember, see, stop,
watch.
4
VERB + NOUN PHRASE + PAST PARTICIPLE
[V]: VERB, [N]: NOUN PHRASE, [PP]: PAST PARTICIPLE
I [V] had [N] my hair [PP] done.
(Somebody did it for me.)
We [V] got [N] the TV [PP] fixed.
(Somebody fixed it for us.)
In this type, you can also use: find, keep, leave, see, want.

159

5
VERB + that CLAUSE
[V]: VERB +[CL]: that CLAUSE
I [V] know [CL] that you have had many problems lately.
They [V] said [CL] that the weather would be fine.
I [V] suggest [CL] that you see a doctor.
she [V] thinks [CL] that Canada will win the World Cup.
Also tell +noun phrase +that clause: He told the students that they could go home.
NOTICE: We usually leave out that in speaking. This does not change the meaning.
They said that the weather would be fine and
They said the weather would be fine have the same meaning.
6
VERB + ADJECTIVE + that CLAUSE
[V]: VERB +[A]: ADJ ECTIVE +[CL]: that CLAUSE
They [V] were [A] surprised [CL] that I had got the job.
She [V] was [A] sure [CL] that he hadn't forgotten..
You can use most adjectives which show what you feel and think in this way. For example, angry,
happy, hurt, pleased.
NOTICE: We usually leave out that in speaking (the same as in 5 above).
7
If OR Whether CLAUSE
I'm not sure if it will be ready on time.
I don't know whether he has passed the exam.
She wondered if she should tell him.
You can also use ask, discuss, find out, forget, not remember, not say in the same type of
sentence.
For clauses after question words, look at Unit 13.
8
VERB TENSE IN THE CLAUSE
If the verb of the sentence is past tense, the verb in the clause is also past tense. For example:
He agreed that it was not a good idea. NOT is
They said the weather would be fine. NOT will be fine
I didn't know whether he had passed the exam. NOT has passed

160

Example:
1. have gone
2. where
3. I don't know
4. they
Answer: 3241
Question 1
1. is that
2. that
3. the car
4. the accident?
5. Caused. Correct order: Correct. 1.is that 3.the car 2.that 5.caused 4.the
accident?
Question 2
1. he
2. the truth?
3. is telling
4. do you think. Correct order: Correct. 4.do you think 1.he 3.is telling 2.the
truth?
Question 3
1. me
2. you
3. a question
4. ask
5. let. Correct order: Correct. 5.let 1.me 4.ask 2.you 3.a question
Question 4
1. finally got
2. the computer
3. working
4. I. Correct order: Correct. 4.I 1.finally got 2.the computer 3.working
Question 5
1. If
2. I'm not
3. it will
4. sure
5. be ready. Correct order: Correct. 2.I'm not 4.sure 1.If 3.it will 5.be ready

13254
4132
51423
4123
24135
161

Exercise 63.2: The correct verb
Complete each sentence/question in column A by using the set of answers on the column B.
Example: I _____ to take my umbrella.
Answer: I forgot to take my umbrella.
Question 1
Column A
1. You look ill. I __C___ that you see a doctor.
2. The doctor won't __A___ me get out of bed.
3. I ___B__ if you could help me.
4. They were __E___ that I had got the job.
5. She __D___ watching him work.
Column B
A. let
B. wonder
C. suggest
D. loves
E. pleased
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Complete the sentence with the correct form of the word in brackets. Use the word "to" before the
verb when it is necessary.
Example: I want ____ (go).
Answer: I want to go.
1. He just left me __standing__ (stand) there.
Correct.
2. The teacher made us __stay__ (stay) until we had finished.
Correct.
3. I had my hair __done__ (do) yesterday.
Correct.
4. I have __to leave__ (leave) work early today.
Correct.
5. The boss saw him __leaving___ (leave) work early! He's in trouble!
Correct.

C A B E D
standing
stay
done
to leave
leaving
162

G. Adjectives and Adverbs (Unit 64-67)
Unit 64: ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

Adjectives
Adjectives tell us something about a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives do not have a plural form. We use the same form for singular nouns (warm day), plural
nouns (warm days, NOT warms days) and mass nouns (warm weather).
Many words are only adjectives, but sometimes we can make adjectives from
the -ing form of a verb: swimming pool
a past participle: tired boys
a noun: football stadium
Adverbs
Adverbs give extra information. They can tell us when (Unit 71), how often (Unit 73), how (Unit 80)
and where (for example, Unit 79). They can also make a description stronger or weaker (Unit 67).
We can make many ADJECTIVES into ADVERBS with -ly. For example:
ADJECTIVE: bad, careful, slow, probable, happy
ADVERB: badly, carefully, slowly, probably, happily
These words are ADJECTIVES and also ADVERBS:
ADJECTIVES: He is a hard worker.
He is a fast worker.
It's an early train.
She was late.
ADVERBS:
He works hard.
He works fast.
It arrives early.
She arrived late.
NOTICE: The adverbs hardly (Unit 67) and lately (Unit 71) have different meanings from hard
and late.
This ADJECTIVE has an irregular form for its ADVERB:
He is a good worker.
He works well.
Some ADVERBS are ADVERBS only (there is no adjective). For example:
very (Unit 67) and almost (Unit 67).
NOTICE: Position of adjectives (Unit 65). Position of adverbs (Unit 66)
163

Unit 65: POSITION OF ADJECTIVES
Most adjectives can go either in a noun phrase (Unit 45) or alone.
In a noun phrase
a The adjective goes before the noun or pronoun:
a difficult exam (NOT exam difficult)
an open window (NOT window open)
happy people
the red one
b If you want to write two or more adjectives together in a noun phrase, the usual order is:
[F]: FEELING [S]: SIZE [A]: AGE [C]: COLOUR [P]: PLACE [T]: TYPE [N]: NOUN
[F] nice [S] big [C] green [T] sports [N] car
[A] old [P] Toronto [N] houses
[S] large [C] black [T] cotton [N] shirt
[F] wonderful [A] new [P] J apanese [T] MP3 [N] player
NOTICE: If the noun is something, anyone or a similar word (Unit 51: NOTICE), the adjective
goes after the noun:
I want something large. (NOT large something)
NOTICE: The adjectives afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake, ill and well cannot go in a noun
phrase.
Alone
There are two positions:
a After the verbs be, become, feel, get, look, seem, smell, sound and taste. For example:
The house was red.
Everybody became happy.
It feels cold.
He seemed friendly.
(Friendly is an adjective, NOT an adverb.)
b After a noun phrase and the verbs call, find, get, hate, have, leave, like, make, paint and want.
For example: They painted the house red.
He pushed a window open.
It made them happy.
I found him friendly.
NOTICE: Adjectives from nouns, and a few other adjectives (for example, main, only) cannot go
alone.

164

Unit 66: POSITION OF ADVERBS
Some adverbs can go at the beginning of the sentence:
(Sometimes we go swimming) and in the middle (We sometimes go swimming) and at the end (We
go swimming sometimes).
But many adverbs cannot go in all of these positions.
1
If an adverb describes an adjective or another adverb, it goes before it:
nearly correct
always late
very carefully
BUT the adverb enough (Unit 67) goes after it:
correct enough
early enough
carefully enough
2
The adverbs early, late, a little, a lot, well and yet go at the end of the basic sentence (Unit 7):
We arrived early.
I like cheese a lot.
NOT like a lot cheese
3
If the basic sentence is subject and verb only (Unit 62), adverbs showing how (Unit 80) go at the end:
He works hard.
She ate slowly.
NOT slowly ate
4
The adverbs almost, also, hardly, just, nearly, never and still go in the middle of the sentence:
before the lexical verb (Unit 3)
We nearly missed the train.
but after the first auxiliary
I have never missed it.
I am still learning.
and after the verb be
I am also a teacher.
NOTICE: Except for the verb be, adverbs cannot go between the verb and another part of the basic
sentence (NOT we go sometimes swimming).
5
The rules for the position of adverbs are difficult. If you are not sure where to put an adverb, put it at
the end of the basic sentence (most adverbs can go here).
NOTICE: Different adverb positions sometimes give different meanings to sentences (Unit 67).

165

Example:
1. Mercedes
2. big
3. he drives a
4. black
Answer: 3241
Question 1
1. bottles on the shelf
2. green
3. ten
4. there were. Correct order: Correct. 4.there were 3.ten 2.green 1.bottles on
the shelf
Question 2
1. he is
2. science
3. our
4. teacher
5. new. Correct order: Correct. 1.he is 3.our 5.new 2.science 4.teacher
Question 3
1. seems
2. teacher
3. the
4. friendly
5. English. Correct order: Correct. 3.the 5.English 2.teacher 1.seems
4.friendly
Question 4
1. player
2. beautiful
3. it was a
4. CD. Correct order: Correct. 3.it was a 2.beautiful 4.CD 1.player
Question 5
1. stadium was
2. football
3. expensive
4. new
5. the. Correct order: Correct. 5.the 4.new 2.football 1.stadium was
3.expensive

4321
13524
35214
3241
54213
166

Question 6
1. pool
2. new
3. swimming
4. Olympic
5. they've built a
Correct order: Correct. 5.they've built a 2.new 4.Olympic 3.swimming 1.pool
Question 7
1. Banff
2. Film
3. I never miss the
4. Festival. Correct order: Correct. 3.I never miss the 1.Banff 2.Film
4.Festival
Question 8
1. is dying
2. logging
3. industry
4. Canadian
5. The. Correct order: Correct. 5.the 4.Canadian 2.logging 3.industry 1.is
dying
Question 9
1. in the world
2. it used to be
3. largest
4. the. Correct order: Correct. 2.it used to be 4.the 3.largest 1.in the world

52431
3124
54231
2431
167

Unit 67: SOME IMPORTANT ADVERBS

1 Really/ almost/ hardly/ just
These words can give extra information about a whole sentence.
I really like football. (I like it very much.)
I don't really like football. (I'm not interested in it.)
I really don't like football. (I hate it.)
I just don't like football. (Simple fact: there is nothing more to say.)
We almost missed the train.
We hardly had time to catch it. (We caught the train but we had very little time.)
We just had time to catch it.
I hardly know you. (I know you, but very little.)
It's just around the corner. (It's very near the corner.)
2 Too/ enough/ very
This light is very bright. (a fact)
This light is too bright. (bad: it hurts my eyes)
This light is bright enough. (OK: I can see)
This light isn't bright enough. (bad: I can't see)
He's driving very quickly. (a fact)
He's driving too quickly. (bad: it is dangerous)
He's driving quickly enough. (OK: we will be on time)
He isn't driving quickly enough. (bad: we will be late)
He's driving too slowly =He isn't driving quickly enough.
Enough is also an adjective:
There weren't enough chairs for the students to sit on =There were too many students in the
classroom.
Notice the positions:
[1] enough +[2] noun
[1] adjective +[2] enough
[1] adverb +[2] enough

168

Exercise 67.1: Almost/ hardly/ just/ really
Fill in the blank with almost, hardly, just or really.

Example: We were too late for the train. We ____ missed it.
Answer: We were too late for the train. We just missed it.
1. Hockey is my favourite sport! I __really__ like it!
Correct. Correct answer is "really".
2. That's incredible! I can __hardly__ believe it.
Correct. Correct answer is "hardly".
3. Don't you like the food? You've eaten __almost__ nothing.
Correct. Correct answer is "almost".
4. I __almost__ missed the train. It left as soon as I got on.
Correct. Correct answer is "almost".
5. I __just__ missed the train. I saw it pulling out of the station.
Correct. Correct answer is "just".

Exercise 67.2: Too/ enough/ very
Fill in the blank with too, enough or very.

Example: Thank you. That was ____ kind of you.
Answer: Thank you. That was very kind of you.
1. Hello! You're looking __very__ well today.
Correct. Correct answer is "very".
2. Did you have __enough__ to eat? I don't want you to be hungry.
Correct. Correct answer is "enough".
3. It's much __too__ cold to go swimming.
Correct. Correct answer is "too".
4. Anyway, I'm not feeling __very__ well.
Correct. Correct answer is "very".
5. Have we got __enough__ milk for the weekend?
Correct. Correct answer is "enough".

really
hardly
almost
almost
just
very
enough
too
very
enough
169

H. Comparison (Unit 68-70)
Unit 68: FORMS FOR COMPARISON
Athens 30
o
C =hot
Cairo 33
o
C =hotter (this is the comparative form)
Baghdad 36
o
C =the hottest (this is the superlative form)
When we want to make a comparison, we often change the form of a word. Adjectives and adverbs
(Unit 64) and some words showing quantity (Unit 57) can change this way. Unit 69 shows you the
meaning of comparative sentences and how to make them. This unit tells you about the forms.
Word + -er/ -est
This is for short words.
[C]: COMPARATIVE, [S]: SUPERLATIVE
big [C] bigger [S] the biggest
few [C] fewer [S] the fewest
late [C] later [S] the latest
early [C] earlier [S] the earliest
Appendix 7 can help you with the spelling.
More/ most + word
This is for long words.
difficult [C] more difficult [S] the most difficult
careful [C] more careful [S] the most careful
carefully [C] more carefully [S] the most carefully
beautiful [C] more beautiful [S] the most beautiful
NOTICE: Some words can use both forms.
either friendly [C] more friendly [S] the most friendly
or friendly [C] friendlier [S] the friendliest
Examples of these words are:
easy, dirty, funny, happy, noisy, narrow, shallow, simple, gentle, clever, common, quiet.
Irregular
good [C] better [S] the best
well [C] better [S] the best
bad [C] worse [S] the worst
badly [C] worse [S] the worst
far [C] farther [S] the farthest
[C] further [S] the furthest
many/much/a lot of [C] more [S] the most
a little [C] less [S] the least

170

Exercise 68.1: Forms for comparison
Complete the sentence with the correct form for comparison of the word in brackets.

Example: Travelling by car is ____ (convenient) than by train.
Answer: Travelling by car is more convenient than by train.
1. This is a lot __more comfortable__ (comfortable) than going by car.
Correct.
2. It's also a lot __safer__ (safe).
Correct.
3. That's the __most ridiculous__ (ridiculous) thing I've ever heard.
Correct.
4. This must be the __slowest__ (slow) way to travel that there is.
Correct.
5. Why did we choose the __hottest__ (hot) day of the year to go on this journey?
Correct.
6. I think your car is __bigger__ (big) than mine.
Correct.
7. This is the __most unpleasant__ (unpleasant) trip I've ever been on.
Correct.
8. The grass is always __greener__ (green) on the other side of the hill.
Correct.

more comfortable
safer
most ridiculous
slowest
hottest
bigger
most unpleasant
greener
171

Unit 69: COMPARING TWO
Here are some ways to say that two things or people or ideas are the same or different.
When they are different
a We can say the same thing AFFIRMATIVELY (Comparative (Unit 68) +than) or NEGATIVELY
(not as...as)
[A]: AFFIRMATIVELY, [N]: NEGATIVELY
[A] Iraq is hotter than Italy. = [N] Italy is not as hot as Iraq.
[A] The exam was easier than I thought. = [N] The exam was not as difficult as I thought.
[A] He should drive more slowly than that. = [N] He shouldn't drive as quickly as that.
[A] He gets more money than me. = [N] I don't get as much money as him.
[A] The meal today was more expensive than yesterday. = [N] The meal yesterday was not as
expensive as today.
b Another way to say not as...as is less...than:
The exam was less difficult than I thought.
I get less money than him.
c Sometimes, it is not necessary to use than:
J ohn's English is good but Maria's is better (than J ohn's).
He's looking for a job with more money (than he gets now).
d We can use much, nearly, a little and quite to show:
a big difference
Iraq is much hotter than Italy.
Italy isn't nearly as hot as Iraq.
a small difference
Drive a little more slowly than that.
Don't drive quite as quickly as that.
When they are the same
Use as...as
He ran as fast as he could. (He could not run any faster.)
I'm as tall as you are. (We are the same height.)
Is Athens as noisy as Cairo? (Are they equally noisy?)
To show exactly the same: I'm just as tall as you are.

172

Example:
1. Mercedes
2. big
3. he drives a
4. black
Answer: 3241
Question 1
1. too
2. much
3. expensive
4. it is
5. for us. Correct order: Correct. 4.it is 2.much 1.too 3.expensive 5.for
us
Question 2
1. it was
2. we expected
3. more
4. than
5. difficult. Correct order: Correct. 1.it was 3.more 5.difficult 4.than 2.we
expected
Question 3
1. Canada
2. is hotter
3. Australia
4. Than. Correct order: Correct. 3.Australia 2.is hotter 4.than 1.Canada
Question 4
1. was not
2. dinner
3. as expensive
4. as
5. I thought. Correct order: Correct. 2.dinner 1.was not 3.as expensive 4.as 5.I
thought
Question 5
1. I am
2. tall as
3. as
4. You're. Correct order: Correct. 4.You're 3.as 2.tall as 1.I am

42135
13542
3241
21345
4321
173

Exercise 69.2: Phrases for comparison
Fill in the blank with as, little, of, than, the or NONE.

Example: The Nile is longer ____ any other river.
Answer: The Nile is longer than any other river.
1. This exercise is a __little__ easier.
Correct. Correct answer is "little".
2. It's not quite __as__ difficult.
Correct. Correct answer is "as".
3. It's certainly much easier __than__ I first thought.
Correct. Correct answer is "than".
4. He should drive more __NONE__ slowly
5. J ennifer's French is good, but Ryan's is __NONE__ better.

Exercise 69.3: Sentences of comparison
Do the following sentences of comparison have exactly the same meaning as the sentences above
them? Answer Yes or No.
Example: It was 0
o
C in Edmonton yesterday. It was 12
o
C in Calgary yesterday.
It was much warmer in Calgary than Edmonton yesterday.
Answer: yes.
1. England is a good team. Ireland is a very good team.
England is a much better team than Ireland.
Yes No Correct. No
2. Canada is not a very good team. The USA is not at all good.
The USA is a worse team than Canada.
Yes No Correct. Yes
3. J ohn has $10. Maria has $15. Peter has $95.
J ohn has much less money than Peter.
Yes No Correct. Yes
4. J ohn has $10. Maria has $15. Peter has $95.
Peter is much poorer than the other two.
Yes No Correct. No

little
as
than
NONE
NONE
174

Unit 70: COMPARING THREE OR MORE
We can use both comparative and superlative forms (Unit 68).
[S]: SUPERLATIVE FORM, [C]: COMPARATIVE FORM +than
[S] That was the best film I've ever seen. =[C] I've never seen a better film than that one.
[S] The Nile is the longest river in the world. =[C] The Nile is longer than any other river in the
world.
[S] Nobody here gets much money but J ohn gets the least. = [C] Nobody gets much money but J ohn
gets
less than anybody else.
[S] Everybody ran fast but Maria ran the fastest. =[C] Everybody ran fast but Maria ran faster than
anybody else.
[S] Being in prison is the most boring thing I can imagine. = [C] I cannot imagine anything more
boring than being in prison.
[S] What's the most frightening thing that's ever happened to you?
[S] Could you tell me the way to the nearest supermarket?
It is difficult to make a comparative question when we are comparing more than two.
[S] History is the least useful subject we study at school. =[C] History is less useful than any other
subject we study.
[S] Everybody was hurt in the crash, but J ohn was injured the worst. = [C] Everybody was hurt in
the crash, but J ohn was injured worse than the others.
To make the superlative stronger (if there is a big difference), we can use by far:
That was by far the best film I've ever seen. =much better than any others
NOTICE: In the hockey team, J ohn gets the most money.
Of the eleven players, J ohn gets the most money.

175

Exercise 70.1: The correct meaning
Do the following sentences have exactly the same meaning as the sentences above them? Answer Yes
or No.
Example: Athens is hotter than Rome.
Rome is not as hot as Athens.
Answer: yes.
1. She is an extremely good English teacher.
She teaches English extremely well.
Yes No Correct. Yes
2. No car on earth is faster than this one.
This is the fastest car on earth.
Yes No Correct. Yes
3. This shelf is too small for these books.
These books are too big for this shelf.
Yes No Correct. Yes
4. This shelf is too small for these books.
This shelf is not small enough for these books.
Yes No Correct. No
5. The Portuguese team is a little faster than the Spanish.
The Spanish team is not as slow as the Portuguese team.
Yes No Correct. No
6. She hardly had time to finish.
She almost didn't have time to finish.
Yes No Correct. Yes
7. This car is the cheapest you can get.
This car costs more than the others.
Yes No Correct. No
8. J ohn and Maria are exactly the same. They are both intelligent.
J ohn is as intelligent as Maria.
Yes No Correct. Yes
9. It rains much more in Kenya than it does in Somalia.
It doesn't rain in Somalia.
Yes No Correct. No

176

I. When? (Unit 71-73)
Unit 71: ADVERBS OF TIME
Unit 66 tells you about the position of adverbs generally. This unit shows how to use ago, already,
late,
lately, later, just, still, then and yet to talk about when.
1
I'll be here again on Friday.
I'll see you then. (on Friday)
First, I got up. Then I had breakfast. (the second thing I did)
2
It's six o'clock now. The shop closed half an hour ago. (it closed at half past five)
Use ago with past simple formation (Unit 21) only. For other formations, use before:
It was six o'clock. The shop had closed half an hour before.
3
The boss arrived twenty minutes late. (after the correct time)
We arrived at nine. The boss arrived twenty minutes later. (at 9:20, but there was no correct time to
arrive)
I'll see you later. (at a time in the future)
I've been ill lately. (my illness started a short time ago)
4
I've just seen a film about lions. (a very short time ago)
He's just going to leave. (very, very soon)
5
They had already eaten when I arrived at nine. (they ate before nine; by nine they had finished)
6
Is he still asleep? (I know he was asleep; what about now?)
Is he asleep yet? (I know he was not asleep; what about now?)
She hasn't finished it yet. (=She is still doing it.)

177

Exercise 71.1: Ago or before
Fill in the blank with ago or before.
Example: It's six o'clock. The shop closed half an hour ____.
Answer: It's six o'clock. The shop closed half an hour ago.
1. I have seen that man __before__.
Correct. Correct answer is "before".
2. Maria left ten minutes __ago__.
Correct. Correct answer is "ago".
3. People didn't have electricity 200 years __ago__.
4. We have been here __before__.
Correct. Correct answer is "before".
5. I just saw her 2 minutes __ago__.

Exercise 71.2: Late, Later, Lately
Fill in the blank with late, later or lately.
Example: I have been ill ____.
Answer: I have been ill lately.
1. We were ten minutes __late__ for school.
Correct. Correct answer is "late".
2. I have been staying at home __lately__.
Correct. Correct answer is "lately".
3. Will you be at home __later__?
Correct. Correct answer is "later".
4. Ed has been __late__ everyday this week.
Correct. Correct answer is "late".
5. __Lately__ he doesn't seem to care about his job!
Correct. Correct answer is "lately".

before
ago
ago
before
ago
late
lately
later
late
lately
178

Exercise 71.3: Already/ still/ just/ yet
Fill in the blank with already, still, just or yet.
Example: Do you ____ smoke cigarettes?
Answer: Do you still smoke cigarettes?
1. Have you seen that new film __yet__?
Correct. Correct answer is "yet".
2. They _still___ haven't decided what to do.
Correct. Correct answer is "still".
3. I've _already___ spent too much time on this problem. Can you help me?
Correct. Correct answer is "already".
4. I'm __just__ about to leave, too. Wait for me.
Correct. Correct answer is "just".
5. Aren't you finished __yet__?
Correct. Correct answer is "yet".

yet
still
already
just
yet
179

Unit 72: PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
This unit shows you the meaning and use of after, at, before, by, for, from, in, on, since, to, until
when we want to say when or how much time.
1
Monday comes before Tuesday. Tuesday comes after Monday.
2
at six o'clock/ half past three...
at midnight/ midday/ lunchtime
at Christmas/ Easter/ the weekend... (ALSO during)
on Friday/ the fourth of May/ New Year's Day/ Friday afternoon...
in the morning/ the late afternoon... (ALSO during)
in J anuary/ Ramadan/ the first month... (ALSO during)
in spring/ summer/ autumn/ winter (ALSO during)
in 1989/ the 1960s/ the eighteenth century... (ALSO during)
3
I'll be there by six o'clock. =I'll arrive at six or before.
I'll be there until six. =I'll leave at six.
I won't be there until six. =I'll arrive at six, not before.
By November, the weather had become very cold. =Before November, it got colder, and it was very
cold in November.
I'll be there from three to six. =I'll arrive at three and leave at six.
4
I can see you in five minutes. (starting after five minutes)
I can see you for five minutes. (a five-minute talk)
5
I have known him since 1985.
I have known him for twenty-two years. =It is 2007. We first met twenty-two years ago (in 1985).
NOTICE: We can use after, before, since and until before a subject and a verb:
We played football after we finished school.
We played football until it got dark.
We cannot use at, by, for, in and on in this way.

180

Exercise 72.1: In/ on/ at
Fill in the blank with in, on or at.
Example: I'll see you ____ half past four.
Answer: I'll see you at half past four.
1. __At__ that time of the year, it was very hot.
Correct. Correct answer is "at".
2. You can always phone late __at__ night.
3. The First World War ended __in__ 1918.
Correct. Correct answer is "in".
4. It was so cold __on__ Christmas Day.
Correct. Correct answer is "on".
5. We always have a turkey __at__ Christmas.

Exercise 72.2: By or until
Fill in the blank with by or until.
Example: ____ November, the weather had become very cold.
Answer: By November, the weather had become very cold.
1. I can't leave the office __until__ I finish my work.
Correct. Correct answer is "until".
2. I'll arrive there __by__ five o'clock at the latest.
Correct. Correct answer is "by".
3. We can't do anything __until___ they fix the computer.
4. We played the guitar __until__ our fingers got tired.
5. __By__ lunch time I was very hungry. I must remember to eat breakfast!

at
at
in
on
at
until
by
until
until
by
181

Exercise 72.3: Since/ for/ in
Complete each sentence/question on the column A by using the set of answers on the column B.
Example: I worked _____ three hours without stopping.
Answer: I worked for three hours without stopping.
Question 1
Column A
1. It's been raining __B___ yesterday afternoon.
2. I'm staying there __C___ three days.
3. He can see you __A___ half an hour.
Column B
A. in
B. since
C. for
Answer:
1: 2: 3:

B C A
182

Unit 73: HOW OFTEN?
This unit shows you how to say how often with frequency adverbs (Unit 64 tells you about adverbs
generally) and with noun phrases (Unit 45).
With frequency adverbs

I always work late. I never go home early.
I don't ever go home early.

I usually work late but I sometimes go home early.

I often work late.

I sometimes work late but I usually go home early.

I never work late. I always go home early.
I don't ever work late.
With noun phrases
I am learning English. The lesson is always on Monday.
I go to English lessons once a week.
I go to English lessons every Monday.
I am learning French. The lessons are always on Tuesday and Thursday.
I go to French lessons twice a week.
I go to French lessons every Tuesday and Thursday.
I am learning Arabic. The lessons are on Saturday, Monday and Wednesday.
I go to Arabic lessons three times a week.
NOTICE: These noun phrases go at the end of the sentence. (NOT I go once a week to English
lessons).

183

The most common frequency adverbs in English
are:
Always
Frequentl y
Usuall y
Often
Sometimes
Occasionall y
Seldom
Rarel y
Never

100% of the time
about 90% of the time
Note: The percentages here are rough estimates only.
Frequency adverbs can be placed at various points in the sentence, but are most
commonl y used before the main verbs and after be verbs.
I always come to work on time.
They are seldom home when we call.
He's usually eating breakfast at this time.
She's never been to Maine.
A: Do you come here often?
B: Yes. I'm here occasionally.
A: What do you usually do here?
B: Sometimes I just sit and ponder the meaning of life.
Note: The adverbs seldom, rarely, never and hardly ever are considered negative.
A: Do you always carry a briefcase?
B: (Yes,) I usually do.
No, I usually don't.
No, I rarely do.
No, I hardly ever do.

184

ther frequency adverbs and expressions are as follows:
Every day/week/month
Every other day/week
Once a week/month/year
Twice a year/day, etc.
(Every) once in a while
Every so often
These expressions are used at the beginning and end of sentences, not before main
verbs.
Every once in a while I visit my grandmother in Minnesota.
I visit my grandmother in Minnesota every once in a while.
I every once in a while visit my grandmother in Minnesota. (Incorrect)
Regularly
Normally
Traditionally

(according to schedule)
(commonly nowadays)
(commonly in the past)
These words can come at various points in the sentence.
I regularly floss my teeth.
I floss my teeth regularly.
Traditionally, that was considered child's play.
I normally get up around 6 o'clock.
Normally, I get up around 6 o'clock.

185

Exercise 73.1: Choose the Sentence with the Same Meaning
Choose a sentence that means the same as the one above.
Example: The store opened at nine and closed at seven.
Answer: The store was open from nine until seven.
1. I only watch TV occasionally.
Correct. I dont usually watch TV.
2. I always work late.
Correct. I never go home early.
3. I go to class every Tuesday and Thursday.
Correct. I go to class twice a week.
4. She never forgets my birthday.
Correct. She always remembers my birthday.
5. I always get up early in the morning.
Correct. I never get up late.

Exercise 73.2: The correct word
Complete each sentence/question on the column A by using the set of answers on the column B.

Example: I go running _____ day.
Answer: I go running every day.
Question 1
Column A
1. I'll be at work __E___ three hours this afternoon.
2. The bus __F___ takes about an hour.
3. I'll probably be back __B___ six.
4. __A___ a week, we have language lessons.
5. We go there __C___ Thursday afternoon.
6. I find language lessons very useful, so I __D___ miss them.
Column B
A. twice
B. by
C. every
D. never
E. for
F. usually
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6:

I don't usually watch TV.
I never go home early.
I go to class twice a week.
She always remembers my birthday.
I never get up late.
E F B A C D
186

J. Where? (Unit 74-79)
Unit 74: IN THE WORLD

This unit gives you examples of a long way from, in, into, near, off, on, outside, through, to and
towards when we are talking about places in the world.

Look at the map of western Canada
WHERE DO YOU LIVE?
in Victoria/ in the province of British Columbia/ on Vancouver Island/ in the provincial capital city/
on the coast/ near the U.S. border
WHERE IS EDMONTON?
in Alberta/ approximately 300 kilometres from Calgary/ near the centre of the province/ outside of
the mountains
WHERE IS REGINA?
in the southern part of Saskatchewan/ towards the U.S. border/ a long way from Fort Nelson/ to the
south-east of Saskatoon
WHERE IS LAKE ATHABASCA?
The provincial border runs through it/ near Fort McMurray
WHERE IS VICTORIA?
off the west coast of Canada/ near Vancouver/ on an island/ to the west of the US border

187

Look at the diagrams

She is moving to Calgary to find work.
It took four hours to get from Edmonton to Calgary.

We drove into Saskatoon and found a place to eat.

We got through Kamloops without asking for directions.

Bad weather is moving towards Victoria and the coast of British Columbia.
NOTICE:
By the year 2050, it is estimated that there'll be up to 9.4 billion people in the world.
By the year 2050, it is estimated that there'll be up to 9.4 billion people on the earth.

188

Exercise 74.1: Geographical position
Fill in the blank with in, on, at, to or off.

Example: Mount Everest is ____ Nepal.
Answer: Mount Everest is in Nepal.
1. Bolivia is a country __in__ South America.
2. The city of Boston is __in__ the northeast of the USA.
3. Boston lies __to__ the northeast of the city of New York.
Correct. Correct answer is "to".
4. Puerto Rico is situated just __off__ the coast of North America.
Correct. Correct answer is "off".
5. My father's parents live __in__ the mountains.
6. We stayed __on__ a small Greek island for our holidays.

Exercise 74.2: In/ into/ to
Fill in the blank with in, into or to.
Example: I took the bus ____ school today.
Answer: I took the bus to school today.
1. We drove __to__ Mexico and back last year.
2. We went through passport control and drove __into__ Mexico.
Correct. Correct answer is "into".
3. We drove about __in__ Mexico for several days.
4. When we drove back __into__ Canada, Customs checked our purchases.
5. Driving from Canada __to__ Mexico took a long time!

in
in
to
off
in
on
to
into
in
into
to
189

Unit 75: IN A TOWN OR CITY
This unit gives you examples of across, along, around, at, behind, between, in, in front of, into,
next to, on, opposite, out of, outside, past, around and to when we are talking about places in a
town or city. The street plan below can help you to understand the examples.

1
I live on Bridge Street/ at 27 Bridge Street.
The pharmacy is next to the bank/ opposite the baker/ between the bookshop and the bank.
There is a bus stop outside the pharmacy/ the bus stop is in front of the pharmacy.
There is a car park behind the supermarket.
From the stadium, the restaurant is at the end of the street on the right.
2

I walked along the road to the bank.

I walked across the road to the baker.

I turned the corner onto Bridge Street.

I turned the corner in Bridge Street.

I turned left out of Bridge Street.

We drove past the famous stadium.

He ran around the stadium twice.

I went around the corner to the butcher.
I went into town and walked around.
(I did not go to any special place or in any special direction.)

190

Exercise 75.1: In/ into/ to
Fill in the blank with in, into or to.
1. We decided to go __to__ the river for a swim.
2. When we got there, we dived straight __into__ the water.
3. The clothes looked nice, so I went __into__ the store to buy them.
4. I walked all the way __to__ school this morning.

Exercise 75.2: Some prepositions of movement
Fill in the blank with across, into, past, around, through or towards.
Example: I looked ____ the window to see if they were there.
Answer: I looked through the window to see if they were there.
1. He drove right __past__ us without stopping. Perhaps he didn't see us.
Correct. Correct answer is "past".
2. He looked right __through__ me as if I wasn't there.
Correct. Correct answer is "through".
3. We stared at each other __across__ the table.
Correct. Correct answer is "across".
4. It's difficult to swim __across__ that river. It's a long way.
Correct. Correct answer is "across".
5. It takes about five minutes to walk __around__ the block.
Correct. Correct answer is "around".

to
into
into
to
past
through
across
across
around
191

Unit 76: OUTDOORS

This unit gives you examples of at, down, in, into, inside, off, on, onto, out of, outside, over,
under and up when we are talking about outdoor places and public places.
At
This means 'at the same place as' or 'near'. We are not interested in the exact position.
Maria's at the hospital. (She is working or visiting.)
They're all at the beach. (not at home)
I'll wait for you at the bank. (outside or inside)
In/ on/ inside/ outside
We are interested in exactly where.
Maria's in the hospital. (She is sick; she cannot leave.)
They're on the beach. (not in the water)
I'll wait inside the bank. It's too cold outside. (I'm saying exactly where.)
Transport
get in/ into the car BUT
get on/ onto the train/ plane/ ship
get out of the car BUT
get off the train/ plane/ ship
Over/ under/ up/ down

The branches of the tree hung over the road.

We found shelter from the rain under a tree.

The children ran up the hill.

He jumped over the wall.

The cat crawled under a car.

He climbed slowly down the ladder.

In/ into

We walked in the park for half an hour.

From the bus stop, we walked into the park.

192

Exercise 76.1: At or in
Fill in the blank with at or in.
Example: Maria broke her leg. She's ____ the hospital.
Answer: Maria broke her leg. She's in the hospital.
1. Maria's __at__ the airport, waiting for J ohn to arrive.
2. There's a group playing __at__ the Grand Cafe this evening.
3. There were lots of people __in__ the cafe and I couldn't see an empty seat.
4. Sorry Carol, Bella's not home. I think she's __at__ the cafe.
5. It's too crowded. You will never get __in__.

Exercise 76.2: In/ into/ to/ on/ onto
Fill in the blank with in, into, to, on or onto.
1. I had a nice visit __in__ town yesterday.
2. I pushed open the big doors and walked __in__.
3. Then another man came along and jumped __into__ the car.
4. I'm so happy to see you. Please come __in__.
5. I can't wait until I am __on__ the beach this summer!
Correct. Correct answer is "no".

at
at
in
at
in
in
in
into
in
on
193

Exercise 76.3: To/ at/ from
Fill in the blank with to, at, from or NONE.
Example: I got ____ home very late.
Answer: I got home very late. (NONE)
1. I arrived __at__ the airport at four o'clock.
2. It was autumn and the leaves were falling __from__ the trees.
Correct. Correct answer is "from".
3. The car drove straight __at__ me. The driver must not have seen me.
4. The children ran __NONE__ up the hill.
5. Please call __NONE__ your mother!

at
from
at
NONE
NONE
194

Unit 77: INDOORS

This unit gives you examples of above, at, below, by, downstairs, in, inside, on, out, outside and
upstairs when we are talking about things in a building.
Look at this plan of a student hostel.

There is a laundry room in the basement.
The games room is on the ground floor
J ohn's room is on the first floor.
The games room is below J ohn's room.
There is a TV in the games room.
There is somebody at the front door (waiting to come in).
There is a telephone by the front door.
There is a garden at the back.
The students' rooms are upstairs/ above the ground floor.
The games room is downstairs from the students' rooms.
NOTICE: Is J ohn in today? (Is he in the hostel?)
I'm afraid J ohn is out at the moment. (He is not in the hostel.)
NOTICE: It was beautiful in the garden, but then it began to rain, so we went inside.
When the rain stopped, the children ran outside to play.
We can also use indoors and outdoors in these sentences.

195

Exercise 77.1: At/ in/ on
Fill in the blank with at, in or on.
Example: My house is ____ the corner.
Answer: My house is on the corner.
1. I live __in__ a block of apartments.
2. It's just __at__ the end of the street.
3. Our apartment is __on__ the seventh floor.
4. He was sitting __in__ front of me.
5. The birds were singing __in__ the trees.
6. Be careful when you drive. There's ice __on__ the road.
7. There's a restaurant __at__ the top of the hotel.

in
at
on
in
in
on
at
196

Unit 78: IN A ROOM
This unit gives you examples of at, away, from, behind, beside, between, by, in, in front of, near,
next to, off, on and through when we are talking about things and people in a room.
1 Look at this seating plan of a classroom

J ohn, J im and Sue are on the left.
Sue, Pete and Liz are at the back.
Mary is in the middle.
J ohn, Fred and Bill are at the front.
J ohn is in front of J im.
J im is behind J ohn.
J im is next to (or beside) Mary.
Marry is next to (or beside) J ane.
Sue is by (or next to) the window.
J ohn is near the door.
Mary is between J im and J ane.
2 Use on and off for surfaces

There were dirty marks on the ceiling.

The teacher wiped the writing off the blackboard.

I put the picture on the wall.

I took the picture off the wall.
3
I could see the TV through the window. (I was outside.)
It was so cold there was ice on the window. (a surface)
I could see the trees reflected in the window. (The window was like a mirror.)
Get away from the window! (Don't stay near the window; there is danger outside it.)
NOTICE: Suddenly, the teacher walked in. (into the room)
The teacher was so angry, he walked out. (out of the room)

197

Unit 79: OBJECTS AND PEOPLE
This unit gives you examples of away, here, in, off, on, on top of, out of, over, under, underneath,
with and without when we are talking about objects, parts of the body and clothes.
1. There's only a little rice in the package.
I couldn't read the instructions on the package.
I looked at myself in the mirror.
There were dirty marks on the mirror.
I've got a pain in my back.
He slapped me on the back.
He was holding something in his hand.
He had a nasty cut on his hand.
It's late. The children are asleep in bed.
He lay on the bed for a minute to rest.

We sat in comfortable armchairs.

We sat on hard, uncomfortable chairs.

Take the sugar out of the cupboard.

Take the books off the shelf.
2. Who is that woman in the green dress/ blue shoes/ red hat?
Who is that man with the black umbrella/ beard/ glasses?
You can't go out without a coat; it's too cold.
I put a jacket on to keep warm.
It was very hot so I took my jacket off.
The coat was small; I couldn't get it on over my sweater.
He had a sweater on under his coat because it was cold.
3

I found my pen underneath a pile of papers.

The medicine was safe from children on top of the cupboard.

Come here!

Go away!

198

Exercise 79.1: In or on
Fill in the blank with in or on.
Example: He shook my hand and slapped me ____ the back.
Answer: He shook my hand and slapped me on the back.
1. What is that red mark __on__ your hand?
2. That's him, over there __in__ the blue sweater.
3. There's a lot of dust __on__ the TV screen.
4. I have a sharp pain __in__ my back!
5. You should put a hot water bottle __on__ your back!

Exercise 79.2: At/ in/ on
Fill in the blank with at, in or on.
Example: My house is ____ the corner.
Answer: My house is on the corner.
1. Spring is coming. Look at the leaves __on__ the trees.
2. The cat waited __at__ the foot of the tree.
3. I was trapped __in__ the middle.
4. You should put __on__ your jacket to stay warm.
5. Maybe I left my jacket __at__ the store.

on
in
on
in
on
on
at
in
on
at
199

Exercise 79.3: Off/ out/ out of
Fill in the blank with off, out or out of.
Example: I was ____ all day yesterday.
Answer: I was out all day yesterday.
1. Get __off__ the TV. You might break it.
Correct. Correct answer is "off".
2. Let's get the photos __out__ and have a look at them.
Correct. Correct answer is "out".
3. I poured the soup __out of__ the can.
Correct. Correct answer is "out of".
4. Don't play in that box. Get __out of__ there!
Correct. Correct answer is "out of".
5. The children are driving me crazy! I need to go __out__.
Correct. Correct answer is "out".

off
out
out of
out of
out
200

K. How and Why? (Unit 80-82)

Unit 80: HOW?
Here are some ways to describe:
1. the style, or way, of doing something: the manner
2. the method of doing something
Manner
We can use:
ADVERBS (Unit 64)
He spoke loudly.
He nervously opened the letter.
PREPOSITION + NOUN PHRASE (Unit 45)
He spoke in a loud voice.
He ran with difficulty.
The car approached at great speed.
Method
ACTIVITIES (by + -ing FORM OF VERB)
We kept warm by jumping up and down.
You know when to change gear by listening to the engine.
TRAVEL AND COMMUNICATION
We use by:
We traveled by air.
I prefer traveling by boat.
We sent the message by fax.
You can cross the road by the bridge.
BUT NOTICE: We decided to go on foot.
THINGS YOU USE
She cut the bread with a knife. (She used a knife.)
You can't get in without a key. (You need a key.)
These houses are made with cement. (and other things)
This wallet is made of leather. (and nothing else)
Paper is made from wood. (We change the wood.)
Aluminum is extracted by electricity. (by for processes)
NOTICE: The message was sent by John. (=J ohn sent the message.)
The message was sent with John. ( =J ohn carried the message; somebody else sent it.)
NOTICE: The message was sent with J ohn. That way, it arrived on Saturday.

201

Exercise 80.1: By/ to/ with
Fill in the blank with by, to or with.
Example: These houses are made ____ cement.
Answer: These houses are made with cement.
1. You open the back of the radio __with__ a screwdriver.
Correct. Correct answer is "with".
2. You open the back of the radio __by__ using a screwdriver.
3. You can get there __by__ bus, but it takes a long time.
4. __By__ car, the journey doesn't take long.
5. You can open the office door __with__ this key here.
6. The office door can be opened __by__ using this key here.
7. Medical students get experience __by__ working in hospitals.
8. What did you cut that __with__? You can't have used scissors.

with
by
by
by
with
by
by
with
202

Unit 81: PURPOSE & USE

Here are some ways to show why you did something, why something exists, or what its use is.
Purpose
to + BASE VERB
We put on lots of clothes to keep warm.
You have to study hard to be a doctor.
NOTICE: We also use in order to the same way.
so that CLAUSE
We put on lots of clothes so that we wouldn't get cold.
I put it by the door so that I wouldn't forget it.
I took a taxi so that I'd arrive early.
because CLAUSE with want
I put it by the door because I didn't want to forget it.
I took a taxi because I wanted to arrive early.
NOTICE: We can give the purpose at the beginning of the sentence if we want to.
For example: To be a doctor, you have to study hard.
Because I wanted to arrive early, I took a taxi.
Use
With for
The seats by the door are for the use of old people.
A pen is for writing with.
What did you do that for?
A barometer is a thing for measuring air pressure.
NOTICE: If there is a verb after for, it is the -ing form.

203

Example:
1. a doctor
2. to
3. you have to study
4. be
5. hard
Answer: 35241
Question 1
1. to go
2. I wanted
3. I went home early
4. because
5. to bed
Correct order: Correct. 3.I went home early 4.because 2.I wanted 1.to go 5.to bed
Question 2
1. plastic
2. is
3. of
4. this chair
5. made
Correct order: Correct. 4.this chair 2.is 5.made 3.of 1.plastic
Question 3
1. quietly
2. nobody
3. so that
4. he spoke
5. would hear him
Correct order: Correct. 4.he spoke 1.quietly 3.so that 2.nobody 5.would hear him
Question 4
1. there was enough room
2. I moved the bookshelf
3. so that
4. for the TV
Correct order: Correct. 2.I moved the bookshelf 3.so that 1.there was enough room
4.for the TV
Question 5
1. measuring
2. a thermometer
3. is for
4. the temperature
Correct order: Correct. 2.a thermometer 3.is for 1.measuring 4.the temperature

34215
42531
41325
2314
2314
204

Question 6
1. early
2. I took a taxi
3. I'd arrive
4. so that
Correct order: Correct. 2.I took a taxi 4.so that 3.I'd arrive 1.early

Exercise 81.2: By/ for/ to
Fill in the blank with by, for or to.
Example: A scale is ____ measuring weight.
Answer: A scale is for measuring weight.
1. This key here is __for__ opening the office door.
Correct. Correct answer is "for".
2. Medical students work in hospitals __to__ get experience.
3. What did you do that __for__? Now we'll never find it.
4. A thermometer is used __to__ measure the temperature.
5. A thermometer is __for__ measuring the temperature.

2431
for
to
for
to
for
205

Unit 82: REASON & CONSEQUENCE

Here are some ways to connect two ideas when one idea is the cause (the reason why) and the other is
the result (the consequence).
1
BASIC SENTENCE because + REASON
It was difficult to follow him because he spoke very fast.
We put on lots of clothes because it was very cold.
Two other ways of saying because are as and since. We can use all of them before the basic
sentence, too:
Because he spoke fast, it was difficult to follow him.
As it was very cold, we put on lots of clothes.
2
BASIC SENTENCE so + CONSEQUENCE
Nobody answered the door, so I left a message and went away.
It was very cold, so we put on lots of clothes.
NOTICE: Because +REASON and so +CONSEQUENCE cannot make sentences alone. They
must have a basic sentence with them.
3
REASON As a result + CONSEQUENCE
The weather was terrible. As a result, the train was late.
He spoke very fast. As a result, we couldn't follow.
Two other ways of writing as a result are consequently and therefore. We use all of them mainly in
writing.
BUT WE CANNOT USE As a result for consequences of personal decision. For example, the
sentences
in 2 above.
4
so + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB + that + CONSEQUENCE
He spoke so fast that nobody could understand him.
It was so cold that I couldn't feel my hands or feet.
such + NOUN PHRASE + that + CONSEQUENCE
He was such a fast speaker that nobody could understand him.
It was such cold weather that I couldn't feel my hands.

206

Exercise 82.1: Because/ so/ as a result
Complete each sentence/question in column A by using the set of answers in column B.
Example: The orange trees had been damaged. _____ oranges were expensive.
Answer: The orange trees had been damaged. As a result, oranges were expensive.
Question 1
Column A
1. We had to take a taxi __C___ we missed the bus.
2. I have a bad back __A___ I don't play tennis anymore.
3. His passport was not in order. __B___ he had to leave the country.
4. It was such bad weather __D___ we couldn't play soccer.
5. A camera is __E___ taking pictures with.
Column B
A. so
B. as a result
C. because
D. that
E. for
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 82.2: So or such
Fill in the blank with so or such.
Example: I was ____ tired that I fell asleep immediately.
Answer: I was so tired that I fell asleep immediately.
1. I had __such__ a lot to do at home that I was late for work.
Correct. Correct answer is "such".
2. Where did you learn __such__ good English?
3. The question was __so__ hard I couldn't answer it.
Correct. Correct answer is "so".
4. We brought lunch, __so__ that we wouldn't get hungry.
Correct. Correct answer is "so".
5. It was __such__ a long game that we needed to eat.

C A B D E
such
such
so
so
such
207

Exercise 82.3: Connecting Ideas
Question 1
Column A
1. I thought I could get in __C___ climbing through the window.
2. I was very quiet __A___ nobody would wake up.
3. The ladder fell sideways. __B___ I lost my balance.
4. He was busy, __D___ I decided to come back later.
5. She was such a boring teacher __E___ everyone fell asleep.
Column B
A. so that
B. as a result
C. by
D. so
E. that
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

C A B D E
208

L. Connecting Ideas (Unit 83-86)
Unit 83: SIMILAR IDEAS
Here are some ways to connect noun phrases (Unit 45) and statements when you want to show that
they are the same, or nearly the same.
Two noun phrases
Maria and J ohn like fruit.
I like fruit and vegetables
Maria and J ohn don't like meat.
I don't like milk or meat (NOT and)
Two statements
These affirmative statements all mean the same:
I like fruit. Maria also likes fruit. (also - before the verb)
I like fruit and Maria likes fruit too. (too - at the end)
I like fruit. Maria likes fruit as well. (as well - at the end)
I like fruit and so does Maria. (so +auxiliary)
These negative statements all mean the same:
I don't like meat. Maria doesn't like meat either.
I don't like meat and nor does Maria.
I don't like meat and neither does Maria.
With longer statements, we can use in addition:
We didn't go out. J ohn had hurt his foot, which made it difficult for him to walk. In addition, the
weather was bad.
NOTICE: We can point more strongly to similarity with both...and (affirmative) or neither...nor
(negative). Look at Unit 58.
Three or more
Notice the comma (Appendix 3) and the use of and/or (with no comma before it).
I like folk music, jazz, pop and rock.
I don't like classical music, opera or instrumentals.

209

Exercise 83.1: And or or
Fill in the blank with and or or.
Example: I don't like chicken ____ beef.
Answer: I don't like chicken or beef.
1. I don't know who to go for a walk with, Maria __or__ J ohn.
Correct. Correct answer is "or".
2. J ohn __and__ Maria didn't go for a walk yesterday. They stayed at home.
Correct. Correct answer is "and".
3. She's got a bicycle __and__ a car. she's lucky.
4. Maria __and__ J ohn both hate walking.
5. I like walking __and__ biking.

Exercise 83.2: And/ also/ both/ so/ too/ as well
Example: He has a car. He _____ has a bicycle.
Answer: He has a car. He also has a bicycle.
Question 1
Column A
1. I've got three brothers here __B___ another brother in America.
2. I __C___ have a brother who lives in America.
3. I enjoy science fiction books. My wife likes them __A___.
4. We __D___ like reading William Gibson novels.
Column B
A. as well
B. and
C. also
D. both
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4:

or
and
and
and
and
B C A D
210

Exercise 83.3: Either/ or/ neither/ nor
Example: You must do _____ question one _____ question two.
Answer: You must do either question one or question two.
Question 1
Column A
1. The heater isn't working. The fridge isn't working __B___.
2. I can't get the heater __C___ the fridge to work.
3. The fridge isn't working and __A___ is the heater.
Column B
A. neither
B. either
C. or
Answer:
1: 2: 3:

B C A
211

Unit 84: OPPOSITE IDEAS
Here are some ways to connect two ideas when you want to say that they are opposite to each other.
Contrast
SHORT STATEMENTS
I like fruit but I don't like meat.
I like fruit. I don't like fruit drinks, though.
LONGER STATEMENTS
For longer statements, we can also use although, however and on the other hand:
Although Einstein was a very clever man, he never passed any university exams.
Living in the country is quiet and peaceful. However, it can also be very boring.
Television has great educational possibilities. On the other hand, it can sometimes make people
lazy.
Although goes before the two ideas in one sentence.
However and on the other hand go between the two ideas.
Choice
ORDINARY CHOICE: Which do you want? The green one or the red one?
TO SHOW STRONGLY THAT YOU MEAN NOT BOTH:
At my school, we learn either English or Spanish.
TO SHOW PREFERENCE: What would you rather do? Stay in or go out? I'd rather stay in.
TO CONNECT LONGER IDEAS, WE CAN ALSO USE ON THE OTHER HAND:
What do you want to do? It's a beautiful day so we could go out for a walk. On the other hand, we
could stay in and watch sports on TV.
NOTICE: Would you like any tea or coffee? I want you to answer yes or no.
Would you like tea or coffee? Answer tea or coffee.

212

Exercise 84.1: Although/ though/ but/ however/ either
Example: Country life is peaceful. _____ it can be boring.
Answer: Country life is peaceful. However, it can be boring.
Question 1
Column A
1. His work is slow ___C__ sure.
2. __D___ he works slowly, he never makes a mistake.
3. I like chocolate. I don't like caramel, __A___.
4. Smoking might protect your teeth. ___B__ , it is still bad for you.
5. You can have ___E__ milk or juice, not both.
Column B
A. though
B. however
C. but
D. although
E. either
Answer:
1: 2: 3: 4: 5:

Exercise 84.2: And/ both/ but/ either/ or
Fill in the blank with and, or, but either or both.
Example: We learn ____ English ____ Spanish ____ not ____.
Answer: We learn either English or Spanish but not both.
1. We could spend the money __but__ it would be better to save it.
Correct. Correct answer is "but".
2. __Both__ dresses are nice.
3. The blue one is cheaper __and__ it is probably easier to wash.
4. Which one shall I buy? The red one __or__ the blue one?
Correct. Correct answer is "or".
5. We don't have much time, we can __either__ shop or study.

C D A B E
but
both
and
or
either
213

Unit 85: SEQUENCE OF EVENTS
In the sequence I took the key out of my pocket and opened the door, it is clear which action was first
and which action happened second. You do not need to write anything else to show this. But
sometimes it is not clear and you must use special words to show which was first or if the actions
happened at the same time.
1 Same time
a - Maria can wash the potatoes while I chop the onions.
While I was on the phone, the TV show started.
b - As I headed out the door, it started to rain.
I heard a loud noise as I was crossing the road.
c - They were eating when I arrived.
2 Different times
a
[1]:EVENT 1, [2]:EVENT 2
[1] First, I'll wash the potatoes. [2] Then, I'll chop the onions.
[1] She watched TV for a while. [2] After that, she went to bed.
[1] After I have washed the potatoes, [2] I'll chop the onions.
b
[1]:EVENT 1, [2]:EVENT 2
[2] I'll chop the onions [1] after I have washed the potatoes.
[2] I found the message [1] when I arrived home.
[2] Before I chop the onions, [1] I'll wash the potatoes.
[2] They ate [1] when I arrived. Compare with 1 c.

NOTICE: We cannot use will for future time with after, as, before, when, while. We use a present
tense:
Have another coffee before you go. NOT will go
We'll arrest him while he's sleeping. NOT will sleep

NOTICE: If you are describing three or more events and you want to show the sequence clearly, put
first at the beginning and put finally before the last event.

Exercise 85.1: Understanding sequence
Read the sentences below. Did they both happen at the same time? Answer Yes or No.
Example: J ohn arrived after we had lunch.
Answer: No.
1. After we had lunch, J ohn arrived.
Yes No

214

2. J ohn arrived when we were having lunch.
Yes No
3. We had lunch when J ohn arrived.
Yes No
4. J ohn arrived as we were eating.
Yes No
5. While we were eating, J ohn arrived.
Yes No
Exercise 85.2: When/ while/ and
Fill in the blank with when, while or and.
Example: I sat down ____ drank my coffee.
Answer: I sat down and drank my coffee.
1. I washed up __and__ put the dishes away.
2. I did the washing up __while__ Maria was putting the dishes away.
Correct. Correct answer is "while".
3. I was doing the washing up __when__ Maria broke a plate.
Correct. Correct answer is "when".
4. Maria was being silly __when__ she broke the plate
Correct. Correct answer is "when".
5. I stopped washing up __and__ helped her.
Exercise 85.3: After or after that
Fill in the blank with after or after that.
Example: I had my dinner. ____ I wrote some letters.
Answer: I had my dinner. After that, I wrote some letters.
1. __After__ I washed up, I put the dishes away.
Correct. Correct answer is "after".
2. I put the dishes away __after__ I had washed up.
3. I did the washing up. __after that__ I put the dishes away.
Correct. Correct answer is "after that".
4. Maria broke a plate. __after that__ she was more careful.
Correct. Correct answer is "after that".
5. We watched TV __after__ doing the dishes.

and
while
when
when
and
after
after
after that
after that
after
215

Unit 86: CONDITIONS
Look at this sentence:
He's coming to see us if he has time.
QUESTION: Is he coming to see us?
ANSWER: We don't know. Perhaps he will have time or perhaps he will not have time.
If he has time is an example of a REAL CONDITION (section 1 in this unit).
Now look at this sentence: He would be here now if he had the time.
QUESTION: Is he here now?
ANSWER: No, because he doesn't have time.
If he had the time is an example of an UNREAL CONDITION (section 2 in this unit).
We usually begin conditions with if.
1 Real conditions
We do not know if the condition is, will be or was true. Here are some examples:
If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay in.
If Maria is coming to the party, you can tell her the news.
But she won't be able to come if she's in Winnipeg now.
I'm sure she'll come if John has remembered to tell her.
If they saw each other last night, she must know about it.
NOTICE: We cannot use will for future time in a condition: We say
If it rains tomorrow NOT if it will rain
If she's coming NOT if she will be coming
NOTICE: We sometimes use unless (if...not) at the beginning of a condition:
Unless it rains tomorrow, I'll go to the beach.
Unless she's in Winnipeg, I'm sure she'll come.
I'm sure she'll come unless J ohn has forgotten to tell her about it.
2 Unreal Conditions
Always use PAST TENSE.
a
For PRESENT and FUTURE TIME the condition is not, or probably will not be, true: We use a
SIMPLE or CONTINUOUS verb formation (Units 19-22):
If Maria was coming, you could tell her the news. (But she isn't coming; you can't tell her.)
I would have more money if I didn't smoke. (But I smoke; I have less money.)
I'd phone him if only I could find his number. (But I can't find it; I can't phone him.)
If I found a lot of money, I'd give it to the police. (I don't expect to find any; I'm imagining.)

216

NOTICE: Would you mind if I left early?
Would + mind + UNREAL CONDITION is a polite way to ask for permission.
b
For PAST TIME (the condition was not true), we use a PERFECT verb formation (Unit 17) in the
condition:
If Maria had come, you could have told her the news. (But she didn't come; you couldn't tell her.)
I'd have phoned him if only I could have found his number. (But I couldn't find it; I didn't phone.)
If I had found that money, I would have given it to the police. (I didn't find it; I'm just imagining.)
I'm sure Maria would've come if J ohn hadn't forgotten to tell her. (But J ohn forgot; she didn't
come.)
NOTICE:
In this sentence: If they saw each other, I'm sure they talked about it
the condition is real (talking about past time).
But in this sentence: If they saw each other, they would talk about it
the condition is unreal (talking about future time).
NOTICE: Conditions can go before the basic sentence, If it's fine, I'll go to the beach, or after it,
I'll go to the beach if it's fine. If we put the condition before the basic sentence, we use a comma.

217

Fill in the blank with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
Example: If she ____ (talk) on the phone, she probably didn't hear the doorbell.
Answer: If she was talking on the phone, she probably didn't hear the doorbell.
1. If it __rains__ (rain) tomorrow, we can't go out.
Correct.
2. If it __was not raining__ (not rain), we could go out now. What a pity!
Correct.
3. Unless it __stops__ (stop) raining soon, we can't go out at all.
Correct.
4. If it __hadnt rained__ (not rain) yesterday, we could have gone out.
Correct.
5. If he __hasnt left__ (not leave) already, he'll be in his office.
Correct.
6. If he __hadnt left__ (not leave) already, he'd be in his office.
Correct.
7. Do you mind if I __open__ (open) the window?
Correct.
8. Would you mind if I __opened__ (open) the window?
Correct.
9. If only they __had__ (have) a car, they could get there easily.
Correct.

rains
was not raining
stops
hadn't rained
hasn't left
hadn't left
open
opened
had
218

M. Appendices
APPENDIX 1: THE ALPHABET
Capital letters
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Lowercase
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
This order helps you to use dictionaries, telephone directories, indexes, and many other lists.

APPENDIX 2: USING CAPITAL LETTERS
We usually write in lowercase. But the first letter of a word is a capital when:
it is the first word of a sentence:
There were lots of people outside. Everybody was happy.
it is a name:
OF A PERSON
Maria, John, Stephen Harper
OF A PERSON'S TITLE
King, President, Assistant Director
OF A BUILDING
Eiffel Tower, Taj Mahal, Telus Tower
OF A PLACE
Paris, France, Europe, Atlantic Ocean
OF AN ORGANIZATION
United Nations, Department of Health
OF A DAY OR MONTH
Tuesday, New Year's Day, December
it is the word "I"
We always write this with a capital letter.

219

APPENDIX 3: BASIC PUNCTUATION
Period (.)
We use a period (.)
at the end of a sentence (always)
Hello. My name is J im. I am a teacher at Gulf Polytechnic in Bahrain. Bahrain is a small
island in the Gulf near the coast of Saudi Arabia.
when we do not write all of a word (often)
Fri. ( =Friday)
Aug. ( =August)
A. Smith (Mr. Smith's first name begins with "A")
e.g. ( =for example; from the Latin exempli gratia)
etc. ( =and all the others; from the Latin et cetera)
Question mark (?)
We use a question mark (?) at the end of a question (but not at the beginning):
Did J ohn find a nice apartment?
Where is Winnipeg?
Notice the question mark includes the period.
Apostrophe (')
We use an apostrophe (')
for the genitive of nouns (Unit 49)
My brother's name is Matthew.
My brothers' names are Matthew, Edmund and Martin.
for short forms of words (Unit 6)
Comma (,)
We use a comma (,)
in a list
In this sentence, My brothers are Matthew, Edmund and Martin, you can understand that I have three
brothers.
But in this sentence, My brothers are Matthew Edmund and Martin, I have only two brothers (one is
called Matthew Edmund and the other is called Martin).
Notice that there is no comma before and: I bought some oranges, some apples, some peaches and a
pear.
at the beginning and end of some extra information
Matthew, my eldest brother, lives near Athabasca.
Matthew, who lives near Athabasca, is my eldest brother.
after extra information at the beginning of a sentence
After three months, Matthew found an apartment.
If the weather is good, we can go to the beach.
Finally, I managed to open the door.

220

But we do not use the comma if we put the extra information at the end of the sentence:
Matthew found an apartment after three months.
We can go to the beach if the weather is good.
between exact words spoken and the rest of the sentence
"Don't speak to me," he said.
She said, "I don't think you understand."
NEVER use a comma between subject and verb (Matthew, found an apartment) or between the verb
and a noun phrase (Matthew found, an apartment).
Quotation marks (" ")
We use quotation marks (" ") to show that the words between them are the exact words spoken -
"J ust relax," the dentist told me. Notice that they are at the top of the writing (NOT
"
Just relax
"
).
Exclamation mark (!)
We use an exclamation mark (!) to show great surprise or great interest.
Really! That is so strange!
Notice that the exclamation mark includes a period and that it cannot go at the beginning of a
sentence
(NOT ! Really). We do not use it for any other purpose.
Hyphen (-)
We use a hyphen (-) between two words to show that we must read them as one idea.
a second-hand car
a one-way street

APPENDIX 4: SPELLING AND SPEAKING
CONSONANTS and VOWELS in speaking:
When you put one part of the mouth on or near another part of the mouth, you are making a
consonant sound. When you do not do this, you are making a vowel sound.
CONSONANTS and VOWELS in spelling:
the letters a e i o always show a vowel sound (or part of it).
the letter u usually shows a vowel sound (or part of it) - under, sound - but, at the beginning
of a word, it can sometimes show a consonant sound - use, university.
the letters w and y show a consonant sound at the beginning of a word - with, young - but a
vowel sound at the end - grow, happy.
the other letters in the alphabets are always consonants.
STRESS:
In every word with more than one part, one part of the word usually sounds stronger than the other
part. This strong part is called stress:
before, manage, enter, develop, prefer

221

APPENDIX 5: SPELLING: -s FORM OF VERBS AND
NOUNS
USUALLY
word +s
takes, girls
BUT
WORD + es IF THE WORD ENDS WITH
sh crashes, washes
ch teaches, watches
zz buzzes
ss guesses, passes
x boxes, fixes
and sometimes with o
does, goes, potatoes, tomatoes
IF WORD ENDS WITH CONSONANT + y (Appendix 4), y --> i + es
carry - carries
cry - cries
family - families
fly - flies
worry - worries
but note that VOWEL + y is regular:
say - says
day - days
IF WORD ENDS WITH fe, fe --> ve + s
knife - knives
life - lives
wife - wives
IF WORD ENDS WITH f
sometimes f --> v + es
half - halves
leaf - leaves
self - selves
shelf - shelves
thief - thieves
wolf - wolves
and sometimes it is regular:
belief - beliefs
chief chiefs

222

APPENDIX 6: SPELLING: -ing FORMS
USUALLY
word +-ing
work - working
sleep - sleeping
BUT
IF WORD ENDS WITH CONSONANT + e (Appendix 4) do not write the e.
come - coming
decide - deciding
freeze - freezing
give - giving
have - having
hope - hoping
lose - losing
manage - managing
make - making
owe - owing
shine - shining
write - writing
IF WORD ENDS WITH ie, ie y + ing
die - dying
lie - lying
but note that ee and ue are regular:
agreeing, queueing
IF WORD ENDS WITH ONE VOWEL + ONE CONSONANT (Appendix 4) double the
consonant.
cut - cutting
get - getting
prefer - preferring
put - putting
run - running
ship - shipping
stop - stopping
travel - travelling
win - winning
but do not double if the last part of the word does not have any stress (Appendix 4):
enter - entering
offer - offering
(travel is a special case);
and do not double if word ends with
two vowels +one consonant: keep - keeping
meet - meeting
one vowel +two consonants: walk - walking
help - helping
one vowel +x: box - boxing
fix - fixing

223

APPENDIX 7: SPELLING: -ed/-er/-est FORMS
USUALLY
word +ed work - worked
word +er work - worker, cold - colder
word +est cold - coldest
BUT
If word already ends with e, do not write it again.
manage - managed - manager
decide - decided - decider
late - later - latest
fine - finer - finest
If word ends with consonant + y (Appendix 4), y --> i
carry - carried - carrier
worry - worried - worrier
happy - happier - happiest
dirty - dirtier - dirtiest
but note that vowel + y is regular:
play - played - player
If word ends with one vowel + one consonant (Appendix 4), double the consonant.
big - bigger - biggest
thin - thinner - thinnest
hot - hotter - hottest
fit - fitted - fitter
stop - stopped - stopper
permit - permitted
but do not double if the last part of the word does not have any stress (Appendix 4):
develop - developed - developer
and do not double if word ends with
two vowels +one consonant:
green - greener - greenest
one vowel +two consonants:
talk - talked - talker
one vowel +x:
mix - mixed - mixer

224

APPENDIX 8: SPELLING: -ly ADVERBS
USUALLY
word +ly
slow - slowly
careful - carefully
BUT
If adjective with consonant + le (Appendix 4), e --> y
comfortable - comfortably
probable - probably
possible - possibly
simple - simply
If word ends with consonant + y, y --> i + ly
easy - easily
happy - happily
heavy - heavily

APPENDIX 9: WRITING AND SPEAKING NUMBERS
a
1 one boy
2 two boys
3 three
4 four
5 five
6 six
7 seven
8 eight
9 nine
10 ten
11 eleven
12 twelve
13 thirteen
14 fourteen
15 fifteen
16 sixteen
17 seventeen
18 eighteen
19 nineteen
20 twenty
30 thirty
40 forty
50 fifty
61 sixty-one
72 seventy-two
99 ninety-nine

225

1st the first boy
2nd the second boy
3rd third
4th fourth
5th fifth
6th sixth
7th seventh
8th eighth
9th ninth
10th tenth
12th twelfth
20th twentieth
22nd twenty-second
31st thirty-first
b
In larger numbers, we put commas (not periods) after thousands and millions. We also say and after
hundreds (nowhere else).
100 a hundred/ one hundred
201 two hundred and one
666 six hundred and sixty-six
1,000 a thousand/ one thousand
222,000 two hundred and twenty-two thousand
1,000,000 a million/ one million
426,000,000 four hundred and twenty-six million
2,254,002 two million, two hundred and fifty-four thousand and two
c
For the number 0, we say:
zero in counting and arithmetic
zero for the temperature
'o' in phone numbers etc.
nil for the score in most sports
d
FRACTIONS
1/2 a half
1/3 a third
1/4 a quarter
1/5 a fifth
2 1/2 two and a half
2 3/4 two and three quarters
DECIMALS
0.5 zero point five
0.33 zero point three three
0.25 zero point two five
0.2 zero point two
2.5 two point five
2.75 two point seven five

226

e
Whole numbers have no plural. We say two hundred (NOT hundreds). But when we are talking
generally, we can say: hundreds of people
f
Numbers go before adjectives: Three large cars were coming along.
but after
a, an, the, this, that, these, those, - the first car
some, any, all, every, either, neither - all three cars
We can also use numbers before of: two of the cars/ two of them

APPENDIX 10: IRREGULAR VERBS FOR
REFERENCE
PART 1 (A - L)
[BF]:BASE FORM, [PF]:PAST FORM, [PP]:PAST PARTICIPLE
b
[BF] be(am/is/are) [PF] was/were [PP] been
[BF] bear [PF] bore [PP] borne
[BF] beat [PF] beat [PP] beaten
[BF] become [PF] became [PP] become
[BF] begin [PF] began [PP] begun
[BF] bend [PF] bent [PP] bent
[BF] bind [PF] bound [PP] bound
[BF] bite [PF] bit [PP] bitten
[BF] bleed [PF] bled [PP] bled
[BF] blow [PF] blew [PP] blown
[BF] break [PF] broke [PP] broken
[BF] breed [PF] bred [PP] bred
[BF] bring [PF] brought [PP] brought
[BF] build [PF] built [PP] built
[BF] burn [PF] burnt/burned [PP] burnt/burned
[BF] buy [PF] bought [PP] bought
c
[BF] catch [PF] caught [PP] caught
[BF] choose [PF] chose [PP] chosen
[BF] cling [PF] clung [PP] clung
[BF] come [PF] came [PP] come

227

[BF] cost [PF] cost [PP] cost
[BF] creep [PF] crept [PP] crept
[BF] cut [PF] cut [PP] cut
d
[BF] deal [PF] dealt [PP] dealt
[BF] dig [PF] dug [PP] dug
[BF] do [PF] did [PP] done
[BF] draw [PF] drew [PP] drawn
[BF] dream [PF] dreamt/dreamed [PP] dreamt/dreamed
[BF] drink [PF] drank [PP] drunk
[BF] drive [PF] drove [PP] driven
[BF] dwell [PF] dwelt [PP] dwelt
e
[BF] eat [PF] ate [PP] eaten
f
[BF] fall [PF] fell [PP] fallen
[BF] feed [PF] fed [PP] fed
[BF] feel [PF] felt [PP] felt
[BF] fight [PF] fought [PP] fought
[BF] find [PF] found [PP] found
[BF] flee [PF] fled [PP] fled
[BF] fling [PF] flung [PP] flung
[BF] fly [PF] flew [PP] flown
[BF] forbid [PF] forbade [PP] forbidden
g
[BF] get [PF] got [PP] got/gotten
[BF] give [PF] gave [PP] given
[BF] go [PF] went [PP] gone
[BF] grind [PF] ground [PP] ground
[BF] grow [PF] grew [PP] grown
h
[BF] hang [PF] hung [PP] hung
[BF] have [PF] had [PP] had
[BF] hear [PF] heard [PP] heard

228

[BF] hide [PF] hid [PP] hidden
[BF] hit [PF] hit [PP] hit
[BF] hold [PF] held [PP] held
[BF] hurt [PF] hurt [PP] hurt
k
[BF] keep [PF] kept [PP] kept
[BF] kneel [PF] knelt [PP] knelt
[BF] know [PF] knew [PP] known
l
[BF] lay [PF] laid [PP] laid
[BF] lead [PF] led [PP] led
[BF] lean [PF] leaned [PP] leaned
[BF] leap [PF] leapt/leaped [PP] leapt/leaped
[BF] learn [PF] learned [PP] learnt
[BF] leave [PF] left [PP] left
[BF] lend [PF] lent [PP] lent
[BF] let [PF] let [PP] let
[BF] lie [PF] lay [PP] lain
[BF] light [PF] lit [PP] lit
[BF] lose [PF] lost [PP] lost
PART 2 (M - Z)
m
[BF] make [PF] made [PP] made
[BF] mean [PF] meant [PP] meant
[BF] meet [PF] met [PP] met
p
[BF] put [PF] put [PP] put
r
[BF] read [PF] read [PP] read
[BF] ride [PF] rode [PP] ridden
[BF] ring [PF] rang [PP] rung
[BF] rise [PF] rose [PP] risen
[BF] run [PF] ran [PP] run

229

s
[BF] say [PF] said [PP] said
[BF] see [PF] saw [PP] seen
[BF] sell [PF] sold [PP] sold
[BF] send [PF] sent [PP] sent
[BF] set [PF] set [PP] set
[BF] shake [PF] shook [PP] shaken
[BF] shine [PF] shone [PP] shone
[BF] shoot [PF] shot [PP] shot
[BF] shut [PF] shut [PP] shut
[BF] sing [PF] sang [PP] sung
[BF] sink [PF] sank [PP] sunk
[BF] sit [PF] sat [PP] sat
[BF] sleep [PF] slept [PP] slept
[BF] slide [PF] slid [PP] slid
[BF] smell [PF] smelled [PP] smelled
[BF] speak [PF] spoke [PP] spoken
[BF] speed [PF] sped [PP] sped
[BF] spin [PF] spun [PP] spun
[BF] spit [PF] spat [PP] spat
[BF] split [PF] split [PP] split
[BF] spend [PF] spent [PP] spent
[BF] spread [PF] spread [PP] spread
[BF] stand [PF] stood [PP] stood
[BF] steal [PF] stole [PP] stolen
[BF] stick [PF] stuck [PP] stuck
[BF] sting [PF] stung [PP] stung
[BF] strike [PF] struck [PP] struck
[BF] swear [PF] swore [PP] sworn
[BF] sweep [PF] swept [PP] swept
[BF] swell [PF] swelled [PP] swollen
[BF] swim [PF] swam [PP] swum
[BF] swing [PF] swung [PP] swung

230

t
[BF] take [PF] took [PP] taken
[BF] teach [PF] taught [PP] taught
[BF] tear [PF] tore [PP] torn
[BF] tell [PF] told [PP] told
[BF] think [PF] thought [PP] thought
[BF] throw [PF] threw [PP] thrown
u
[BF] understand [PF] understood [PP] understood
w
[BF] wake [PF] woke [PP] woken
[BF] wear [PF] wore [PP] worn
[BF] weave [PF] wove [PP] woven
[BF] weep [PF] wept [PP] wept
[BF] win [PF] won [PP] won
[BF] wind [PF] wound [PP] wound
[BF] write [PF] wrote [PP] written

APPENDIX 11: IRREGULAR VERBS FOR
LEARNING

BASE FORM, PAST FORM and PAST PARTICIPLE are the same.
cost, cut, hit, hurt, let, put and shut
PAST FORM and PAST PARTICIPLE are the same.
have had
make made
bend bent
build built
burn burnt
teach taught
think thought
feel felt
keep kept
leave left
sleep slept
lose lost
learn learned

231

lend lent
spend spent
hear heard
say said
fight fought
get got
meet met
sit sat
feed fed
find found
hold held
sell sold
tell told
bring brought
buy bought
catch caught
read read (red)
win won
(under)stand (under)stood
PAST FORMS and PAST PARTICIPLES are different.
[BF] begin [PF] began [PP] begun
[BF] break [PF] broke [PP] broken
[BF] come [PF] came [PP] come
[BF] drink [PF] drank [PP] drunk
[BF] drive [PF] drove [PP] driven
[BF] fall [PF] fell [PP] fallen
[BF] fly [PF] flew [PP] flown
[BF] forget [PF] forgot [PP] forgotten
[BF] give [PF] gave [PP] given
[BF] go [PF] went [PP] gone/been
[BF] know [PF] knew [PP] known
[BF] take [PF] took [PP] taken
[BF] ring [PF] rang [PP] rung
[BF] see [PF] saw [PP] seen
[BF] wear [PF] wore [PP]worn
[BF] write [PF] wrote [PP] written

232

APPENDIX 12: TELLING THE TIME
For ordinary speaking, use clock-face time. Say the minutes first.
ten past six

a quarter past six

half past six

twenty-five to seven

a quarter to seven

We say a quarter (with or without a), but half (without a):
It's quarter to eight or It's a quarter to eight.
It's half past ten.
We say o'clock only for the exact hour: It's six o'clock.
For talking about timetables and exact arrangements, we often use digital time. Say the
hour before the minutes.
We use the 24-hour clock for written timetables.
[1]: 24-hour clock [2]: Digital time [3]: Clock-face time
WRITTEN
[1] 09:00
[2] 9:00 a.m.
[1] 09:15
[2] 9:15 a.m.
[1] 14:20
[2] 2:20 a.m.
[1] 21:55
[2] 9:55 a.m.
SPOKEN
nine a.m. =[3] nine o'clock in the morning
nine fifteen a.m. =[3] a quarter past nine in the morning
two twenty p.m. =[3] twenty past two in the afternoon
nine fifty-five p.m. =[3] five to ten in the evening
noon =twelve o'clock exactly in the day
a.m. =twelve midnight to twelve noon
midnight =twelve o'clock exactly at night

233

p.m. =twelve noon to twelve midnight
midday =the hours in the middle of the day

APPENDIX 13: DATES
WRITTEN: May 1 or May 1st or 1 May or 1st May
SPOKEN:
May the first or the first of May (May first)
WRITTEN: Friday, July 3 (or 3rd) or Friday 3 (or 3rd) July
SPOKEN:
Friday, J uly the third or Friday the third of J uly (J uly third)
WRITTEN: June 22 (or 22nd) 2007 or 22 (or 22nd) June 2007
SPOKEN:
J une the twenty-second, two thousand and seven or the twenty-second of J une, two thousand and
seven

- THE END -

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