Gphy 3413 - Principles of Geophysics

Homework Set 9
N.B.: Do not try to cram your work and answers on this "sheet." Use extra paper as necessary!
1. Below are graphs of the total magnetic field profiles taken over a buried, magnetically susceptible sphere.
Write clearly on each diagram the approximate latitude (choose from N pole; mid-northern latitude; equator;
mid-southern latitude; S pole). at which the profile was taken. One or more diagrams may apply to two different
possible latitude regions; in that case, indicate both possibilities. Pay attention to the direction of the profiles
(N end vs. S end).

A.
B.
C.
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D.
2. Assume the incident P wave in the diagram below has an incident angle, i
P
, of 30
o
.Using the velocities shown,
what are these angles:
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A. i
S
= 16.7
o

B. i
P
= 30.0
o

C. r
S
= 24.4
o

D. r
P
= 45.4
o

3. Assume the surface layer has a P-wave velocity of 3.0 km/s. There is a deeper layer with a P-wave velocity of
5.0 km/s. What must be the incident angle (i.e., the critical angle) in the first layer that would produce a head
wave running along the top of this faster layer (with a velocity of 5.0 km/s)? Assume all layers are horizontal.
sin i = 3/5 ==> i = 36.9
o
Note that velocities of intervening layers are irrelevant.

4. Assume a model with 2 horizontal layers on a half-space, and V
1
<V
2
<V
3
. A refraction survey produces the
travel-time graph below (not to scale), where the slope of the first line segment is 0.0005 s/m, the second slope
is 0.0003333 s/m and the third slope is 0.0002 m/s. The time intercept of the second segment (line extended to
where x=0) is 0.02 s, and the time intercept of the third segment is 0.03 s. Show your work on the back or on
extra paper. Give appropriate units.

A. What is the velocity of the first layer? V
1
= 0.0005
-1
= 2000 m/s

B. What is the velocity of the second layer? V
2
= 0.0003333
-1
= 3000 m/s

C. What is the velocity of the third layer? V
3
= 0.00002
-1
= 5000 m/s

D. What is the thickness of the first layer? T
i2
= 0.02 s, and the thickness of the first layer is given by
so z
1
= 26.8 m

E. What is the thickness of the second layer? T
i3
= 0.03 s, and the thickness of the second layer is given by
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so z
2
= 10.2 m

5. The reflection coefficient at the interface between two rock layer (fraction of reflected energy to incoming
(incident) energy) is given by:
Recall that the polarity of reflected wave depends on sign of reflection coefficient (unchanged polarity means
compression remains compression, dilatation remains dilatation)
Assume this is stratigraphic column (granite on top, shale on bottom). Find the reflection coefficient at each of
the interfaces (granite/basalt; basalt/limestone; limestone/sandstone; sandstone/shale). Which interface has
the largest (absolute value) reflection coefficient? Which interfaces have a negative reflection coefficient?
Hypothetical Rock Properties
Rock V
P
, km/s
r r , kg/m
3
V x r r
Granite 5.0 2700 13,500
Basalt 5.5 3000 16,500
Limestone 6.0 2300 13,800
Sandstone 4.2 2500 10,500
Shale 2.5 2300 5,750
Rock VP, km/s r, kg/m3 V x r refl. coeff. (w/layer below)
Granite 5 2700 13500 -0.100
Basalt 5.5 3000 16500 0.089
Limestone 6 2300 13800 0.136
Sandstone 4.2 2500 10500 0.292
Shale 2.5 2300 5750
The largest reflection coefficient is at the sandstone/shale interface; the granite/basalt interface has a
negative reflection coefficient.
6. Travel times for the 1st reflector shown below are given in the following table.
A. Find the NMO correction to be applied to each trace by filling the last column.
The NMO correction is just the travel-time difference between a zero-offset reflection (Geophone Spacing
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= 0; second line, third column below; arrival time = 2.0 s) and the travel-time for a reflection with a non-
zero offset. Basically subtract Arrival Times for traces 2 through 6 from Arrival Time for trace 1.

Trace # Geophone Spacing (x) m Arrival Time s NMO Correction s x^2 t^2
1 0 2 0 0 4
2 200 2.01 0.01 40,000 4.040
3 400 2.0396 0.0396 160,000 4.160
4 600 2.0881 0.0881 360,000 4.360
5 800 2.1541 0.1541 640,000 4.640
6 1000 2.2361 0.2361 1,000,000 5.000
Create the last two columns in the graph above by squaring Geophone Spacing, and by squaring Arrival
Time. Use these to make the graph in part B.
B. Prepare an x
2
-t
2
graph. What is the velocity and thickness of the layer? I.e., measure its slope to get V
2
,
then V, then find d.

The slope of the curve gives us V
2
, and square root of that gives V: V
2
= 1,000,000/1.0 m
2
/s
2
, or V = 1000
m/s. We know the zero-offset travel-time (from trace 1) is 2.0 s, and is the time to go straight down to the
reflector and back up. That distance is twice the depth to the reflector. The rate equation tells us that
2d/V = 2 s, so d = 1000 m

7. We saw how using 4 geophones and moving the shot array one geophone spacing gives 2-fold
coverage.
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A. Draw a series 8 "dots" (8 geophones), also displaced by one geophone spacing. What (maximum)
coverage do you get? 4-fold coverage
B. Try this one some other combinations of # of geophones/shot spacing (such as 8 geophones and
moving shot/array 2 geophone spacings). 2-fold coverage
C. Come up with a general (simple) formula for (maximum) coverage as a function of # of geophones
and the shot/array movement. See below.
D. With 48 geophones, and moving the shot/array 4 geophones each time, what fold coverage do you
get? See below.
Coverage is proportional to # of geophones; inversely proportional to # of geophone spacing array
is moved. Formula must be: # phones (channels)/array offset/2.
For example, 48 geophones, move 4 geophones each time ==> 48/4/2= 6-fold coverage

8. A signal-to-noise problem:
A. With 24-fold coverage, by what factor is the signal increased when the CDPs are stacked? 24
B. By what factor is the noise increased? (24)
1/2
C. By what factor is the S/N ratio increased? The answer to A. divided by the answer to B. is the signal-
to-noise ratio, or S/N. So, S/N = 24/(24)
1/2
= (24)
1/2
= 4.9

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