Nervous system test Review: Chapter 7 in your textbook

Figures of Focus: 7.1, 7.2, 7.4, 7.6, 7.8-7.11, 7.13, 7.14, 7.16, 7.17, 7.23-7.25, 7.27, 7.28

1. What part of the nervous system are the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems? What are their functions? (3)

Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the functions of our internal organs (the viscera) such
as the heart, stomach and intestines. The ANS is part of the peripheral nervous system and it also controls some of the muscles
within the body. We are often unaware of the ANS because it functions involuntary and reflexively. For example, we do not notice
when blood vessels change size or when our heart beats faster. However, some people can be trained to control some functions of
the ANS such as heart rate or blood pressure.
The ANS is most important in two situations:
In emergencies that cause stress and require us to "fight" or take "flight" (run away)
In nonemergencies that allow us to "rest" and "digest."
The ANS regulates:
Muscles
-- in the skin (around hair follicles; smooth muscle
-- around blood vessels (smooth muscle)
-- in the eye (the iris; smooth muscle)
-- in the stomach, intestines and bladder (smooth muscle)
-- of the heart (cardiac muscle)
Glands
The ANS is divided into three parts:
The sympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system
The enteric nervous system
The Sympathetic Nervous System


It is a nice, sunny day...you are taking a nice walk in
the park. Suddenly, an angry bear appears in
your path. Do you stay and fight OR do you turn and
run away? These are "Fight or Flight" responses. In
these types of situations, your sympathetic nervous
system is called into action - it uses energy - your
blood pressure increases, your heart beats faster, and
digestion slows down.
Notice in the picture on the left that the sympathetic
nervous system originates in the spinal cord.
Specifically, the cell bodies of the first neuron (the
preganglionic neuron) are located in the thoracic and
lumbar spinal cord. Axons from these neurons project
to a chain of ganglia located near the spinal cord. In
most cases, this neuron makes a synapse with another
neuron (post-ganglionic neuron) in the ganglion. A few
preganglionic neurons go to other ganglia outside of
the sympathetic chain and synapse there. The post-
ganglionic neuron then projects to the "target" - either
a muscle or a gland.
Two more facts about the sympathetic nervous
system: the synapse in the sympathetic ganglion uses
acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter; the synapse of
the post-ganglionic neuron with the target organ uses
the neurotransmitter called norepinephrine. (Of
course, there is one exception: the sympathetic post-
ganglionic neuron that terminates on the sweat glands
uses acetylcholine.)
The Parasympathetic Nervous System


It is a nice, sunny day...you are taking a nice walk in
the park. This time, however, you decide to
relax in comfortable chair that you have brought
along. This calls for "Rest and Digest" responses. Now
is the time for the parasympathetic nervous to work
to save energy. This is when blood pressure can
decrease, pulse rate can slow, and digestion can start.
Notice in the picture on the left, that the cell bodies of
the parasympathetic nervous system are located in
the spinal cord (sacral region) and in the medulla. In
the medulla, the cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X form
the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers. The
preganglionic fiber from the medulla or spinal cord
projects to ganglia very close to the target organ and
makes a synapse. This synapse uses the
neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. From this
ganglion, the post-ganglionic neuron projects to the
target organ and uses acetylcholine again at its
terminal.

Here is a summary of some of the effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation. Notice that effects are generally in
opposition to each other.
Autonomic Nervous System
Structure Sympathetic Stimulation Parasympathetic Stimulation
Iris (eye muscle) Pupil dilation Pupil constriction
Salivary Glands Saliva production reduced Saliva production increased
Oral/Nasal Mucosa Mucus production reduced Mucus production increased
Heart Heart rate and force increased Heart rate and force decreased
Lung Bronchial muscle relaxed Bronchial muscle contracted
Stomach Peristalsis reduced Gastric juice secreted; motility increased
Small Intestine Motility reduced Digestion increased
Large Intestine Motility reduced Secretions and motility increased
Liver
Increased conversion of
glycogen to glucose

Kidney Decreased urine secretion Increased urine secretion
Adrenal medulla
Norepinephrine and
epinephrine secreted

Bladder
Wall relaxed
Sphincter closed
Wall contracted
Sphincter relaxed
It should be noted that the autonomic nervous system is always working. It is NOT only active during "fight or flight" or "rest and
digest" situations. Rather, the autonomic nervous system acts to maintain normal internal functions and works with the somati c
nervous system.
The enteric nervous system is a third division of the autonomic nervous system that you do not hear much about. The enteric
nervous system is a meshwork of nerve fibers that innervate the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder).





2. Draw and label a neuron with the following: synaptic cleft (synapse), axon, dendrite. What is the function of each part of
the neuron? (3)





3. Describe afferent and efferent neurons. (2)







4. Where do you find bipolar neurons? (1)
A bipolar cell is a type of neuron which has two extensions. Bipolar cells are specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of
special senses. As such, they are part of the sensory pathways for smell, sight, taste, hearing and vestibular functions They are found
in the vestibulocochlear nerve, but referrence to bipolar neurons is usually to cells in the retina.
A unipolar neuron is a type of neuron in which only one protoplasmic process (neurite) extends from the cell body. Most neurons
are multipolar, generating several dendrites and an axon: unipolar neurons are exceptions to this rule. These would be primary
sensory neurons such as the ones found in the dorsal root ganglion.
A multipolar neuron is a type of neuron that possesses a single (usually long) axon and many dendrites, allowing for the integration
of a great deal of information from other neurons. These dendritic branches can also emerge from the nerve cell body. Multipolar
neurons constitute the majority of neurons in the brain and include motor neurons and interneurons

5. What are ganglia and where do you find them? (2)
a ganglion (/lin/ GANG-glee-n; plural ganglia) is a nerve cell cluster
[1]
or a group of nerve cell bodies located in the
peripheral nervous system.
[2][3]
Cells found in a ganglion are called ganglion cells, though this term is also sometimes used to
refer specifically to retinal ganglion cells.


6. What is the role of a neurotransmitter? Give two examples. (2)

NEUROTRANSMITTERS are the brain chemicals that communicate information throughout our brain and body. They relay signals
between nerve cells, called neurons. The brain uses neurotransmitters to tell your heart to beat, your lungs to breathe, and your
stomach to digest. They can also affect mood, sleep, concentration, weight, and can cause adverse symptoms when they are out of
balance. Neurotransmitter levels can be depleted many ways. As a matter of fact, it is estimated that 86% of Americans have
suboptimal neurotransmitter levels. Stress, poor diet, neurotoxins, genetic predisposition, drugs (prescription and recreational),
alcohol and caffeine usage can cause these levels to be out of optimal range.
There are two kinds of neurotransmitters INHIBITORY and EXCITATORY. Excitatory neurotransmitters are not necessarily exciting
they are what stimulate the brain. Those that calm the brain and help create balance are called inhibitory. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters balance mood and are easily depleted when the excitatory neurotransmitters are overactive.
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
SEROTONIN is an inhibitory neurotransmitter which means that it does not stimulate the brain. Adequate amounts of serotonin
are necessary for a stable mood and to balance any excessive excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter firing in the brain. If you use
stimulant medications or caffeine in your daily regimen it can cause a depletion of serotonin over time. Serotonin also regulates
many other processes such as carbohydrate cravings, sleep cycle, pain control and appropriate digestion. Low serotonin levels are
also associated with decreased immune system function.
GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is often referred to as natures VALIUM-like substance. When GABA is out of range
(high or low excretion values), it is likely that an excitatory neurotransmitter is firing too often in the brain. GABA will be sent out to
attempt to balance this stimulating over-firing.
DOPAMINE is a special neurotransmitter because it is considered to be both excitatory and inhibitory. Dopamine helps with
depression as well as focus, which you will read about in the excitatory section.
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
DOPAMINE is our main focus neurotransmitter. When dopamine is either elevated or low we can have focus issues such as not
remembering where we put our keys, forgetting what a paragraph said when we just finished reading it or simply daydreaming and
not being able to stay on task. Dopamine is also responsible for our drive or desire to get things done or motivation. Stimulants
such as medications for ADD/ADHD and caffeine cause dopamine to be pushed into the synapse so that focus is improved.
Unfortunately, stimulating dopamine consistently can cause a depletion of dopamine over time.
NOREPINEPHRINE is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is responsible for stimulatory processes in the body. Norepinephrine helps
to make epinephrine as well. This neurotransmitter can cause ANXIETY at elevated excretion levels as well as some MOOD
DAMPENING effects. Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with LOW ENERGY, DECREASED FOCUS ability and sleep cycle
problems.
EPINEPHRINE is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is reflective of stress. This neurotransmitter will often be elevated when ADHD
like symptoms are present. Long term STRESS or INSOMNIA can cause epinephrine levels to be depleted (low). Epinephrine also
regulates HEART RATE and BLOOD PRESSURE.





7. What is the function of acetylcholinesterase? (1)
an enzyme that occurs especially in some nerve endings and in the blood and promotes the hydrolysis of acetylcholine
(breakdown)


8. What is the fissure separating the cerebral hemispheres called? (1)

longitudinal

9. What 3 areas make up the brain stem? (3)
The brain stem houses the midbrain (mesencephalon), pons (part of the metencephalon), and medulla oblongata
(myelencephalon). This is the posterior area of the brain that attaches to the spinal cord. It's here, at the brain stem, where
information is sent back and forth between the cerebrum or cerebellum and the body. Cranial nerves 3-12 are located here as well
as significant processing centers.


10. Differentiate between the ridges and shallow grooves of the brain. What are each called? (2)

Gyri- ridges
sulcus grooves
Fissures deep grooves


11. What is the function of the medulla oblongata? (2)

Location: Higher part of brain stem
Function: Carries out and regulates life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing and heart rate


12. Describe the steps of action potential and include a drawing. (5)

http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential_short.swf

ition:
An action potential is part of the process that occurs during the firing of a neuron. During the action potential, part of the neural
membrane opens to allow positively charged ions inside the cell and negatively charged ions out. This process causes a rapid
increase in the positive charge of the nerve fiber. When the charge reaches +40 mv, the impulse is propagated down the nerve fiber.
This electrical impulse is carried down the nerve through a series of action potentials.
Prior to the Action Potential
When a neuron is not sending signals, the inside of the neuron has a negative charge relative to the positive charge outside the cell.
Electrically charged chemicals known as ions maintain the balance of positive and negative charges. Calcium contains two positive
charges, sodium and potassium contain one positive charge and chloride contains a negative charge.
When at rest, the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to pass through while preventing or restricting the movement of
other ions. In this state, sodium and potassium ions cannot easily pass through the membrane. Potassium ions, however, are able to
freely cross the membrane. The negatively ions inside of the cell are unable to cross the barrier. The cell must activity transport ions
in order to maintain its polarized state. This mechanism is known as the sodium-ion pump. For every two potassium ions that pass
through the membrane, three sodium ions are pumped out.
The resting potential of the neuron refers to the difference between the voltage inside and outside the neuron. The resting potential
of the average neuron is around -70 millivolts, indicating that the inside of the cell is 70 millivolts less than the outside of the cell.
During the Action Potential
When an impulse is sent out from a cell body, the sodium channels open and the positive sodium cells surge into the cell. Once the
cell reaches a certain threshold, an action potential will fire, sending the electrical signal down the axon. Action potentials either
happen or they don't; there is no such thing as a "partial" firing of a neuron. This principle is known as the all-or-none law.
After the Action Potential
After the neuron has fired, there is a refractory period in which another action potential is not possible. During this time, the
potassium channels reopen and the sodium channels close, gradually returning the neuron to its resting potential.


13. What is considered the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system? (1)

CNS brain and spinal cord
PNS efferent and efferent nerves, peripheral nerves


14. What are the functions of each of the lobes of the brain? (3)




15. Where is cerebrospinal fluid found? (1)

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), clear, colourless liquid that fills and surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and provides a mechanical
barrier against shock. Formed primarily in the ventricles of the brain, the cerebrospinal fluid supports the brain and provides
lubrication between surrounding bones and the brain and spinal cord. When an individual suffers a head injury, the fluid acts as a
cushion, dulling the force by distributing its impact. The fluid helps to maintain pressure within the cranium at a constant level. An
increase in the volume of blood or brain tissue results in a corresponding decrease in the fluid. Conversely, if there is a decrease in
the volume of matter within the cranium, as occurs in atrophy of the brain, the CSF compensates with an increase in volume. The
fluid also transports metabolic waste products, antibodies, chemicals, and pathological products of disease away from the brain and
spinal-cord tissue into the bloodstream. CSF is slightly alkaline and is about 99 percent water. There are about 100 to 150 ml of CSF
in the normal adult human body.
The exact method of the formation of the CSF is uncertain. After originating in the ventricles of the brain, it is probably filtered
through the nervous-system membranes (ependyma). The CSF is continually produced, and all of it is replaced every six to eight
hours. The fluid is eventually absorbed into the veins; it leaves the cerebrospinal spaces in a variety of locations, including spaces
around the spinal roots and the cranial nerves. Movement of the CSF is affected by the downward pull of gravity, the continual
process of secretion and absorption, blood pulsations in contingent tissue, respiration, pressure from the veins, and head and body
movements.


16. What part of the brain controls heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure?
Medulla Oblongata

17. What is a shallow groove on the surface of the cortex called?
Sulcus

18. What are the ridges in the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
Gyri

19. What is the fissure separating the cerebral hemisphere called?
Longitudinal

20. What is the frontal lobe separated from the temporal lobe by?
Lateral sulcus

21. What makes up the brain stem?
medulla oblongata (myelencephalon), pons (part of metencephalon), and midbrain (mesencephalon).

22. What is the function of the hypothalamus?
a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important
functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis).
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus, just above the brainstem. In the terminology of neuroanatomy, it forms the
ventral part of the diencephalon. All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus. In humans, it is roughly the size of an almond.
The hypothalamus is responsible for certain metabolic processes and other activities of the autonomic nervous system. It
synthesizes and secretes certain neurohormones, often called releasing hormones or hypothalamic hormones, and these in turn
stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones. The hypothalamus controls body temperature, hunger, important aspects of
parenting and attachment behaviors, thirst,
[1]
fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.


23. What is the arbor vitae?
tree of life = white nervous tissue = axons of the neurons in the cerebellum

24. What is the function of the blood-brain barrier?
The Blood Brain Barrier ("Keep Out")
More than 100 years ago it was discovered that if blue dye was injected into the bloodstream of an
animal, that tissues of the whole body EXCEPT the brain and spinal cord would turn blue. To explain this, scientists thought that a
"Blood-Brain-Barrier" (BBB) which prevents materials from the blood from entering the brain existed. More recently, scientists have
discovered much more about the structure and function of the BBB.
Anatomy of the BBB
The BBB is semi-permeable; that is, it allows some materials to cross, but prevents others from
crossing. In most parts of the body, the smallest blood vessels, called capillaries, are lined with endothelial cells. Endothelial tissue
has small spaces between each individual cell so substances can move readily between the inside and the outside of the vessel.
However, in the brain, the endothelial cells fit tightly together and substances cannot pass out of the bloodstream. (Some molecules,
such as glucose, are transported out of the blood by special methods.)
Glial cells (astrocytes) form a layer around brain blood vessels and may be important in the development
of the BBB. Astrocytes may be also be responsible for transporting ions from the brain to the blood.
Functions of the BBB
The BBB has several important functions:
1. Protects the brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may injure the brain.
2. Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body.
3. Maintains a constant environment for the brain.

General Properties of the BBB
1. Large molecules do not pass through the BBB easily.
2. Low lipid (fat) soluble molecules do not penetrate into the brain. However, lipid soluble molecules, such as barbituate
drugs, rapidly cross through into the brain.
3. Molecules that have a high electrical charge are slowed.

The BBB can be broken down by:
1. Hypertension (high blood pressure): high blood pressure opens the BBB.
2. Development: the BBB is not fully formed at birth.
3. Hyperosmolitity: a high concentration of a substance in the blood can open the BBB.
4. Microwaves: exposure to microwaves can open the BBB.
5. Radiation: exposure to radiation can open the BBB.
6. Infection: exposure to infectious agents can open the BBB.
7. Trauma, Ischemia, Inflammation, Pressure: injury to the brain can open the BBB.
Circumventricular Organs
There are several areas of the brain where the BBB is weak. This allows substances to cross into the brain somewhat freely. These
areas are known as "circumventricular organs". Through the circumventricular organs the brain is able to monitor the makeup of the
blood. The circumventricular organs include:
Pineal body: Secretes melatonin and neuroactive peptides. Associated with circadian rhythms.
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary): Releases neurohormones like oxytocin and vasopressin into the blood.
Area postrema: "Vomiting center": when a toxic substance enters the bloodstream it will get to the area postrema and may
cause the animal to throw up. In this way, the animal protects itself by eliminating the toxic substance from its stomach
before more harm can be done.
Subfornical organ: Important for the regulation of body fluids.
Vascular organ of the lamina terminalis: A chemosensory area that detects peptides and other molecules.
Median eminence: Regulates anterior pituitary through release of neurohormones


25. What REM is associated with?
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is a stage of sleep characterized by the rapid and random movement of the eyes. Rapid
eye movement sleep is classified into two categories: tonic and phasic. Criteria for REM sleep includes rapid eye movement,
low muscle tone and a rapid, low-voltage EEG; these features are easily discernible in a polysomnogram, the sleep study
typically done for patients with suspected sleep disorders.
REM sleep typically occupies 2025% of total sleep, about 90120 minutes of a night's sleep. REM sleep normally occurs
close to morning. During a night of sleep, one usually experiences about four or five periods of REM sleep; they are quite
short at the beginning of the night and longer toward the end. Many animals and some people tend to wake, or experience
a period of very light sleep, for a short time immediately after a bout of REM. The relative amount of REM sleep varies
considerably with age. A newborn baby spends more than 80% of total sleep time in REM. During REM, the activity of the
brain's neurons is quite similar to that during waking hours; for this reason, the REM-sleep stage may be called paradoxical
sleep


26. Where in the spinal cord is the grey matter and white matter found? Where in the brain is it found?
Grey matter is a major component of the central nervous system,
consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and both
unmyelinated axons and myelinated axons), glial cells (astroglia
and oligodendrocytes) and capillaries.
Grey matter is a major component of the central nervous
system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites
and both unmyelinated axons and myelinated axons), glial cells
(astroglia and oligodendrocytes) and capillaries.
Grey matter contains neural cell bodies, in contrast to
white matter, which does not and mostly contains
myelinated axon tracts.
Grey matter contains neural cell bodies, in contrast to white
matter, which does not and mostly contains myelinated axon
tracts.
White matter - myelin
The white matter of the brain is composed of nerve fibers and myelin. The nerve fibers form the connections between the nerve
cells. Myelin is a fatty sheath wrapped around nerve fibers. The myelin sheath has two functions: insulation and acceleration of
impulse conduction. Insulation is important for the prevention of short-circuits. Through its special construction, myelin accelerates
the propagation of impulses along nerve fibers.
Myelin is an essential part of the white matter. When the myelin sheath is damaged or disappears, the conduction of impulses along
nerve fibers slows down or fails completely. Consequently, brain functions become hampered or be lost


27. Where is the subarachnoid space found?
In the central nervous system, the subarachnoid cavity (subarachnoid space) is the anatomic space between the arachnoid
membrane and pia mater.
It is occupied by spongy tissue consisting of trabeculae (delicate connective tissue filaments that extend from the arachnoid
mater and blend into the pia mater) and intercommunicating channels in which the cerebrospinal fluid is contained.


What is Huntingtons Disease? When does it first appear?
Huntington's disease is an inherited disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the
brain. Huntington's disease has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement,
thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders.
Most people with Huntington's disease develop signs and symptoms in their 40s or 50s, but the onset of disease may be
earlier or later in life. When disease onset begins before age 20, the condition is called juvenile Huntington's disease.
Earlier onset often results in a somewhat different presentation of symptoms and faster disease progression.
Medications are available to help manage the symptoms of Huntington's disease, but treatments can't prevent the
physical, mental and behavioral decline associated with the condition.


28. What is Parkinsons disease?
Parkinson's disease is a progressive disorder of the nervous system that affects your movement. It develops
gradually, sometimes starting with a barely noticeable tremor in just one hand. But while a tremor may be
the most well-known sign of Parkinson's disease, the disorder also commonly causes stiffness or slowing of
movement.
In the early stages of Parkinson's disease, your face may show little or no expression or your arms may not
swing when you walk. Your speech may become soft or slurred. Parkinson's disease symptoms worsen as
your condition progresses over time.
Although Parkinson's disease can't be cured, medications may markedly improve your symptoms. In occasional
cases, your doctor may suggest surgery to regulate certain regions of your brain and improve your symptoms.

29. Which lobes does the central sulcus separate?
Frontal and parietal

30. What is the function of the limbic area?
The limbic system is the collective name for structures in the human brain involved in emotion, motivation, and
emotional association with memory.
It affects motivation and is more active in extroverts and risk-takers than in introverts and cautious people (Evers, 499)[1].
The limbic system plays its role in the formation of memory by integrating emotional states with stored memories of
physical sensations.


31. Where is the primary auditory cortex found?

The primary auditory cortex is the part of the cerebral cortex that processes auditory information in
humans and other vertebrates. It is a part of the auditory system, performing basic and higher functions in
hearing.

It is located bilaterally, roughly at the upper sides of the temporal lobes in humans on the superior
temporal plane, within the lateral fissure and comprising parts of Heschl's gyrus and the superior temporal
gyrus,

32. What would happen if your hypothalamus were injured?
Symptoms
Symptoms are usually due to the hormones that are missing. In children, there may be growth problems --
either too much or too little growth -- or puberty that occurs too early or too late.
Tumor symptoms:
Headaches
Loss of vision
Hypothyroidism symptoms:
Cold intolerance
Constipation
Depressed mood
Fatigue
Hair or skin changes
Hoarseness
Impotence
Loss of body hair and muscle (in men)
Mental slowing
Menstrual cycle changes
Weight gain
Low adrenal function symptoms:
Dizziness
Weakness
Other, less common symptoms may include:
Body temperature problems
Emotional problems
Excess thirst
Obesity
Uncontrolled urination
Kallmann's syndrome (a type of hypothalamic dysfunction that occurs in men) symptoms:
Lowered function of sexual hormones (hypogonadism)
Inability to smell


33. What structures make up the midbrain?
The midbrain or mesencephalon (from the Greek mesos, middle, and enkephalos, brain
[1]
) is a portion of the
central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and
temperature regulation


What is involved in motor activity?
All of the body's voluntary movements are controlled by the brain. One of the brain areas most
involved in controlling these voluntary movements is the motor cortex.

The motor cortex is located in the rear
portion of the frontal lobe, just before the
central sulcus (furrow) that separates
the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
The motor cortex is divided into two
main areas, Area 4 and Area 6. Area 4,
also known as the primary motor
cortex, forms a thin band along the
central sulcus. Area 6 lies immediately
forward of Area 4. Area 6 is wider and is
further subdivided into two distinct sub-
areas.
To carry out goal-directed movements, your motor cortex must first receive various kinds of
information from the various lobes of the brain: information about the body's position in space, from
the the parietal lobe; about the goal to be attained and an appropriate strategy for attaining it, from
the anterior portion of the frontal lobe; about memories of past strategies, from the temporal lobe; and
so on.




34. Where is cerebrospinal fluid found? Where is it made?
See # 15. Made in the Choroid plexus

35. What is meningitis?
Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding your brain and
spinal cord.
The swelling associated with meningitis often triggers the "hallmark" signs and symptoms
of this condition, including headache, fever and a stiff neck.
Most cases of meningitis in the U.S. are caused by a viral infection, but bacterial and fungal
infections also can lead to meningitis. Depending on the cause of the infection, meningitis
can get better on its own in a couple of weeks or it can be a life-threatening emergency
requiring urgent antibiotic treatment.
If you suspect that you or someone in your family has meningitis, seek medical care right
away. Early treatment of bacterial meningitis can prevent serious complications.


36. Where are the following found? See #14


a. Motor speech area
b. Visual area
c. Taste (gustatory) area
d. Auditory area
e. Primary sensory cortex
f. Place of intelligence, abstract reasoning


****Go over brain parts of the brain****


39. Distinguish between the following:
a. Central Nervous System
b. Peripheral Nervous System
c. Autonomic Nervous System
d. Somatic Nervous System

40. List the major structures of a neuron and describe their function. Identify each part on a diagram.



41. What is the sheath of a Schwann cell also know as?


astrocyte - A glial cell found in the CNS named for its characteristic star-like shape with long
cytoplasmic processes which bridge neurons and capillary endothelial cells; these cells provide
both mechanical and metabolic support for neurons, regulating the environment where they
function; they contribute to the blood-brain barrier and control transport of substances from the
blood to neural tissue; they also help coordinate nerve pathway development; they develop
from embryonic ectoderm.
oligodendrocyte - A glial cell found in the CNS which is named for its characteristic limited
number of dendritic processes; those processes provide electrical insulation for a few adjacent
neurons by forming a part of the myelin sheath for their axons, and, thereby, increasing the
speed of transmission of action potentials along that axon (saltatory conduction); they develop
from embryonic ectoderm.
microglia cell - A glial cell found in the CNS named for its characteristic small size; these cells
are derived from mesoderm and provide a protective function to nervous tissue in that they can
become phagocytic.
ependymal cell - The simple squamous cells forming the linings of the ventricles of the brain
and the central canal of the spinal cord; any ependymal cell is capable of contributing to the
production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) but the vast majority of CSF is produced in the several
specialized regions, the choroid plexuses, within the ventricles by a combination of plasma
filtration and secretion.
Schwann cell = neurolemmocyte - A glial cell of the peripheral nervous system which
provides a small region of electrical insulation for one or a few neurons by forming a part of the
myelin sheath for their axons, and, thereby, increasing the speed of transmission of action
potentials along that axon (saltatory conduction); they develop from embryonic ectoderm.




42. Explain the importance of the myelin sheath.


43. What does a neurotransmitter do?


44. Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons


45. Describe the effects of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.


46. What are reflexes a result of? stimulus


47. Describe the organization of the nervous system.


48. What is the function of the various glial cells?



Cranial nerves function (matching)
Look over function of brain parts chart
Know reflex arcs, conduction of a nerve impulse, neurotransmitters, structure of a neuron & synapse,
brain injuries, structure and organization of the nervous system, structure of the spinal cord

The Brain
Meninges (dura mater, pia mater, arachnoid mater, subarachnoid space)
Ventricles (lateral, third, fourth, choroid plexus, cerebral aqueduct, central canal)
Cerebrum cortex, medulla, basal nuclei
Cerebellum arbor vitae, vermis
Diencephalon thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
Brain stem midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata,
Meninges
Dura mater (meningeal layer, periosteal layer, dural sinus)
Arachnoid layer (subarachnoid space)
Flow of CSF
Lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, insula, occipital)
Fissures (longitudinal, transverse)
Sulci (lateral, central)
Gyri (precentral, postcentral)
Primary sensory cortices
Premotor cortex
Prefrontal cortex
Speech and language areas (Brocas area, Wernickes area)
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus/pineal gland
Brain stem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Functional Brain Systems
Limbic (structures)