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Light Reaction
Photosynthesis
During the light reaction, chlorophyll captures light energy which excites the electrons of
chlorophyll molecules to higher energy levels. In the excited state, the electrons leave the
chlorophyll molecules. Light energy is also used to split the water molecules into hydrogen
ions and hydroxyl ions. This reaction is known as the photolysis of water.
24H2O ! 24H++ 24OH-
(light and chlorophyll)
The hydrogen ions then combine with the electrons released by the chlorophyll to form
hydrogen atoms.
24H++24e-!24H
The energy from the excited electrons is used to form energy-rich molecules of ATP. At the
same time, each hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form a hydroxyl group. This electron is then
received by the chlorophyll.
24OH-!24OH+24e-
The hydroxyl groups then combine to form water and gaseous oxygen.
24OH!12H2O+6O2
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular respiration. The ATP molecules
provide energy while the hydrogen atoms provide reducing power for the dark reaction which
takes place in the stroma.
Dark Reaction
The dark reaction is also known as the Calvin cycle. It is light independent. During the dark
reaction, the hydrogen atoms are used to fix carbon dioxide in a series of reactions catalysed
by photosynthetic enzymes. The overall reaction results in the reduction of carbon dioxide
into glucose.
6CO2+24H!6(CH2O)+6H2O
(CH2O) is a basic unit of glucose. Six units of it combine to form one molecule of glucose.
The glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form starch which is temporarily stored
as starch grains in the chloroplast. The entire process can be represented by the following
equation.
6H2O+6CO2!C6H12O6+6O2
Aerobic Respiration
Respiration
Aerobic respiration requires a continuous supply of oxygen from the air or water surrounding
the organism. Oxygen that is taken in is delivered by the blood circulatory system to the body
cells. In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidised by oxygen to release energy. Aerobic
respiration can be summarised by the following chemical equation:
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C6H12O6+6O2!6CO2+6H2O+2898kJ
Aerobic respiration involves the oxidation of glucose in the presence of oxygen to carbon
dioxide, water and energy. Organisms that respire aerobically are called aerobic organisms.
Aerobic respiration releases all the available energy stored within the glucose molecules. The
entire process does not only involve a single chemical reaction, but also driven by a sequence
of complex biochemical reactions which are catalysed by the respiratory enzymes. The energy
stored within the glucose molecules are released gradually. This is far more useful to the
organism than a sudden release of energy.
Only a small portion of energy is lost in maintaining the body temperature. A larger portion
of the energy is used to synthesise ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. ATP which is an
instant source of energy is the main supply for all living cells. Each ATP molecule consists of
three phosphate groups and the phosphate bonds can be easily broken down to release
energy.
Anaerobic Respiration
During vigorous exercise such as running a race, the muscles initially respire aerobically.
However, the muscles soon used up all the available oxygen. In spite of the increased
breathing rate and heartbeat rate, the blood cannot supply oxygen fast enough to meet their
requirements. The rate at which oxygen is used by the muscles exceeds the amount of oxygen
supplied by the blood. The muscles are in a state of oxygen deficiency, and an oxygen debt is
incurred.
As such, the muscles obtain extra energy from anaerobic respiration because oxygen is not
available. During anaerobic respiration, the glucose molecules break down partially into an
immediate substance called lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide and water. Because glucose
is not completely broken down, the energy released during anaerobic respiration is much less
than the energy released during aerobic respiration. In fact, for every molecule of glucose,
anaerobic respiration releases only two molecules of ATP or 150kJ of energy per mole of
glucose. In contrast, aerobic respiration generates 38 molecules of ATP or 2898kJ of energy
per mole of glucose. Thus, in terms of energy yield, anaerobic respiration is less efficient than
aerobic respiration.
Much of the energy is still trapped within the molecules of lactic acid. The accumulation of
lactic acid can reach a high level of concentration which can cause muscle cramps and
fatigue. This contributes to the exhaustion a person feels during and after a period of intense
exercise. The person needs to breathe more deeply and rapidly in order to inhale more
oxygen. The excess oxygen is used by the body to oxidise the accumulated lactic acid to
carbon dioxide and water.
Oxidation of lactic acid occurs mainly in the liver where a portion of it is oxidised to produce
energy while the remaining ones is converted into glycogen for storage in the muscle cells.
The oxygen debt is paid off when all the lactic acid is removed. This happens through the
increased breathing rate after vigorous exercise. Therefore, an oxygen debt is the amount of
oxygen needed to remove lactic acid from the muscle cells.
Digestion
Ruminant
When a cow feeds on grass, it partially chews the grass. This partially chewed food is
swallowed into the rumen, the largest compartment of the stomach. Here, cellulose is broken
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down by the cellulose produced by symbiotic microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa.
Part of the breakdown products are absorbed by the bacteria and protozoa, the rest by the
cow.
As the food enters the reticulum, the cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis. The content of
the reticulum, called the cud, is then regurgitated bit by bit into the mouth to be thoroughly
chewed again. This process helps soften and break down cellulose, making it more accessible
to further microbial action in other parts of the stomach.
The cud is then re-swallowed and moves into the omasum. Here, large particles of food are
broken down into smaller pieces by peristalsis. Water is removed from the cud. The food
particles finally move into the abomasums, the true stomach of the cow. Here, gastric juices
containing digestive enzymes complete the digestion of proteins and other food substances.
The food then passes through the small intestine to be digested and absorbed in the normal
way.
Rodents
In rodents like squirrels, the caecum and appendix are enlarged to store the cellulose-
producing bacteria. The breakdown products pass through the alimentary canal twice. The
faeces in the first batch are usually produced at night and are soft and watery. Those are
eaten again to enable the animals to absorb the products of bacterial breakdown as they pass
through the alimentary canal for the second time. The second batch of faeces becomes drier
and harder.
This adaptation allows squirrels to recover the nutrients initially loss with the faeces.
Colonisation and Succession
Definition
*Colonisation: is the process whereby living organisms move into a newly formed area which
is devoid of life.
*Succession: is the gradual process by which one community changed its environment so that
it is replaced by another community.
Mangrove Swamp
The pioneer species of a mangrove swamp are the Sonneratia sp and Avicennia sp. The
presence of these species gradually changes the physical environment of the habitat. The
extensive root systems of these plants trap and collect sediments, including organic matters
from decaying plant parts. As time passes, the soil becomes more compact and firm. This
condition favours the growth of the Rhizophora sp. Gradually, the Rhizophora sp replaces the
pioneer species. The seeds of the Rhizophora sp show distinct viviparity. The prop root system
of the Rhizophora sp traps silt and mud, creating a firmer soil structure overtime.
The ground becomes higher. As a result, the soil is drier because it is less submerged by sea
water. The condition now becomes more suitable for another mangrove species, the
Bruguiera sp, which replaces the Rhizophora sp. The buttress root system of the Bruguiera sp
forms loops which extend from the soil to trap more silt and mud. As more sediment is
deposited, the shore extends further to the sea. The old shore is now further away from the
sea and is like terrestrial ground. Over time, terrestrial plants like the nipah palm and
Pandanus sp begin to replace the Bruguiera sp. The gradual transition and succession from a
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mangrove swamp to a terrestrial forest and eventually to a tropical rainforest, which is a
climax community, takes a long time. That is why we need to conserve and preserve our
mangrove forest.
Pond
Succession in a disused pond begins with the growth of pioneer species such as
phytoplankton, algae and submerged plants like the Hydrilla sp, Cabomba sp and Elodea sp.
These plants have special adaptive features which enable them to colonise the pond. Their
fibrous roots penetrate deep into the soil to absorb nutrients and bind sand particles together.
Plenty of sunlight penetrates through the clear water to allow photosynthesis to take place.
When the pioneer species die and decompose, more organic nutrients are released into
the pond. The organic matter is converted into humus at the pond base. The humus and soil
which erode from the sides of the pond are deposited on the base of the pond, making the
pond shallower.
The condition becomes more unfavourable for submerged plants but more suitable for
floating plants such as duckweeds (Lemna sp), water hyacinths (Eichornia sp) and lotus
plants (Nelumbium sp). These plants float freely on the surface of the water. Since these
plants receive sunlight directly and can reproduce rapidly by vegetative propagation, they
spread to cover a large area of the water surface and prevent sunlight from reaching the
submerged plants. As a result, the submerged plants die because they cannot photosynthesise.
The decomposed remains of the submerged plants add more organic matter on the base of the
pond. At the same time, more erosion occurs at the edge which results in more sediments
being deposited on the base of the pond. As a result, the pond becomes more and more
shallow which makes it unsuitable for the floating plants.
The floating plants are subsequently replaced by emergent (amphibious) plants which can
live in water as well as on land, for example, sedges and cattails. The rhizomes of these plants
grow horizontally across the habitat. Their extensive roots bind the soil particles together and
penetrate deeply to absorb more mineral salts. These plants spread rapidly and colonise the
habitat, changing it. The emergent plants grow from the edge of the pond towards the middle
of the pond as the pond becomes shallower. When these plants die, their decomposed remains
add to the sediments on the base of the pond. This further reduces the depth of the pond. The
condition of the pond now becomes more favourable for land plants like small herbaceous
weeds, for example, Ageratum conyzoides, Euphorbia hirta and Oldentandia dichotoma. As
time passes, the land becomes drier and the pond dries up. Land plants such as shrubs,
bushes and woody plants become more numerous. A primary forest emerges and eventually
turns into a tropical rainforest which is also known as a climax community.
Cell Division
Mitosis
The two major phases mainly interphase and mitotic cell division also known as the M phase
which consists of mitosis and cytokinesis begins and ends according to the cell cycle. Mitosis
begins with interphase. Interphase is divided into three shorter stages, G1, S and G2. In G1
phase, the cell synthesises protein and new cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and
chloroplast. The chromosomes are not condensed and appear as thread-like structures called
chromatin. In S phase, however, synthesis of DNA occurs. This means that the DNA in the
nucleus undergoes replication. Each duplicated chromosome now consists of two identical
sister chromatid which contain identical copies of the chromosomes DNA molecule. The cell
continues to grow and remain metabolically active during G2 stage as a preparation for cell
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division. Interphase
is followed by the M phase which contains mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis can further
subdivided into four phases mainly prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
The mitosis in an animal cell begins with prophase. During prophase, the chromosomes in the
nucleus condense and become more tightly coiled. The chromosomes appear shorter and
thicker. Each chromosome now consists of a pair of sister chromatids joined together at the
centromere. In the cytoplasm, spindle fibres begin to form and extend between the centrioles.
Each pair of centrioles then migrates to lie at the opposite poles of the cell. The chromatids
are attached to the fibres of the spindle by their centromeres. In most plant cell, the spindle
fibre forms without the presence of centrioles. At the end of prophase, the nucleolus
disappears and the nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Metaphase begins when the centromeres of all the chromosomes are lined up on the
metaphase plate, an imaginary plane across the middle of the cell. The mitotic spindles is
now fully formed. The two sister chromatids are still attached to one another at the
centromere. Metaphase ends when the centromeres divide. During anaphase, two sister
chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere. The sister chromatids are pulled
apart to the opposite poles by the shortening of the spindle fibres that connect the
centromeres to the poles. Once separated, the chromatids are referred to as daughter
chromosomes. By the end of anaphase, the two poles of the cell have completed and have
equivalent sets of chromosomes.
Telophase begins when the two sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell. The
chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to their extended state (chromatin). The chromosomes
become less visible. The spindle fibres disappear and a new nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes. The nucleolus also reforms in each nucleus; the process of mitosis
is now completed. Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm occurs towards the end of
telophase. In animal cell, the actin filaments in cytoplasm contracts to pull a cleavage furrow.
The cleavage furrow pinches at the equator of the cell and deepens progressively until the
cell is separated into two daughter cells. Although plant cells undergo the same stages of
mitosis as in animal cells, cytokinesis in plant cells us markedly different. A cleavage furrow
does not form. Instead, membrane enclosed vesicles fuse to form a cell plate. The cell plate
grows outwards until its edges fuse with the plasma membrane of the parent cell. New cell
walls and plasma membranes are formed from the contents of the cell plate, which eventually
divide the cell into two daughter cells. At the end of cytokineses, cellulose fibres are produces
by the cell to strengthen the new cell walls. After cytokinesis, the new cells enter the G1 stage
of interphase, thus completing the cell cycle. Each daughter cell contains diploid number of
chromosomes.
Meiosis
Meiosis only occurs in gametes which are reproductive cells. This is because meiosis is a
reduction division of diploid cells to produce haploid sex gametes. Meiosis begins with a
single duplication of chromosomes in the parent cells, followed by two cycles of nuclear and
cell division mainly meiosis I and meiosis II.
In meiosis I, basically, the chromosomes begin to condense. They become shorter, thicker and
clearly visible. Unlike mitosis, the homologous chromosomes come together to form bivalents
through a process called synapse. Each bivalent is visible under the microscope as a four-
part structure called a tetrad. A tetrad consists of two homologous chromosomes, each made
up of two sister chromatids. Non sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA in a process
known as crossing over. Crossing over results in a new combination of genes on a
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chromosome. The points at which segments of chromatids cross over are called chiasmata. At
the end of prophase I, the nucleolus and the nuclear membrane disappear. The two pairs of
centrioles migrate to the opposite poles of the cells. Each pair of centrioles acts as a central
point from which the spindle fibres radiate.
In metaphase I, the chromosomes are lined up side by side as tetrads on the metaphase plate.
The chromosomes are still in homologous pairs. The chromosome of each pair is attached to
the spindle fibres from one pole while its homologue is attached to the fibre from the opposite
pole. The centromere does not divide. During anaphase I, the spindle fibres pull the
homologous chromosomes away from one another and move them to the opposite poles of the
cell. Each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids which move as a single unit.
Although the cell started with four chromosomes, only two chromosomes move towards each
pole. Next will be telophase I. The chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each pole now has
haploid daughter nucleus because it contains only one set of chromosomes. The spindle fibres
disappear. The nuclear membrane reappears to surround each set of chromosomes. The
nucleolus then reappears in each nucleus. Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with
telophase I, resulting in two haploid daughter cells, and each receiving one chromosome
from the homologous pair. Hence, another cell division is required as the chromosomes are
still duplicated.
Meiosis II follows immediately after cytokinesis, no interphase between them. DNA
replication does not occur again and the chromosomes remained in a condensed state. In
prophase II, the nuclear membrane of the daughter cells disintegrates again. The spindle
fibres reform in each daughter cell. During metaphase II, the chromosomes each still make
up of sister chromatids, are positioned randomly on the metaphase plate with the sister
chromatids of each centromere pointing towards the opposite poles. Each sister chromatid is
attached to the spindle fibres at the centromere. In anaphase II, however, the centromeres of
the sister chromatids finally separated and the sister chromatids of each chromosome are
now individual chromosomes. The chromosomes move towards the opposite poles of the cell.
Lastly in telophase II, the nucleoli and the nuclear membrane reform. The spindle fibres
break down. Cytokinesis follows
and four haploid daughter cells are formed, each containing half the number of chromosomes
and is genetically different from the parent diploid cell. These haploid cells will develop into
gametes.
Tissue Culture Technique
A small piece of a plants leaf, shoot, bud, stem or root tissues are cut out. These cut out
plants tissues are called explants. Alternatively, enzymes are used to digest the cell walls of
tissues, for example, the mesophyll tissue from a leaf. This result in naked cells without cell
walls called protoplasts. The explants or protoplasts are sterilised and then placed in a glass
container which contains a nutrient solution with a fixed chemical composition. A culture
medium or growth medium normally consists of a complex mixture of glucose, amino acids,
minerals, and other substances required for the growth of the tissues. The culture medium
and the apparatus used must be in a sterile condition and free from microorganisms which
can contaminate the tissue culture. The pH and the temperature of the culture medium also
need to be maintained at optimum levels.
The explants or protoplasts begin to divide by mitosis. Cell division produces aggregates of
cells. The aggregates of cells develop into a callus, an undifferentiated mass of tissue. The
callus develops into a somatic embryo. The embryo develops into a plantlet which can later
be transferred to the soil for growth into an adult plant. All the plantlets produced this way
are genetically identical. Therefore, all the adult plants that develop from them share the
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same traits.
Cancer
When a cell divides by mitosis repeatedly without control and regulation, it can produce
cancer cells. Cancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis due to severe disruption to
the mechanism that controls the cycle. Cancer cells divide freely and uncontrollably without
heeding the cell cycle control system. Cancer cells compete with the surrounding normal cells
to obtain sufficient nutrients and energy for their own growth. A cancer cell that is not
destroyed will divide uncontrollably to form a tumour, an abnormal mass of cells. Cancer
cells can intrude on and spread to other tissues which then lead to the malfunction of the
tissues and ultimately death.
Cancer can be caused by many factors such as damage to the DNA, changes in genes
(mutation) that control cell division, ionising radiation, for example, X- rays, ultraviolet rays
and gamma rays, certain chemical compounds like tar in tobacco smoke or carcinogenic
(cancer-causing) compounds such as formaldehyde.
Reproduction
Menstrual cycle is the monthly cycle of ovulation and menstruation. This cycle causes
changes in the thickeninig of the endometrium or uterus wall every 28 days, beginning
puberty until menopause. It is regulated by a few hormones mainly:
Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH) Produced by: Pituitary gland Function:
Stimulates the development of follicles in the ovary
Luteinising Hormone (LH) Produced by: Pituitary gland Function: Stimulates
ovulation, the development of corpus luteum and promotes the secretion of
progesterone
Oestrogen Produced by: Follicle cells of the ovary Function: Stimulates further
growth of the follicles, promotes the repair of the endometrium, from about the 12th
day of the menstrual cycle, it has a positive feedback action on the secretion of the
FSH and LH
Progesterone Produced by: Corpus luteum Function: Stimulates the endometrium
to become thick, folded and highly vascular (enriched with blood vessels) for the
implantation of embryo; inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH to prevent the
development of the graafian follicle and ovulation Menstrual cycle involves two
process mainly the breakdown of the endometrium and the formation of an ovum. On
day 1-5, FSH stimulates the development of primary follicle to produce a Graafian
follicle. FSH stimulates the follicle cells and ovary tissues to secrete oestrogen to
heal and repait the uterus lining. This only takes place in the ovary. On the other
hand, menstruation occurs in the uterus where blood is discharged from the vagina.
This is when the uterus lining breakdown. On day 6-13, in the ovary, the graafian
follicle matures. Oestrogen and progesterone level continue to increase. Till a certain
point, the oestrogen will stop the pituitary gland from producing FSH and is
stimulated to produce LH. In the uterus, the endometrium wall is repaired and
thickens. On day 14, LH causes ovulation and the formation of corpus luteum from
the follicle cells. In the uterus, however, the endometrium continues to thickens. On
day 15-24, the corpus luteum develops and releases progesterone which stimulates
the thickening of the endometrium. In the uterus, the endometrium becomes thicker
and more blood vessels are present.
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On day 25-28, if there is no fertilisation, then there will not be any implantation. Thus, the
corpus luteum degenerates causing the level of progesterone to decrease and halt. In the
uterus, the endometrium begins to break down and menstruation occurs. The menstrual cycle
continues. However, if fertilisation happens, a zygote will be implanted in the endometrium.
The corpus luteum will continue to secrete oestrogen and progesterone until the placenta is
formed to replace it. The presence of hormone progesterone inhibits the production of FSH
and LH, this cause the menstrual cycle to stop during pregnancy.
Formation of Embryo Sac in the Ovule
The ovule develops from the ovarian tissue. It has a diploid embryo sac mother cell (2n).
Each ovule consists of protective outer layers of cells called the integuments. The embryo sac
mother cell (2n) undergoes meiosis to form a row of four haploid cells called megaspores (n).
Three of the four megaspores degenerate, leaving one in the ovule. The megaspore continues
to grow and enlarges filling up most of the ovule. The nucleus of the three megaspores then
undergoes mitosis three times to form eight haploid nuclei. Three of the eight nuclei migrate
to one end of the cell to form antipodal cells. Another two nuclei, called the polar nuclei,
move to the centre. One of the three nuclei nearest the opening of the ovule (micropyle)
develops into an egg cell or female gamete, flanked by two synergid cells. The structure
formed is known as the embryo sac. It is where the embryo will develop. The ovule, which
eventually becomes a seed, now consists of the embryo sac and the surrounding integuments.
*Eight cells have no cell walls; synergid cells provide nutrient and support to egg cell;
integuments form protective layers around embryo sac.
Formation of Pollen Tube, Zygote and Triploid Nucleus
Pollination is the process in which mature pollen grains from the anther are transferred to
the stigma of a flower. A pollen grain on a stigma initiates the fertilisation process. The
secretion of sucrose solution in the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate and form
a tube known as the pollen tube. The pollen tube grows through the tissues of the style into
the ovule. During the growth of pollen tube, the generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form
two male gamete nuclei. The male nuclei follow the tube nucleus down the pollen tube. When
the pollen tube reaches the ovary, it penetrates the ovule through the micropyle. The tube
nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the tube bursts, leaving the passage for the male nuclei to
enter the embryo sac.
Double fertilisation, which is unique for angiosperms, occurs within the ovule. This process
involves the union of the two male gametes nuclei with different nuclei of the embryo sac. One
male gamete nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus, forming a diploid zygote (2n). The other
male gamete nucleus fuses with the two
polar nuclei, forming a triploid nucleus (3n). The division of the tripod nucleus will give rise
to the endosperm, the food-storing tissue of the seed. The synergid cells and the antipodal cell
will degenerates.
The Lymphatic System Formation and Composition of Interstitial Fluid
Blood that enters the arterial end of the capillaries is under high pressure. This is because the
blood capillaries have a smaller diameter than the arterioles and arteries. This blood
pressure causes fluid to leak continuously from the blood plasma into the spaces between the
cells. This fluid is known as interstitial fluid. The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the
cells and constantly bathes the cells. The exchange of substances between the blood
capillaries and the body cells occurs in the interstitial fluid. Nutrients and oxygen diffuses
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from the blood through the interstitial fluid into the body cells while carbon dioxide and other
waste products diffuse from the body cells through the interstitial fluid into the blood.
Interstitial fluid consists of water, dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste products, gases and
small proteins from the blood. Leucocytes ooze through the openings in the capillary walls.
Interstitial fluid does not contain plasma proteins (albumin, globulin and fibrinogen),
erythrocytes and platelets because these are too large to pass through the capillary walls.
About 85% of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of the capillary re-enters at
the venous end. The interstitial fluid must be returned to the circulatory system to maintain
the normal blood volume. About 15% of the fluid that is still remains in the interstitial space
is equivalent to about 4 litres of fluid lost from the blood capillaries each day. The fluid loss
is returned to the blood through the lymphatic system.
*The higher BP at the arterial end forces fluid out of blood capillary; the lower BP at the
venous end allows fluid to re-enter the blood capillaries.
Dynamic Ecosystem
Nitrogen Cycle
To build proteins, plants need the element nitrogen. The nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is
about 78% but plants are not able to utilize the nitrogen. This is because the nitrogen has to
be fixed before it can be absorbed by the plants. Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Nostoc sp,
Azotobacter) which live in the root nodule of leguminous plant can convert nitrogen in the
atmosphere into ammonia. Nitrosomonas converts/oxidises ammonia into nitrites. Nitrobacter
oxidises/converts nitrites into nitrates. Nitrites and Nitrates can be absorbed by the plants as
their nitrogen source. The plants protein is transferred to the
animals when consumed by the animals. The animals and plants proteins are transferred to
human when consumed.
Blood
Blood Clotting Mechanism
Blood clotting mechanism involves a complex series of biochemical reactions in the blood to
prevent excessive loss of blood after an injury. When you get a cut, the blood vessels around
the wound immediately constrict to reduce blood loss. Exposed tissues, the collagens interact
with the blood coagulation proteins to start the coagulation process. Platelets become
activated as it begins to adhere to the wall of the blood vessel at the side of bleeding. They
form a temporary platelet plug. The adhered platelets undergo de- granulation and release
cytoplasmic granules. The cytoplasmic granules attract more platelets to the area. While the
platelets form the temporary plug, other blood proteins congregate on the damaged blood
vessels to reinforce the clot. The interaction of the different blood clotting factors such as
Factor VIII and platelets produces prothrombin. Prothrombin acts together with calcium ions
and vitamin K to form an active plasma protein called thrombin. Thrombin transforms a
protein called fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrin surrounds the platelet plug, creating a fibrin
mesh. The fibrin mesh is more stable than the temporary platelet plug. Over the next few
days, the fibrin mesh or blood clot strengthens even more, protecting the blood vessels from
further damage or blood loss. After the injury heals, the body has to remove the fibrin clot. A
protein called plasmin is formed to dissolve fibrin. The blood clot is slowly removed with the
help of plasmin.
Impaired Musculoskeletal System
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Muscle cramps
A muscle cramp is a sudden contraction of one or more muscles which result in a sudden,
intense pain and an inability to use the affected muscles. A muscle cramp is an involuntary,
forcibly contracted muscle that is not able to relax. When the cramp begins, the spinal cord
stimulates the muscle to keep contracting. The muscle groups usually affected are the back of
the lower leg or the calf, the back of the thigh (hamstrings) or the front of the thigh (the
quadriceps). A cramp can last from a few seconds to 15 minutes or more. Muscle cramps are
very common among endurance athletes and older people who perform strenuous exercises.
Usually, inadequate stretching and muscle fatigue lead to abnormalities in the mechanisms
that control muscle contractions.
Muscular Dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is caused by the progressive degeneration and weakening of the skeletal
muscles that control movement. The body muscles gradually become weak as they are
replaced by fibrous tissue. This disease is caused by a mutated gene in the X chromosome and
mainly affects boys. At present, there is no cure for muscular dystrophy.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a common bone disorder which causes the bones to become thinner, more
brittle and more porous. It is a common disease among elderly women. The loss of bone mass
normally begins after the age of 30 years and accelerates greatly after the age of 45 years. It
particularly affects women after menopause, when changes in hormone levels (especially
oestrogen level) reduce bone strength. During the course of an individuals life, the body
needs phosphate and calcium to build bones. If the dietary intake of these minerals is not
sufficient, or if the body does not absorb enough of these minerals from the diet, bone
production and bone tissue will suffer, resulting in brittle and fragile bones. These bones are
easily subjected to fracture. The loss of bone mass occurs gradually over an extended period
of time. Most people are not even aware that they have osteoporosis until a bone is fractured
because there are no symptoms or early signs of osteoporosis. Symptoms that manifest over
the years include fractures of the vertebrae, wrists or hips; a reduction in height over time
and a stooped posture. Osteoporosis can be prevented by taking adequate amounts of
calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D. Regular exercise can also reduce the likelihood of bone
fractures and help reduce bone mineral loss. Although there is no cure for osteoporosis,
medications can slow down the loss of bone mineral.
Arthritis
Arthritis refers to a group of skeletal disorders that involve inflammation of the joint. The
joints become swollen, stiff and painful. One form of arthritis is osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis
is part of the ageing process caused by the wear and tear of the cartilage between the bones
inside certain joints. The ageing process may also result in a decreased production of the
synovial fluid in the joints. The patient usually suffers from a painful and stiff knee which
restricts daily activities like walking and climbing stairs. If treatment fails to relieve pain, a
surgeon can replace the damaged joints with artificial ones made of plastic or metal.
Respiration & Circulation Human Respiratory System
During inhalation, the external intercostals muscles contract while the internal intercostals
muscles relax. This action causes the ribcage to move upwards and outwards. At the same
time, the diaphragm muscles contract. The diaphragm lowers and flattens. These two actions
cause the volume of the thoracic cavity to increase, and the pressure of the thoracic cavity
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decreases. Higher atmospheric pressure on the outside forces the air to enter the lungs.
During exhalation, the external intercostals muscles relax while the internal intercostals
muscles contract. This action causes the rib cage to move downwards and inwards. At the
same time, the diaphragm muscles relax. The diaphragm curves upwards (dome-shaped).
These two actions cause the volume of the thoracic cavity to decrease, and the pressure of the
thoracic cavity increases. Higher atmospheric pressure inside the lungs forces the ait out of
the lungs.
Alveoli & Gaseous Exchange
Gaseous exchange happens between the alveolus and the blood capillaries through diffusion.
The oxygen concentration or partial pressure of oxygen, PO2 in the alveolus is higher than
the blood capillaries. Blood capillaries carry carbon dioxide from body cells to the alveolus.
So, it has a higher partial
pressure of carbon dioxide, PCO2 compared to the air in the alveolus. Carbon dioxide
diffuses into the alveolus and then it is breathed out through the nose or mouth. Oxygen
diffuses into the blood capillaries from the lungs and combines with haemoglobin to form
oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin is the red pigment in RBC. Oxygen in the form of
oxyhaemoglobin is carried to the cells and tissues. Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable so it will
breakdown into haemoglobin and oxygen when it reaches the cell or tissue with lower PO2.
Carbon dioxide is given out by cell as waste products of cellular respiration. This carbon
dioxide is transported out of the cell by a few means. 7% of them dissolve in blood plasma,
23% of them binds with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin, a type of multiple
amino while 70% of them are carried with bicarbonate ions.
CO2+H2O!H2CO3!H++HCO3-
*with the presence of carbonic anhydrase
(HCO3)Blood plasma!lungs!nose (HCO3!CO2+H2O)
The Regulatory Mechanism of Carbon Dioxide Content in the Body
During vigorous exercise, partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases as there is active
cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The higher
carbon dioxide concentration level in the blood results in a drop in the pH value of the blood
and tissue fluid (cerebrospinal fluid) bathing the brain.
CO2+H2O!H++HCO3-
This drop of pH is detected by the receptors include the central chemoreceptors located in the
medulla oblongata and the perisheral chemoreceptors which are sensitive to both the carbon
dioxide content and the pH of the blood. The perispheral chemoreceptors are the aortic
bodies found within the aortic bodies found within the aortic arch and the carotid bodies at
the carotid arteries. Central and perispheral chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the
respiratory centre. The diaphragm and the intercostals muscles are the effectors in this case.
When impulse reaches the effectors, the respiratory muscles contract and relax at a faster
rate. As a result, the breathing rate and ventilation rate increase. As excess carbon dioxide is
eliminated from the body, the carbon dioxide concentration and the pH value of the blood
return to the normal level.
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The Regulatory Mechanism of Oxygen Content in the Body
The oxygen content in the blood usually has little effect on the breathing control centre. The
perispheral chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies and the carotid bodies will only be
stimulated if the oxygen level is very low, for example
at very high altitudes. Usually a rise in the carbon dioxide concentration is a better indication
of a drop in the oxygen concentration because both carbon dioxide and oxygen are involved
in the same process, that is, cellular respiration.
At high altitude, the decrease in concentration of oxygen in blood is detected by perispheral
chemoreceptors. Nerve impulses are sent to the respiratory centre. This causes the diaphragm
and intercostals muscles to contract and relax at a faster rate. Thus, breathing rate and
ventilation rate increases so that more oxygen is inhale to make the concentration of oxygen
in the blood to return to normal.
Rate of Respiration & the Gases content in Blood
When an individual does an activity, the body cells require more energy. This causes the rate
of respiration to increase. When PO2 decreases while PCO2 increases, the rate and depth of
breathing also increases. The breathing rate increases will cause the increase of ventilation
rate so that the rate of gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries increases.
Lastly, the heartbeat rate increases causes more blood to be pumped into the circulation so
that more oxygen can reach the cell to oxidise glucose for energy and also to remove the
carbon dioxide from the cells to the air.
Compensation Point
Compensation point is the light intensity at which the rate of carbon dioxide production
during respiration is equal to the carbon dioxide consumption during photosynthesis.
Genetics Genetic Modification of Bacteria in the Mass Production of Insulin
An enzyme is used to isolate and cut the bacterial plasmid. A plasmid is a circular DNA found
in bacteria. The human gene that codes the production of insulin is isolated and inserted into
the vector plasmid. An enzyme is used to incorporate the gene into the plasmid. The human
gene together with the bacterial plasmid (called recombinant DNA) is inserted into the
bacterial cell. The bacteria are cultured in a bioreactor. The plasmids are replicated as the
bacteria divide asexually (producing clones) and make identical copies of themselves, all
carrying the new gene that is capable of producing human insulin. The insulin produced in
large quantities, purified and separated. This is a cost-effective way of producing sufficient
amounts of insulin.
Variation Comparison between Continuous &Discontinuous Variation
i. Similarities
Both continuous and discontinuous variation creates varieties in the population of a species.
Both variations are caused by environment factors or genetic factors or both. Variation that
is caused by genetic factors can be inherited. This too can promote a higher survival rate in
the formation of new species/individual.
ii. Differences
Continuous variation is a type of variation in which the differences in a character are not
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distinctive while discontinuous variation is a type of variation in which the differences in a
character are distinctive. Height and weight are continuous variation as while blood group,
fingerprint patterns, haemophilia and albinism are discontinuous variation. Continuous
variation exhibits a spectrum of phenotypes with intermediate characters while discontinuous
variation exhibits a few distinctive phenotypes with no intermediate characters.
Continuous variation has characters that are quantitative, they can be measured and graded
from one extreme to the other while discontinuous variation has characters that are
qualitative, they cannot be measured or graded from one extreme to the other. Continuous
variation is represented by a normal distribution while discontinuous variation is represented
by a discrete distribution. Continuous variation is influenced by environmental factors while
discontinuous variation is not influenced by environmental factors. Two or more genes
control the same character for continuous variation while only a single gene determines the
differences in the traits of a character. The phenotype of a continuous variation is usually
controlled by many pairs of alleles while the phenotype of a discontinuous variation is
controlled by a pair of alleles.
Genetic Variation in Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction, which involves the production and fertilisation of gametes, resulting in
genetic variation in the offspring. There are three sources of genetic variation in sexual
reproduction:
i. Crossing over during meiosis
During prophase I of meiosis, when two homologous chromosomes are paired up in a
bivalent, crossing over occurs between the chromatids. The exchange of genetic materials
between the chromatids results in new,
different genetic combinations of genes from the parents. The new genetic combinations
result in variation.
ii. Independent assortment during meiosis
During metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes arrange themselves randomly at
the metaphase plate. The random arrangement and separation of each homologous pair is
independent of one another. Independent assortment produces various genetic combinations
in the gametes. There are two equal possible arrangements of the chromosomes inherited
from the parents. These variations in the arrangement of the chromosomes produce gamates
with four equally possible combinations of the chromosomes.
iii. Random fertilisation
Each gamete has a unique set of combination of genes. A male gamete can fertilise any of the
female gametes. The fertilisation between a male gamete and a female gamete occurs
randomly. As a result, each zygote is unique. With random fertilisation, variations occur in
the offspring.
Reproduction II
Formation of Identical Twins
Identical twins are formed when the ball of cells from a fertilised ovum splits into two
embryos. Only one sperm and one ovum are involved in the process of fertilisation. The two
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embryos develop into two separate foetuses in the uterus. Each foetus has its own umbilical
cord but shares the same placenta. Since the twins originate from one embryo, they are,
therefore, identical in every aspect. They are born the same sex.
Formation of Fraternal Twins (Non-identical Twins)
Fraternal twins are formed when two ova are released at the same time, one from each ovary.
Each ovum is then fertilised by a sperm. As a result, two zygotes are formed and develop into
two separate embryos. Each embryo has its own placenta and umbilical cord. They are
genetically un-identical thus having different physique and may or may not varies in sex.
Siamese Twins
Siamese twins are identical twins which did not separate completely during embryonic
development. Normally, Siamese twins are attached at certain parts of the body such as the
head, chest, abdomen or hips. They may also share some common internal organs. Siamese
twins can be separated surgically
and have a greater chance of survival if they do not share major internal organs like the
heart, brain or lungs.
Development of a Zygote & Fertilisation
During copulation, man ejaculates semen containing about 400 million sperms, into the
womans vagina. The sperms swim up through the cervix into the uterus. After about 24
hours, 6000 sperms reach the fallopian tube. Half of the sperms die. After 30 hours, a few
hundred sperms complete the journey. Ovulation occurs when a ripe egg/ matured ovum
bursts from the ovary and is collected by the fallopian tube. Sperms surround the egg.
Fertilisation occurs when one sperm penetrates the egg. The sperms nucleus fuses with the
eggs nucleus. 30 hours after fertilisation, the zygote divides to form two cells. More cell
division takes place as the zygote moves along the Fallopian tube. From two cells, it slowly
divides into four cells and so on to produce a solid ball of cells called morula. About 4 days
after fertilisation, the embryo, now a hollow ball of about 128 cells (blastocyst), arrives in the
uterus. It absorbs the nourishment which leaks out of the uterus lining. During the monthly
cycle, oestrogen and progesterone produced by the ovaries cause the uterus lining to grow
and thicken, ready to receive and nourish the embryo. Up to three days after its arrival in the
uterus, the embryo sticks to the endometrium. Implantation happens. The embryo sinks into
the endometrium and becomes buried by it. From the 9th week of development until birth, the
embryo is called a foetus. After nine months of development inside the uterus, the baby is
ready to be born.
Function of Placenta & Its Advantages
Placenta takes over the job of corpus luteum to constantly produce oestrogen and
progesterone to maintain the thick, blood-enriched endometrium throughout the pregnancy.
The placenta is the site of the exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and wastes between the
foetus and its mother. The placenta is connected to the foetus by the umbilical cord.
Umbilical cord is a tube with one umbilical vein and two umbilical arteries. The umbilical
arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the placenta while the umbilical vein
carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the foetus. Nutrients, oxygen, antibodies and
hormones are transported through the umbilical vein from the maternal arteriole into the
foetus. On the other hand, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste products are transported
through the umbilical arteries from the foetus into the maternal vein.
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Placenta has many functions. It helps to synthesise glycogen, cholesterol and fatty acid. It is
also a source of nutrients and energy for the developing embryo. Placenta not only secretes
hormones like oestrogen and progesterone but it also secretes relaxin that can soften the
cervix and relaxes the pelvic ligaments in
childbirth. It also produces protein hormone that is the human placental lactogen. This
hormone prepares the breasts for lactation.
Placenta forms a selective blood barrier that prevents the mixing of maternal and foetal
blood. The two bloodstreams are separated by a thin membrane called blood barrier.
Birth Control
Birth control can be done by various methods. There is the statistical method also known as
the rhythm method. This control is natural as it estimates the period of fertility. The period is
based on the length of past menstrual cycles. Another method called the barrier method is to
wear condom (male & female) or diaphragm (female). This is done to prevent sexually
transmitted diseases (STDs). Withdrawal method is another method where the penis is taken
away from the female vagina right before ejaculation. There are drawbacks for this method
as the semen might leak before ejaculation.
Sterilisation can be done for both male and female for birth control. Vasectomy is done for
male, where sperm duct is cut and tied while tubal ligation is done for female, where the
fallopian tube is cut and tied. These methods can be done by surgery but they are irreversible.
Intrauterine device (IUD) can be used for birth control. IUD is inserted into the uterus so that
it interrupts the normal uterine environment and prevents the implantation of zygote in the
endometrium. The T-shaped IUD is made up of copper and plastics.
Another method known as the hormone method can too be used for birth control. This can be
done by taking contraceptive pills orally. These pills contain a combination of oestrogen
(increases weight) and progesterone. Ovulation is prevented by inhibiting the secretion of
FSH and LH. This is because a high level of oestrogen and progesterone inhibits the pituitary
gland from secreting FSH and LH. Lastly there is the awareness method. This is done by
analysing the temperature of the uterus lining by plotting temperature graphs (also known as
the basal body temperature). Sexual intercourse in the period where the basal body
temperature is high is prevented as high basal body temperature give a sign that the process
of ovulation is happening on that particular day.
Technology in aid of Infertility
Infertility will not be a problem as the technology improves. This is because there are many
methods that can aid infertility in both men and women. Artificial Insemination (Intro-uterine
insemination) can be used for male that has low sperm count. This is done by collecting the
mans sperm over a period of time so that the sperm count will be high enough for
fertilisation. The wife can be inseminated with the husbands sperms or sperms from the
sperm bank. The sperms are injected directly into the fallopian tube. Sometimes, the
woman is inseminated with sperms obtained from the sperm bank. A sperm bank is a special
laboratory that stores sperms in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of -196oC. Sperms from the
donors are collected, frozen and kept in a sperm bank. The genetic biodata of each donor are
kept meticulously, so that a woman wishing to conceive can use the sperm bank to obtain the
sperms she wants.
In some cases, another woman can be used as a surrogate mother as some females are unable
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to give birth or even to get pregnant. The sperms and ova are contributed by the parents. The
sperms can also be obtained from a sperm bank and the ova from the surrogate mother.
Either sperms or an embryo is transferred to the uterus of the surrogate mother. The
surrogate mother then becomes pregnant and the foetus develops in her uterus until birth. In
vitro fertilisation, another method of fertilisation that occurs in a controlled environment of a
laboratory outside the human body. This method is used when the fallopian tubes are blocked,
thus preventing fertilisation by the sperms. A fine laparoscope is used to remove mature ova
from the ovary. The ova are then placed in glassware with culture solution to mature. Then,
concentrated sperms from the father are added. The sperms and ova fuse and develop into
embryos. After two to four days, when the embryos are selected and inserted into the uterus
through the cervix for implantation on the uterine wall. If the procedure is successful, the
implantation embryos will develop into a healthy baby or healthy babies. Babies conceived in
this method are sometimes called test-tube babies. Couples can also use ova from donors.
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. The primodial
germ cell in the germinal epithelium cells (2n) divides by mitosis to produce spermatogonia
(2n) (spermatogonium sing.). One spermatogonium (2n) grows in size to become a primary
spermatocyte (2n). Each primary spermatocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis I to produce two
secondary spermatocytes. Each secondary spermatocyte (n) completes meiosis II to produce
spermatids (n). In the process of spermiogenesis, each spermatid differentiates (matures) into
a spermatozoa/sperm (spermatozoon sing.).
Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the ovary before birth and is regulated by
hormones. The primodial germ cell in the germinal epithelium cells (2n) divide by mitosis to
produce oogonia (2n) (oogonium sing.). The oogonium (2n) grows in size to become a
primary oocyte (2n). Each primary oocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis but stops at prophase I of
meiosis I. Meiosis resumes at puberty to produce a larger secondary oocyte (n) and a smaller
first polar body. The secondary oocyte (n) undergoes meiosis II and stops at metaphase II.
The first polar body completes meiosis II to form two polar bodies
(n). At this stage, the secondary oocyte, together with the layers of follicle sells around it, is
now called a secondary follicle. The secondary oocyte starts to grow in the follicle. The
secondary follicle increases in size and matures to form the graafian follicle. At intervals of
approximately 28 days, the graafian follicle merges with the wall of the ovary. The ovarian
wall and the graafian follicle then rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte or egg into the
fallopian tube. This process is known as ovulation. If the secondary oocyte is fertilised by a
sperm, meiosis II will be completed to form two haploid cells of unequal size. The larger cell
is ovum while the other is a polar body. The nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum then fuse to
form a diploid zygote (2n). This means a primary oocyte ultimately give rise to a single
haploid ovum and three haploid polar bodies. All polar bodies will degenerates. After
ovulation, the follicle cells left in the ovary form a corpus luteum. If there is no fertilisation,
the corpus luteum will degenerates after a few days. The cycle formation of the graafian
follicle, ovulation and the corpus luteum is known as the ovarian cycle.
Actions Voluntary Actions of the Skeletal Muscles
Voluntary actions such as walking and talking are under conscious control. Voluntary control
of the skeletal muscles is governed by the cerebral cortex of the cerebrum. The pathway of the
transmission in voluntary actions is as follows. When the door bell rings, the receptors in the
ear pick up the ringing of the doorbell. The receptors trigger nerve impulses in the afferent
neurones. The nerve impulses pass from the afferent neurones to the interneurones in the
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brain. The brain interprets the nerve impulses from many interneurones that the doorbell is
ringing. The brain also decides that the door should be opened. From the interneurones,
nerve impulses are transmitted to the efferent neurones and then to the muscles. The muscles
in the arm carry out the response and open the door.
Involuntary Actions of the Skeletal Muscles: The Reflex Arc
Involuntary actions that involve skeletal muscles allow an immediate action that does not
require conscious effort. In such circumstances when the responses to stimuli are involuntary,
they are called reflexes.
A sharp pin pierces the skin causing the sensory receptors in the skin to generate impulses.
The nerve impulses are transmitted along an afferent neurone towards the spinal cord. In the
spinal cord, the nerve impulses are transmitted from the afferent neurone to an interneurone.
From the interneurone, the nerve impulses are transmitted to an efferent neurone. The
efferent neurone carries the nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the effectors (muscle
tissue) so that the pin can be pulled out from the skin immediately.
Special Case: Knee-jerk (patellar reflex)
Knee-jerk only involves the simplest neural circuit because it involves only two kinds of
neurones: the afferent neurone and the efferent neurone. The reflex hammer hits a tendon that
connects the quadriceps muscle in the thigh to a bone in the lower leg. As the hammer strikes
the knee, the force stretches the quadriceps muscles and stimulates the stretch receptors in
the muscles, triggering nerve impulses. Afferent neurones transmit the information to the
efferent neurones in the spinal cord. The efferent neurones transmit this information to the
quadriceps muscles, and the muscle contracts, jerking the leg forward.
Synapses
The transmission of information is by no means electrical but chemical in nature. When the
nerve impulse reaches the end of the presynaptic end of the neurone, it will stimulate the
release of chemicals named neurotransmitters in the synaptic vesicles. The synaptic vesicles
then fuse with the cell membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters through exocytosis. The
neurotransmitters then cross the synapse where they may be accepted by the next neurone at
a specialised site called a receptor. The neurotransmitters then fuse with the receptor thus
transmitting the nerve impulse to the next neurone. Vesicles containing the neurotransmitters
are only in the presynaptic end and the receptors are only on the postsynaptic end, therefore
the synapse ensures that the flow of impulses in one direction only.
Diseases Related to Nervous System
i. Alzheimers Disease
Neurological disease characterised by increasing loss of memory and intellectual ability. It is
associated with the shrinkage of brain tissues and lack of neurotransmitters such as
acetylcholine. Alzheimer usually affects elderly. Patient with it will show loss of intelligence,
loss of memory, mild confusion and poor concentration. This disease can be inherited.
ii. Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a chronic disease of the nervous system. It causes tremors and
weakness of the muscles. This is due to the reduced level of neurotransmitters called
dopamine in the brain. In some cases, the disease is caused by the hardening of the cerebral
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arteries. This causes muscles not functioning smoothly and becomes stiff and jerky in their
actions. This disease affects elderly but is not a heredity disease. Levodopa is administered in
the treatment of this disease.
Hormone imbalanced
i. Growth Hormone
Over secretion of the growth hormone during childhood results in gigantism, a condition
characterised by an abnormal increase in the length of bones. The person grows to be
abnormally tall. Over secretion during adulthood results in acromegaly, a condition in which
the bones, hands, feet, cheeks and jaws thicken, and other tissue enlarges.
Under secretion during growing years retards bone growth, resulting in a condition known as
dwarfism. The organs of the person often fail to grow and the size of the body is like that of a
child. Today, genetically engineered growth hormones can be given to children with the
deficiency in growth hormone and successfully induce growth, allowing the children to attain
normal height.
ii. Thyroxine
Over secretion causes an increase in the metabolic rate of the body. Common symptoms
include excessive sweating, heat intolerance, increased bowel movements, nervousness, rapid
heart rate and weight loss. Sometimes, the thyroid gland can grow and enlarges two or three
times its normal size, a condition known as goitre. One causes of goitre is iodine deficiency.
In this situation, the thyroid gland cannot synthesise and release enough thyroxine (throxine
contains iodine). As a result, it enlarges in response to excess stimulation from the pituitary
gland.
Under secretion during childhood can cause severe mental retardation, a condition known as
cretinism. In adulthood, it causes myxedema. A person with myxedema has a slow heart rate,
low body temperature, high sensitivity to cold, general lethargy and a tendency to gain weight
easily. A lack of iodine in the diet also reduces the production of thyroxine.
iii. Insulin
Over secretion of insulin can lead to hypoglycaemia, an abnormally low level of glucose in
the blood. Some of the symptoms of hypoglycaemia are fatigue, insomnia, mental confusion,
nervousness, mood swings, fainting spells and headache. Severe hypoglycaemia can lead to
convulsions and unconsciousness.
Under secretion of insulin can lead to diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is a chronic
condition associated with abnormally high levels of sugar (glucose) in the blood. People with
diabetes either do not produce enough insulin or cannot use the insulin that their body
produce. As a result, glucose builds up in the bloodstream. A person with diabetes mellitus
experiences an increase in frequency of urination, excessive thirst, numbness or burning
sensation in the feet, ankles and legs, blurred or poor vision, fatigue, and slow healing of
wounds. Large quantities of human insulin are now produced by genetically engineered
bacteria. Patients are usually injected with this commercially prepared insulin.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Over secretion of ADH can results in high retention of water in the body.
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Under secretion of ADH can result in a disorder known as diabetes insipidus. As a result, the
person excretes a large amount of urine. People with diabetes insipidus are thirsty all the
time. They often want to drink liquids frequently. This is because so much water is lost in the
urine; the person may die of dehydration if deprived of water for even a day.
Kidney & Its Function + the Formation of Urine
Kidney is situated in the dorsal wall of the abdomen. It has three main parts that are the outer
cortex, inner medulla and the pelvis. Each kidney consists of numerous tubular units that are
called nephrons. Kidney is needed to remove toxic waste products from our body. Kidney
involved in the osmoregulation to keep the osmotic concentration of the blood constant by
removing excess water and salts. It regulates the pH of the blood by controlling the removal
of hydrogen ions. It also controls the blood volume.
The formation of urine depends on the nephrones through three processes:
i. Ultra filtration
The afferent arteriole which has a bigger diameter than that of the efferent arteriole sends
blood to the glomerulus. The blood is now under relatively high pressure and ultra filtration
takes place in the Bowmans capsule. The filtrate which filters into the Bowmans capsule
consists of small molecules, water, glucose, amino acids, urea and mineral salts. The filtrate
does not contain blood cells or plasma proteins. These components remain in the glomerular
capillaries as they are too large. The filtrate then goes down the proximal convoluted tubule
for reabsorption.
ii. Reabsorption
Reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted
tubule and collecting duct. At the proximal convoluted tubule, about 65% of the water in the
glomerular filtrate (water, urea, glucose, amino acids and salts such as sodium ions) is
absorbed back into the surrounding blood capillaries by osmosis. All the glucose, amino
acids, vitamins and some salts are reabsorbed by active transport. Urea is not reabsorbed. As
the filtrate (water, salt and urea) passes along the loop of Henle, about 20% of the water and
some salts are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. At the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct, the amount of water and salts that are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries
depends on the content of water and salt in the blood. Reabsorption of water and salts is
regulated by the endocrine system.
Secretion
Secretion takes place in the distal convoluted tubule. Along the tubule, waste products such as
urea, uric acid and ammonia are pumped out of the blood capillaries into the distal
convoluted tubule by active transport. This process is called secretion. Some drugs and toxic
substances are secreted by simple diffusion. The final glomerular filtrate which remains in the
collecting duct is called urine (96% of water, 2.5% nitrogenous products such as urea, uric
acid, ammonia and cretinine, 1.5% salts and other trace elements such as bile pigments).
From the collecting ducts, urine is channelled into the pelvis and carried out of the kidney by
the ureter to the urinary bladder before it is excreted through the urethra.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the regulation of the physical and chemical factors in the internal
environment to maintain a constant internal environment.
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Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the regulation of salt and water balance in the body to maintain the blood
osmotic pressure. It is controlled by two hormones mainly Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and
aldosterone.
When the osmotic pressure increases, it is detected by the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the pituitary gland so that more ADH and less
aldosterone is secreted. This causes the distal convoluted tubule to become more permeable
to water and impermeable to salt. More water and less salt then moves into the distal
convoluted tubule through diffusion. The osmotic pressure declines back to normal.
When the osmotic pressure decreases, it is detected by the osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the pituitary gland so that more aldosterone and
less ADH is secreted. This causes the distal convoluted tubule to become more permeable to
salt and impermeable to water. Less water and more salt then moves into the distal
convoluted tubule through diffusion. The osmotic pressure increases back to normal.
Glucoregulation
The normal blood glucose level is 90mg in 100cm3 of blood. When the blood glucose level
increases, the change is detected by the "-cells of the Islets of Longerhans. This stimulates the
pancreas to secrete insulin. Glucose is converted into glycogen for temporal storage.
Glycogen is converted into lipid to be stored under the adipose tissues. Part of the glucose is
used as the respiration of glucose increases. The blood glucose level declines back to normal.
When the blood glucose level decreases, the change is detected by the #-cells of the Islets of
Longerhans. This stimulates the pancreas to secrete glucagon. Lipid is converted back to
glycogen while glycogen is converted back to glucose. The blood glucose level rises back to
normal.
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the regulation of body temperature. When the body temperature
increases to a value higher than 37oC, it is detected by the thermoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus. The hair erector muscles relax
to lower the hair so that no air is trap on the surface of the skin. Sweat gland is activated to
produce sweat. This is to allow heat loss by means of evaporation. Muscle activities are also
reduced to minimise heat production. Vasodilation occurs when smooth muscles of blood
capillaries dilate so that more heat can be released through radiation. Adrenal gland secretes
less adrenaline while thyroid gland secretes less thyroxine to lower down the rate of
metabolism. The body temperature declines back to normal.
When the body temperature decreases, it is detected by the thermoreceptors in the
hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus. The hair erector muscles
contract to raise hair so that more heat is trapped on the skin surface. Sweat gland is inactive
to stop sweat so no heat loss via evaporation. Voluntary muscular activity is increased such
as rubbing the hands to keep warm while involuntary muscles contract and relax frequently
leading to shivering to produce heat. Vasoconstriction occurs when smooth muscles of the
blood capillaries constrict to lower down heat loss. Adrenal gland secretes more adrenaline
while thyroid gland secretes more thyroxine to increase the rate of metabolism. The body
temperature rises back to normal.
Auxin & Its Effects on the Growth of Plants
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Mr Sun (Your Bio Coach)
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Plants hormones are organic compounds that act as messengers that promote or inhibit plant
growth and development. Some examples of it are auxin, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid
and ethylene (a gas). Auxin stimulates cell tropism. Auxins are continuously produced by the
meristematic
cells of the shoot tip. It is then transported to the shoot via the phloem. Therefore, they are
highest in concentration in the shoot tip and lowest at the root tip. The concentration of
auxins in the shoot tip and the root tip affects growth. High concentration of auxin in shoot
promotes elongation of cells. Hence the lower side of the shoot with a higher concentration of
auxins will grow faster than the upper side. As a result, the shoot curves upwards, showing
negative geotropism. A high concentration of auxins inhibits the elongation of cells in the
root. The upper side of the root grows faster than the lower side. The young root curves and
grows downwards, showing positive geotropism. Auxins move away from the light,
accumulate in the shaded side.
Locomotion
Antagonistic Muscles
Antagonistic muscles are a pair of muscles which work together to allow coordinated
movements of the skeletal joints. This means that when one muscle contracts, the other
relaxes.
Bending & Straightening of the Arm
When the biceps contract, the triceps relaxes. The biceps becomes shorter and thicker while
the triceps becomes longer and thinner. This exerts a pulling force transmitted to the radius
through the tendons. As a result, the radius is pulled upward and the arm is bended. The
elastic ligaments that held the radius, ulna and the humerus together enable the radius and
ulna to be pulled upward, bending the arms from the elbow. When the triceps contract, the
biceps relaxes. Now, the triceps becomes shorter and thicker while the biceps becomes longer
and thinner. The triceps that contracts exert a pulling force on the ulna through its tendon.
The ulna and radius, which are jointed to the humerus by the elastic ligaments, is pulled
together downwards, causing the arm to straighten.
Walking
The calf muscle contracts and raises the heel. In doing so, it exerts a forward thrust by
pushing the ball of the foot against the ground. The hamstring muscle contracts to pull the
femur back and bends the knee. The leg is raised. As the right foot loses contact with the
ground, the weight of the body is now supported by the left leg which is still in contact with
the ground. Next, the quadriceps muscle contracts, pulls the femur forward and extends the
leg. When the extension of the leg is completed, the foot then regains contact with the ground
with the heel touching the ground first. The weight of the body is now supported on the right
leg. The whole sequence is repeated with the left leg.
Worm
The movement of earthworm is carried out by a series of contraction and relaxation of both
the circular and longitudinal muscles of its body. When the circular muscle at the anterior
contracts, the longitudinal muscles relaxes. The body becomes thinner and lengthens. The
body fluid is pushed to the posterior part of the body. When the longitudinal muscle at the
anterior contracts and the circular muscle relax, the body flatten and shortens. The body fluid
will be pushed to the front part by hydrostatic pressure and the posterior will be pulled
PUSAT TUISYEN CERGAS JAYA
Mr Sun (Your Bio Coach)
You only can achieve your dream if you are determined and disciplined. Mr Sun
forward. Each segment has chaetae which help to anchor the worm during locomotion and
pull itself forward. The antagonistic muscles working in opposite directions produce
hydrostatic pressure of the body fluid. Thus, creating peristalsis wave.
Fish
The movement of tail is caused by the contraction and relaxation of the myotome muscles on
both side of the body. The contraction of the muscle on the right side will pull the tail to the
right whereas the contraction of the muscles on the left side will pull the tail to the left. The
continuous movement of the tail from left to the right will create a push for the fish to move
forward. The function of the fins help in controlling the direction as well as the stability of
fish in the water.
Bird
The antagonistic actions of the strong muscles enable the bird to flap its wings up and down.
When the pectorial major (in) contracts and the pectorial minor (out) relax, the wings flapped
downwards. When the pectorial minor (out) contracts and the pectorial major (in) relaxes,
the wings goes up.
Grasshopper & Frog
Grasshopper has strong muscular hind legs that are the flexor (in) and the extensor (out)
muscle to enable them to jump. A flexor muscle controls forward leg movement while the
extensor controls the backward movement. Before jumping, the hind leg is folded in the shape
of alphabet Z, the flexor muscle contracts while the extensor relaxes. When the extensor
muscle contracts and the flexor muscle relax, the hind leg will straighten quickly resulting in
a lift and the grasshopper jumps forward and upward.
To land, the forelegs are extended forward to absorb the landing shock. The hind legs are
then folded again. For walking, the grasshopper uses three legs to move while the other three
labelled X are used to support the body.
Frog has locomotion almost identical to grasshopper. It also has long, big and strong
muscular hind legs. The contraction of the femur muscles result in straightening of the leg
quickly. The feet push the ground causing the frog to jump upward and outward. During
landing, the front legs are extended first to absorb the landing shock. At the same time, the
hind legs are folded again into its Z shape.
Respiration II
Fish
When a fish inhales, its mouth opens and the buccal cavity is lowered. As this occurs, the
operculum closes and the opercular cavity becomes bigger. This resulted into a lower
pressure in the buccal cavity. Water is then drowned into its mouth along with dissolved
oxygen.
When a fish exhales, its mouth closes, raising the floor of the buccal cavity. A water flows
through the lamellae, respiratory gases are exchanged between blood capillaries and water.
As this occurs, the opercular cavity becomes smaller. The high pressure in the buccal cavity
forces the operculum to open allowing water to flow out.
Grasshopper
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Mr Sun (Your Bio Coach)
You only can achieve your dream if you are determined and disciplined. Mr Sun
Insects inhale and exhale through the rhythmic contraction and expansion of their abdominal
muscles. The body movements and the contractions of the abdominal muscles speed up the
rate of diffusion of gases from the tracheae into the body cells. When an insect inhales, the
abdominal muscles relax and the spiracles open. Air pressure inside the tracheae decreases
and air is drawn in.
When an insect exhales, the abdominal muscles contract. The increased air pressure forces
air out through the spiracles. The spiracle system with its network of small tubes allows
oxygen to be absorbed directly from the atmosphere into the body cells. Therefore, there is no
circulatory system in insects.
Frog
When a frog inhales, it breathes in through its nostrils. The bucco- pharyngeal floor is
lowered and fresh air is drawn in. At the same time, its glottis closes and state air remains in
the lungs. Afterwards, the glottis will open. Its nostrils are then closed and the bucco-
pharyngeal floor is raised. This causes high air pressure which forces air into its lungs thus,
expanding them.
When a frog exhales, its lung muscles contract, expelling air from its lungs. A frog does this
by the abdominal pressure and elasticity of the lungs. Some of the
air flows out of its nostrils and some mixed with the air in the bucco-pharyngeal cavity.
*Filling in air: nostrils open, glottis closed, floor of the mouth lowers *Force air in: nostrils
closed, glottis open, floor of the mouth rises *Expiration: nostrils open, glottis open, lung
contracts

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