The Noun

Noun classes:
(1)countable nouns= they denote individual countable entities (bottle, chair, forest, idea).
(2)uncountable nouns=they denote undifferentiated mass or continuum (bread, grass,
music, furniture, gold, money).
The language makes it possible to look upon some objects from the point of vie of both
countable and uncountable!
"ould you like a cake# (countable)$%o, & don't like cake. (uncountable)
(he as a beauty. (countable)$(he had great beauty. (uncountable)
(he had many difficulties. (countable)$(he had much difficulty. (uncountable)
)ncountable nouns can be reclassified as a countable noun involving a change of
meaning!
1. *! "hat cheeses have you got today# (types of cheese)
+! "ell, e have ,hedar, -orgon.ola, and /anish +lue.
2. $a noun like 0coffee1 hich is normally uncountable (/o you ant tea or coffee#) can
be considered a countable noun!
,an & have a coffee, please# (a cup of coffee)
This is a nice coffee. (type, kind, brand of coffee)
& like +ra.ilian coffees best. (type, kind, brand of coffee)
2artition in respect of 3uantity!
$both uncountable and countable nouns can be used ith constructions denoting a part of
a hole (a piece of4kind of4type of). The most used partitive e5pression is a piece of1! a
piece of paper4chalk4advice4information4nes. &n addition to the general partitives (a
piece of4 a bit of4 an item of) there are some restricted typical/specific partitives such as
the folloing!
a grain of truth
a bar of chocolate4soap4gold
a loaf of bread
a bunch of floers4keys
a speck of dust4dirt
a herd of cattle
a sheet of paper4ice
$some uncountable nouns have countable equivalents as given belo!
uncountable nouns countable e3uivalents
This is important information. a piece of4bit of information
The nes is bad today. a piece4item of nes
6our advice is reliable. a piece of4ord of advice
The furniture is e5pensive. a piece of4article of furniture
$some 7nglish uncountable nouns correspond to count nouns in some other languages!
1
7nglish uncountable nouns=homeork, courage, e3uipment, research, resistance.
Number
$e distinguish three main number classes of nouns!
1.singular invariable nouns! nouns used only in the singular (music, gold, the unreal,
8enry)
2. plural invariable nouns! nouns used only in the plural (people, scissors)
9. nouns used ith either singular or plural number (dog, dogs)
There are to subclasses!
:. regular! nouns ith plural predictable from the singular (dog=;dogs)
<. irregular! the plural form of the noun is not predictable(foot=;feet,
criterion=;criteria)
1. V!"#$% N&'N( !
$note the special case of the collective nouns! committee) family) team) army
"hen used in the singular (=y family is larger than his), the non*personal collectivity
of the group is stressed> hen used in the plural (=y family are at home), the personal
individuality ithin the group is stressed.
!egular plurals
$the plural suffi5 is ritten 0$s1 after nouns (hat=;hats)
There are hoever several e+ceptions to this rule!
a. after nouns ending in *s,)) *-,) *+,) *ch,) *sh, the plural ending is *es ,:
gas=;gases, bo5=;bo5es, bush=;bushes
b. nouns ending in *o, have plurals in *os 1 or *oes 1! just 0s1 in the case of proper
nouns, abbreviations.
$radios, pianos, 7skimos
$nouns ith plurals only in 0$oes1! heroes, potatoes, tomatoes, echoes
$nouns that have both0$os1 and 0$oes1 plurals! volcanos4oes, tornados4oes, cargos4oes
c. nouns ending in *y, preceded by a consonant change the 0y1 !
sky=;skies (0y1 is kept after a voel! day=;days)
d. the final consonant is doubled in a fe nouns! fe.=;fe..es, 3ui.=;3ui..es
e. the apostrophe s ./s0 is used in! in the 1?@A's, rite to b's
f. beliefs, cliffs, proofs, roofs 4 knives, leaves, halves, calves, leaves, shelves, thieves 4
handkerchieves4fs, scarves4fs
"rregular plurals
a. the plural is formed by a change of vo1el in the folloing seven nouns!
man=;men oman=;omen
foot=;feet tooth=;teeth
goose=;geese louse=;lice
mouse=;mice
b. the *en, plural occurs in three nouns!
2
brother=;brethren (fello member of a religious society)
child=;children
o5=;o5en (in *m 7 also o5es)
c. -ero plural
(ome nouns have the same form in singular and plural!
c.1$animal names! sheep(These sheep are ours.4This sheep is alright.), deer
$ fishes! denotes different species as in 0the fishes of the =editerranean1.
c.2$nationality names, nouns ending in *ese1 have .ero plural! one4five ,hinese (also
one4to (iss)
c.9$quantitive nouns, do.en, hundred, thousand, million have .ero plural hen they are
preceded by another quantitative ord! to hundred people, many thousand times,
several million inhabitants (but the plural form is used hen they are folloed by 0of1!
hundreds of people, thousands of spectators)
c.:$nouns 1ith equivocal number, nouns that can be treated as singular or plural!
means$ 0a means of communication1 but 0use all means possible1
series$0This ne series is delayed.1 but also 0These ne series are delayed.1
species$0This species is no e5tinct.1 but also 0These species are no e5tinct.1
d. foreign plurals
$nouns from $atin! stimulus=;stimuli, nucleus=;nuclei (but also nucleuses),
antenna=;antennae, alga=;algae
$nouns from 2ree3! analysis=;analyses, crisis=;crises, basis=;bases,
criterion=;criteria, phenomenon=;phenomena
e. compounds nouns hich consist of more than one ord (babysitter, close$up etc.)
e.1$nouns ith plural in the last element! assistant$directors, gron$ups,
attorney4generals, forget$me$nots
e.2$nouns ith plural in the first element! passers$by, mothers$in$la (but also mother$
in$las), commanders$in$chief
e.9$ nouns 1ith plural in both first and last element! omen doctors, gentlemen
farmers.
2. ("N2'$! "NV!"#$% N&'N(
a. concrete mass nouns .generally names of materials)! silver, sugar, tobacco, furniture,
milk
4 if in the plural) they have stylistic use 5 3inds of
b. abstract mass nouns: music, truth, knoledge, kindness
4 if in the plural) their original content becomes less abstract: to e5change
confidences, to do personal kindnesses
c. proper names: Bohn, the )(*, %aples
d. invariable nouns ending in 6s:
9
o The noun ne1s
o %ames of diseases: rickets, measles, mumps, tantrums
o (ub7ect names in 6ies: mathematics, linguistics, physics, politics
o 2ames: dominoes, billiards, draughts
o bstract ad7ectival heads: the beautiful, the absolute, the good, the evil

2. 8$'!$ "NV!"#$% N&'N( !
a. tools, instruments and clothes made of t1o equal parts joined together! (scissors,
tongs, jeans, pants, pyjamas, shorts, braces, trousers 8o much are those
spectacles#4They are CA pounds.
b. nouns that end in *s, and in a given sense only occur in the plural and take a plural
verb(damages! These damages are paid.)!
contents (table ofD), customs (go through customs at the airport), goods (property,
merchandise), 1ages (eekly pay), spirits) compasses) premises.
c. nouns that have no plural mar3ing but are used as plurals! people (hen it means
0nation1 it can be used as a plural! the 7nglish$speaking peoples), police (The police
have caught the burglar), cattle (The cattle are in the field), clergy) youth.
d. personal ad7ectival heads: the rich, the poor, the ounded, the unemployed, the
needy.
9. 2ender
&n 7nglish unlike many other related languages, nouns, determiners and adjectives are
not mar3ed inflectionally for gender distinctions (do not generally have specific
suffi5es to mark gender).
a. personal male/female nouns! bachelor$spinster, father$mother, monk$nun, idoer$
ido, bridegroom$bride>
b. personal dual gender! friend, doctor, teacher, student, speaker. &f information on the
se5 of the person is necessary a gender mar3er may be added (male student4female
student)>
e.g. Tom cat, 2ussy4 ,athy cat, he4she lion, boy4girlfriend, male4female engineer, oman
doctor>
c. suffi+es: actor$actress, aiter$aitress, prince$princess
:ase. The form of the possessive/genitive case
. 1. apostrophe s .;s0 is used ith singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in *
s,:
:
a man's job the people's choice
men's work the crew's quarters
the children's room Russia's exports
2. ith compound nouns, the last ord takes the ;s!
my sister-in-law's car
$names consisting of several ords are treated similarly!
Henry the Eighth's wies the !resident of Romania's helicopter
$;s can also be used after initials!
the !"'s secretary the "!'s briefcase
#. a simple apostrophe .;0
1. is used ith plural nouns ending in 0$s1!
a girls' school the students' hostel
the eagles' nest the #miths' car
2. classical names ending in *s, usually add only the apostrophe!
!ythagoras' $heorem %rchimedes' &aw
4 other names ending in *s, can ta3e ;s or the apostrophe alone!
"r #miths' s 'or "r #miths' house( )eats's 'or )eats '( poems
'se of the possessive/genitive case and of < noun
*. The possessive case is used of!
1. personal names: =ary's car
2. personal nouns: the boy's shirt
9. collective nouns: the government's position, the company's capital
:. higher animals: the horse's neck, the lion's tail, the dog's bark
<. continents) countries: 7urope's future, 7ngland's history
C. ships and boats! the ship's captain* the yacht's name
E. planes) trains) cars and other vehicles, though here the of construction
is safer! a glider's wings (but also the wings of a glider)
@. time e+pressions!
today's paper tomorrow's weather
in two years' time ten minutes' break
a ten-minute break* a two-hour delay are also possible
?. ith for F noun F sa3e! for heaen's sake* for goodness' sake
1A. sometimes certain nouns can be used in the possessive case ithout the
second noun! the baker's+butcher's+chemist's etc. can mean the baker's+butcher's shop.
(imilarly, the dentistGs4doctorGs4vetGs (surgery)!
)ou can buy it at the chemist's. He's going to the dentist's.
$names of people can sometimes be used similarly to mean 0D..'s house1!
,e had dinner at Danas. $hey met at -ali.s.
#. of<noun is used for possession!
1. loer animalsF the other inanimate nouns
<
2.hen the noun is folloed by a phrase or a sentence!
/ took the adice of the man / met on the train.
9. ith inanimate possessors, e5cept those mentioned in * above!
the walls of the town the keys of the car
C
rticles
. a/an (the indefinite article) is the same for all genders!
a man a woman an actor an actress
0a1 is used before a ord beginning ith a consonant, or a voel ith a
consonant sound!
a man a hat a uniersity a year a European
a) 0an1 is used ! a. before ords beginning ith a voel (a, e, i, o, u)

b. ords beginning ith a mute h!
an apple an island an uncle
an onion an hour
c. individual letters spoken ith a voel sound!
an &-plate an "! an #0#
# . 'se of a/an
a/an is used!
1. before a singular noun hich is countable ( of hich there is more than one) hen it
is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing!
/ need a camera. $hey lie in a flat. He bought an ice-cream.
2. before a singular countable noun hich is used as an e+ample of a class of things!
% car must be insured '1 %ll cars+%ny car must be insured.(
% child needs loe '1 %ll children need+%ny child needs loe.(
9. ith names of professions!
#he'll be a dancer. He is an actor.
:. in certain e+pressions of quantity!
a lot of a couple
a great many
<. ith certain numbers!
a hundred a thousand
+efore half hen half follos a hole number!
one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half
+ut half a kilo (no a before half)
C. in e5pressions of price) speed) ratio etc.!
2p a kilo sixty kilometers an hour
four times a day
(8ere a/an = per.)
E. in e+clamations before singular, countable nouns!
,hat a pretty girl3
@. a can be placed before =r4 =rs4 =iss F surname!
a "r #mith a "rs #mith a "iss #mith
a "r #mith means Ga man called (mithG and implies that he is a stranger to the
speaker. "r #mith* ithout a* implies that the speaker knos =r (mith or knos of
his e5istence.
E
:. &mission of a/an
a/an is omitted!
1. after the verb turn: to turn coard4 traitor
2. in reversed ord$order! +rute as he as, he still anted to help her.
9. before names of meals, e5cept hen these are preceded by an adjective!
,e hae breakfast at eight.
He gae us a good breakfast.
The article is also used hen it is a special meal given to celebrate something or
in someoneGs honour!
/ was inited to dinner (at their house, in the ordinary ay) but / was inited
to a dinner gien to welcome the new ambassador.
:. ith nouns denoting uni3ue task! 2resident, ,aptain, 2=
=. a/an and one
1. a/an and one (adjective)
1a. hen counting or measuring time, distance, eight etc. e can use
either a/an or one for the singular!
H1 = a+one pound 45*000*000 = a+one million pounds
$but note that in $he rent is 4500 a week the a before week is not replaceable by one
$in other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because
one F noun normally means Gone only4not more than oneG and a/an does not mean
this!
% shotgun is no good. (&t is the rong sort of thing.)
6ne shotgun is no good. (& need to or three.)
1b. special uses of one
(a) one (adjective4pronoun) used ith another/others!
6ne 'boy( wanted to read* another+others wanted to watch $-.
6ne day he wanted his lunch early* another day he wanted it late.
(b) one can be used before day+week+month+year+summer+winter etc. or before the
name of the day or month to denote a particular time hen something happened!
6ne night there was a terrible storm.
6ne day a telegram arried.
(c) one day can also be used to mean Gat some future dateG!
6ne day you'll be sorry you treated him so badly.
'#ome day ould also be possible.)
2. a/an and one (pronoun)
one is the pronoun e3uivalent of a/an!
7id you get a ticket8 $ )es* / managed to get one.
The plural of one used in this ay is some!
7id you get tickets8 $ )es* / managed to get some.
%. the .the definite article0
1. >orm
the is the same for singular and plural and for all genders!
the boy the girl the day
the boys the girls the days
2. 'se
@
The definite article is used!
a. hen the object or group of objects is uni3ue or considered to be uni3ue!
the earth the sea the sky the stars
b. before a noun hich has become definite (the speaker knos it) as a result of being
mentioned a second time!
His car struck a tree9 you can still see the mark on the tree.
c. before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause!
the girl in blue the man with the banner
the boy that / met the place where / met him
d. before a noun hich by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing!
%nn is in the garden. (the garden of this house)
!lease pass the wine. (the ine on the table)
$similarly! the postman (the one ho comes to us), the car (our car), the
newspaper (the one e read).
e. before superlatives and first* second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns, and only:
the first 'week(the best day the only way
9. the < singular noun can represent a class of animals or things!
$he whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
$but man* used to represent the human race, has no article!
/f oil supplies run out* man ..may hae to fall back on the horse.
*the can be used before a member of a certain group of people!
$he small shopkeeper is finding life increasingly difficult.
*the F singular noun as used above takes a singular verb. The pronoun is he, she or it!
$he first-class traeller pays more so he expects some comfort.
?. the < ad7ective represents a class of persons!
the old = old people in general
@. the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of
mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, regions!
the %tlantic the ;etherlands
the $hames the #ahara
the %lps the Riiera
$and before certain other names!
the "all the #udan
the Hague the )emen
*the is also used before names consisting of noun F of F noun!
the <ay of <iscay the =ulf of "exico
the >ape of =ood Hope the ?nited #tates of %merica
*the is used before names consisting of adjective F noun (provided the adjective is not
east* west etc.)!
the %rabian #ea the ;ew @orest the High #treet
*the is used before the adjectives east+west etc. F noun in certain names!
the East+,est End the East+,est /ndies the ;orth+#outh !ole
but is normally omitted!
#outh %frica ;orth %merica ,est =ermany
$the, hoever, is used before east+west etc. hen these are nouns!
the north of #pain the ,est (geographical)
the "iddle East the ,est (political)
$compare =o north (adverb! in a northerly direction) ith He lies in the north (noun! an
area in the north).
A. the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective F noun or noun F of F
noun!
the ;ational =allery* the $ower of &ondon
$it is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc.!
the <ach >hoir the !hiladelphia 6rchestra the <eatles
and before names of nespapers '$he $imes( and ships 'the =reat <ritain(.
?
B. the ith names of people has a very limited use.
the F plural surname can be used to mean Gthe. . . familyG!
the #miths = "r and "rs #mith 'and children(
the F singular name F clause4phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another
of the same name!
,e hae two "r #miths. ,hich do you want8 $ / want the "r #mith who signed this
letter.
the is used before titles containing of 'the 7uke of )ork( but it is not used before other
titles or ranks '&ord 6liier* >aptain >ook(* though if someone is referred to by title4rank
alone the is used!
$he earl expected . . . $he captain ordered . . .
>. &mission of the
1. The definite article is not used!
1a. before names of places e5cept as shon above, or before names of people.
1b. before abstract nouns e5cept hen they are used in a particular sense!
"en fear death but $he death of the !rime "inister left his party without a leader.
1c. after a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective!
the boy's uncle' = the uncle of the boy(
/t is my 'blue( book '= $he 'blue( book is mine.(
1d. before names of meals!
$he #cots hae porridge for breakfast but
$he wedding breakfast was held in her father's house.
1e. before names of games! He plays golf.
1f. before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer a possessive
adjective! Raise your right hand. He took off his coat.
$but notice that sentences of the type!
#he seiAed the child's collar. / patted his shoulder.
$he brick hit Bohn's face.
could be e5pressed!
#he seiAed the child by the collar. / patted him on the shoulder.
$he brick hit Bohn in the face.
$similarly in the passive!
He was hit on the head. He was cut in the hand.
2. %ote that in some 7uropean languages the definite article is used before indefinite
plural nouns but that in 7nglish the is never used in this ay!
,omen are expected to like babies. (i.e. omen in general)
<ig hotels all oer the world are ery much the same.
$if e put the before women in the first e5ample, it ould mean that e ere referring to
a particular group of omen.
9. nature* here it means the spirit creating and motivating the orld of plants and
animals etc., is used ithout the! /f you interfere with nature you will suffer for it.
2. &mission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc. and
before ork, sea and ton
1. home
$hen home is used alone (is not preceded or folloed by a descriptive ord or
phrase), the is omitted!
$home used alone can be placed directly after a verb of motion or verb of motion F
object, i.e. it can be treated as an adverb!
He went home. / arried home after dark./ sent him home.
$but hen home is preceded or folloed by a descriptive ord or phrase it is treated like
1A
any other noun!
$hey went to their new home. ,e arried at the bride's home.
@or some years this was the home of your queen.
% mud hut was the only home he had eer known.
2. bed) church) court) hospital) prison) school/college/university
*the is not used before the nouns listed above hen these places are visited or used for
their primary purpose. "e go!
to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients
to church to pray to prison as prisoners
to court as litigants etc. to school+college+uniersity to study
$similarly e can be! .
in bed* sleeping or resting in hospital as patients
at church as orshippers at school etc. as students
in court as itnesses etc.
$e can be4get back (or be4get home) from school+college+uniersity. "e can leae
school* leae hospital* be released from prison.
$hen these places are visited or used for other reasons the is necessary!
/ went to the church to see the stained glass.
He goes to the prison sometimes to gie lectures.
9. sea
$e go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as passengers or cre). +ut
to go to or be at the sea = to go to or be at the seaside. "e can also live by+near the sea.
:. 1or3 and office
work (= place of ork) is used ithout the!
He's on his way to work. He is at work.
He isn't back from work yet.
$note that at work can also mean GorkingG> hard at work = orking hard!
He's hard at work on a new picture.
office (= place of ork) needs the! He is at+in the office.
$to be in office (ithout the) means to hold an official (usually political) position. To be
out of office = to be no longer in poer.
<. to1n
*the can be omitted hen speaking of the subjectGs or speakerGs on ton!
,e go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
11
TC% V%!#
1. V%!# :T%2&!"%(:
8rimary:
Tense: (present4past4future)
spect: (simple4continuous4perfect4perfect continuous)
Voice: (passive4active)
Dood: (indicative4subjunctive4imperative)
(econdary:
8erson: (1
st
42
nd
49
rd
)
Number: ( sg.4pl.)
T%N(%( &> TC% "N=":T"V% D&&=
1. T%N(%:
/7I&%&T&J%! Tense is the linguistic reference to objective time (e5tra$linguistic
concept)> it is the grammatical e5pression of location in time used to e5press time relation
ith respect to the (peech Time.
1. 8(T: E FFFFFFFFFGFFFF"FFFFFFFFF H
2. 8!%(%NT: E FFFFFFFFFFFFFFGFFFFFFFFF H
9. >'T'!%: E FFFFFFFFFFFFFF"FFFFFG FF H
2. (8%:T:
/7I&%&T&J%! *spect is the grammatical category of the verb, reflecting the status of the
action ith respect to duration, result, etc. thus different ays of vieing the internal
temporal situation> it is the subjective point of vie relative to time.
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12
(o, all combinations resulting from merging T7%(747KT7L%*M T&=7 (objective time
itself) and *(27,T4&%T7L%*M T&=7 (subjective time) are referred to as T7%(7(!
Tense .90 K spect .?0: 5H 12 T%N(%( of the indicative mood
1. 8!%(%NT ("D8$% : E 8a.FFFFFFF+FFFFFFF >. H
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?. 8(T 8%!>%:T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a. FF++++0+"+++ 8r. FF>. H
1. >'T'!% ("D8$%: E 8a.FF8r.FFFFFF+FFFFFFF >. H
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?. >'T'!% 8%!>%:T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a. 8r.FFFF++++0+"+++FF >. H
>&!D"N2 T%N(%(
ND% 5 'G"$"!I V%!# < $%G":$ V%!#
:ontinuous 5 #% < V1*ing
8erfect 5 CV% < V9
>uture 5 J"$$/(C$$ < V1
Dodality 5 Dodal V < V1
8assive 5 #% < V9
1. 2L7(7%T (&=2M7 ! N 2a.OOOOOOO5OOOOOOO I. ;
V1 write
2. 2L7(7%T ,J%T&%)J)(! N 2a.OOOOO555&555OOO OOOI. ;
#e < V1*ing is writing
9. 2L7(7%T 27LI7,T! N 2a.OOOOO5555)555&O O O OI. ;
Cave < V9 has written
:. 2L7(7%T 27LI7,T ,J%T&%)J)(! N 2a. OOO5555)5&555OOO O I. ;
19
Cave < V9
#e < V1*ing
FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
have < been <V1*ing has been writing
1. 2*(T (&=2M7! N 2a.OOOOOOO5OOOOO 2r.OO I. ;
V2 wrote
2. 2*(T ,J%T&%)J)(! N 2aOOO555&555O 2r. O OI. ;
#e < V1*ing .past0 was writing
9. 2*(T 27LI7,T! N 2a.O OO5555)555&O 2r.OO I. ;
Cave < V9 .past0 had written
?. 8(T 8%!>%:T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a. FF++++0+"+++ 8r. FF>. H
Cave < V9
#e < V1*ing
FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
have < been < V1*ing .past0 had been writing
1. I)T)L7 (&=2M7! N 2a.OO2r.OOOOOO5OOOOOOO I. ;
Jill < V1 will write
2. I)T)L7 ,J%T&%)J)(! N 2a.OO2r.OOO555&555OOOOOOI . ;
Jill < V1
#e < V1*ing
FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
1ill < be < V1*ing will be writing
9. I)T)L7 27LI7,T! N 2a. 2r.OOO5555)555&OOOOOI. ;
Jill < V1
Cave < V9
FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
1ill < Cave < V9 will have written
:. I)T)L7 27LI7,T ,J%T&%)J)(! N 2a. 2r.OOOO5555)5&555OO I. ;
Jill < V1
Cave < V9
#e < V1*ing
FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
1ill < have < been < V1*ing will have been writing
1:
8!%(%NT T%N(%(
1. 8!%(%NT ("D8$% : E 8a.FFFFFFF+FFFFFFF >. H
1.1. &t is used!
$ to describe general truths and states hich are regarded as permanent!
,ater boils at 500 degrees.
$ to describe repeated actions or habits!
,hat time does "ary finish work8
$ e5clamations introduced by 0here4there1!
Here comes "ary3
$ e5planations, demonstrations!
/ add the sugar to the egg yolks and place the basin oer a saucepan of hot water.
$ instead of the present continuous ith verbs that cannot be used in the
progressive form>
$ to refer to future events over hich e have no personal control because they
are determined by calendars, timetables, programmes!
$he plane arries on "onday at a 50 p.m.
6ur term starts at the beginning of 6ctober.
$ instead of the future in a subordinate clause of time or condition!
>all me when you arrie.
1.2. IJL=: K V1 L P Q1$s 9
rd
sg> R /JFQ1 S R /J%'TFQ1 S
1.9. */Q7L+(! (of fre3uency)
$ every day> every eek> every month> every year>
$ usually, mostly, generally, rarely, seldom, fre3uently, alays, never>
$ sometimes, at times>
1.:. 7K*=2M7(!
1.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student 1rites formulae eery day.
1.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! =oes the student 1rite any formulae eery day#
1.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student doesnMt 1rite any formulae.
2. 8!%(%NT :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a.FFFFF+++"+++FFF FFF>. H
2.1. &t is used!
$ to represent an action, vieed in progress (continuous) at the very time of
speech!
/.m listening to music now.
$ to represent an action vieed in progress (continuous) at the Time of speech
(present), even if not literally at the very moment of speaking!
/.m looking for a job.
1<
$ to e5press a definite arrangement in the near future (immediate plans)!
/.m isiting Bohn this weekend.
$ to e5press a temporary situation!
,e are eating in the kitchen now* but we generally eat in the dining room.
$ to e5press annoying habits!
#he is always behaing rudely.
$ ith the verb TJ +7 to refer to somebody's behaviour at the moment!
He isn.t being too friendly tonight* you know8
2.2. IJL=! K #% < V1*ing L
2.9. */Q7L+(! (of present moment)
$ no, right no> this moment> at the time>
$ at present>
2.:. 7K*=2M7(!
2.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student is 1riting a formula right now.
2.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! "s the student 1riting a formula right now#
2.:.9. %7-*T&Q7> %o, the student isnMt 1riting a formula right now.
9. 8!%(%NT 8%!>%:T: E 8a.FFFFF++++0+++"F F F F>. H
9.1. &t is used!
$ to e5press a completed action (perfect) still having an effect or result in the
moment of speaking (present)!
He has washed his car.
$ is used to represent activities completed in the immediate past, often associated
either ith 0just1 or no time reference at all!
He has just finished his homework.
$ is used to e5press activities completed in a period up till the moment of speech,
ithout being e5act about the time!
He has isited &ondon twice.
$ is used to represent a completed action in an uncompleted time interval!
/ hae seen him this morning.
1C
- to denote an action hich began in the past and is still continuing at the moment
of speaking!
He has known me for two years.
$ instead of future perfect in temporal clauses!
/.ll let you know when / hae finished.
9.2. IJL=! K CV% < V9 L
9.9. */Q7L+(! (of interval, time span, period, uncompleted time interval)
$ just, yet, already, never, ever>
$ forD, sinceD>
$ lately, recently>
$ this morning, this afternoon, this evening, this night, this eek, this month, this
year, this, spring, this century>
9.:. 7K*=2M7(!
9.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student has already 1ritten the formula.
9.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Cas the student already 1ritten the formula#
9.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student hasnMt 1ritten the formula yet.
?. 8!%(%NT 8%!>%:T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a. FFF++++0+"+++FFF F >. H
:.1. &t is used!
$ to e5press an activity still in progress (continuous) at the moment of speaking!
/.e been waiting for an hour and he hasn.t turned up yet.
$ to e5press an activity begun in the past hich has only just finished and is
relevant to the current situation!
#orry /.m late. Hae you been waiting long8
$ to describe a repeated activity, in hich case a nuance of reproach, irritation,
onder can be present!
/.e been knocking for the past ten minutes. ,hy don.t you answer the door8
:.2. IJL=! K CV% < #%%N< V1*ing L
:.9. */Q7L+(! (of interval of time)
$ since...>
$ forD>
:.:. 7K*=2M7(!
:.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student has been 1riting for an hour.
:.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Cas the student been 1riting for an hour#
:.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student hasnMt been 1riting for an hour.
1E
8(T T%N(%
1. 8(T ("D8$%: E 8a.FFFFFFF+FFFFF 8r.FF >. H
1.1. &t is used!
$ to represent simple actions completed at a definite time in the past!
/ met him yesterday.
$ to represent a series of actions in a se3uence, often as part of a narrative!
He picked up his hat* said good-bye and left.
$ to describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, and ith verbs of permanent
characteristic!
#he always wore black.
/ met him eery day on my way to the office.
1.2. IJL=! K V2 L 4 R /id F Q1S> R/&/%'T F Q1S
1.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point, or period in the past)
$ yesterday, last eek, last month, last year, last century>
$ ten years ago, before, on *ugust 2:
th
1?<:>
$ hen D.past action>
1.:. 7K*=2M7(!
1.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student 1rote that formula ten minutes ago.
1.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! =id the student 1rite that formula ten minutes ago.
1.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student didnMt 1rite that formula ten minutes ago.
2. 8(T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8aFFF+++"+++F 8r. F F>. H
2.1. &t is used!
$ to represent an action vieed in progress before the moment of speaking at some
point in the past!
,hen / arried* $om was talking on the phone.
$ To denote plans and arrangements as vieed from the past!
/ left home at C:00 as / was meeting Bohn at C:D0.
2.2. IJL=! K J(/J%!% < V1*ing L
2.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point or period in the past)
1@
$ yesterday, last eek, last month, last year, last century>
$ ten years ago, before, on *ugust 2:
th
1?<:>
$ hen D.past action> at this time yesterday>
2.:. 7K*=2M7(!
2.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student 1as 1riting the formula at this time
yesterday.
2.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Jas the student 1riting the formula at this time
yesterday#
2.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student 1asnMt 1riting the formula at this time
yesterday.
9. 8(T 8%!>%:T ("D8$% E 8a.F FF++++0+++"F 8r.FF >. H
9.1. &t is used!
$ to represent an action completed before another action or moment in the past!
He had read the noel before he saw the film.
$ to denote an action that began before another moment in the past and
continued up to that time!
/n 5EE0* we had known each other for ten years.
$ to replace the present perfect and the past simple in reported speech!
He told us he had been ill for months.
9.2. IJL=! K C= < V9 L
9.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point in the past, and of interval)
$ sinceD> forD>
$ yesterday, last eek, last month, last year, last century>
$ ten years ago, before, on *ugust 2:
th
1?<:>
$ hen4beforeD.past action> at this time yesterday>
9.:. 7K*=2M7(!
9.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student had 1ritten the formula before he took the
test .
9.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Cad the student 1ritten the formula before he took the
test#
9.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student hadnMt 1ritten the formula before he took
the test.
?. 8(T 8%!>%:T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a. FF++++0+"+++ 8r. FF>. H
:.1. &t is used!
1?
$ to represent a mostly completed action that is still vieed in progress at a
definite point in the past!
,hen / saw them* the boys had been playing football for three hours.
:.2. IJL=! K C= < #%%N < V1*ing L
:.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point in the past, and of interval)
$ sinceD> forD>
$ yesterday, last eek, last month, last year, last century>
$ ten years ago, before, on *ugust 2:
th
1?<:>
$ hen4beforeD.past action> at this time yesterday>
:.:. 7K*=2M7(!
:.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student had been 1riting for ten minutes, when the
test was oer.
:.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Cad the student been 1riting for ten minutes, when the
test was oer#
:.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o the student hadnMt been 1riting for ten minutes, when
the test was oer.
JI( &> %G8!%(("N2 >'T'!"TI
1. >'T'!% ("D8$%: E 8a.FF8r.FFFFFF+FFFFFFF >. H
1.1. /7I&%&T&J%!
$ is used to denote simple actions to be performed in the future, hile the
performance of an action or the occurrence of an event in the future may be
caused by objective circumstances or by a mi5ture of the former and a
personal element> it may also depend on a condition!
/ shall be twenty next month.
,hen will you leae8
1.2. IJL=! K J"$$/(C$$ < V1 L
1.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point or period in the future)
$ tomorro>
$ ne5t eek, ne5t month, ne5t year, ne5t century>
$ in 2A<<> in to years> after a fe days> the folloing day>
$ henD.future action.
1.:. 7K*=2M7(!
1.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student 1ill 1rite the formula in ten minutes.
2A
1.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Jill the student 1rite the formula in ten minutes.
1.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student 1onMt 1rite the formula in ten minutes.
2. >'T'!% :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a.FF8r.FFF+++"+++FFFFFF> . H
2.1. &t is used to represent an action vieed in progress at some time in the
future!
,e.d better moe the dining-table in the kitchen.we.ll be eating there during the
winter.
2.2. IJL=! K J"$$/(C$$ < #% < V1*ing L
2.1. 2.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point or period in the future)
$ tomorro> at this time tomorro>
$ ne5t eek, ne5t month, ne5t year, ne5t century>
$ in 2A<<> in to years> after a fe days> the folloing day>
$ henD.future action>
2.:. 7K*=2M7(!
2.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! The student 1ill be 1riting a formula during the next
two minutes.
2.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Jill the student be 1riting a formula during the next
two minutes#
2.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student 1onMt be 1riting the formula during the next
two minutes.
9. >'T'!% 8%!>%:T: E 8a. 8r.FFF++++0+++"FFFFF>. H
9.1. &t is used to represent a completed action at some point in the future!
<y the end of next year your new maid will hae broken all your cups.
9.2. IJL=! K J"$$/(C$$ < CV% V9L
9.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point or period in the future and of interval of time)
$ tomorro> at this time tomorro>
$ ne5t eek, ne5t month, ne5t year, ne5t century>
$ in 2A<<> in to years> after a fe days> the folloing day>
$ henD.future action>
$ forD> sinceD> byD> already>
9.:. 7K*=2M7(!
9.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! <y 50 o.clock the student 1ill have already 1ritten that
formula.
9.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Jill the student have already 1ritten that formula by
50 o.clock#
21
9.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student 1onMt have 1ritten that formula yet by 50
o.clock.
?. >'T'!% 8%!>%:T :&NT"N'&'(: E 8a. 8r.FFFF++++0+"+++FF >. H
:.1. &t is used to represent a partly completed action still vieed in progress at some
point in the future!
#he will hae been working there for F0 years in %pril this year.
:.2. IJL=! K J"$$/(C$$ < CV% < #%%N < V1*ing L
:.9. */Q7L+(! (of definite point or period in the future and of interval of time)
$ tomorro> at this time tomorro>
$ ne5t eek, ne5t month, ne5t year, ne5t century>
$ in 2A<<> in to years> after a fe days> the folloing day>
$ henD.future action>
$ forD> sinceD> byD> already>
:.:. 7K*=2M7(!
:.:.1. *II&L=*T&Q7! <y 50 o.clock the student 1ill have been 1riting that
formula for ten minutes.
:.:.2. &%T7LJ-*T&Q7! Jill the student have been 1riting that formula for ten
minutes by 50 o.clock#
:.:.9. %7-*T&Q7! %o, the student 1onMt have been 1riting that formula for ten
minutes for ten minutes by 50 o.clock.
@. 2resent simple
A. 2resent continuous
B. +7 -J&%- TJ T is used to e5press the subject's intention ith or ithout a time
e5pression!
/.m going to tell him what / think of him.
$ it is used to e5press a future action hose signs are visible at present!
/t.s going to rain.
N. +7 TJ T it is used to e5press an arrangement, an immediate future action, an
order!
$hey are to meet at F pm.
)ou are to stay in bed for three days.
O. +7 *+J)T TJ T is used to e5press an immediate future action hose fulfilment
is imminent!
&ook at her3 #he.s about to cry.
22
TC% 8(("V% V&":%
1. #(": :&N("=%!T"&N(
1.1 =efinition and form
Qoice is a grammatical category hich makes it possible to vie the action of a sentence
in to ays ithout change in the facts reported. ,onsider the folloing e5amples!

( (ubject T *gent) ( *ction T Qerb ) ( Lesult $ Jbject)
Iour friend ruined my party.
( (ubject T Lesult ) ( *ction T Qerb) ( *gent )
Dy party as ruined by your friend.
"n the first sentence the person ho did the action 'your friend( is the subject, and
comes first> then e say hat he did by using the verb 'ruined( and hat he did it to,
namely the object 'my party(. "n the second sentence, something different
happens! e start by talking about the party (thus the object of the first sentence has
become the subject of the second)> then e say hat as done to it 'was ruined(, and
ho this as done by 'your friend(. The first sentence and the verb form used in it are
called active. The second sentence and the verb form used in it are called passive.
Therefore the sub7ect in the active sentence becomes ob7ect in the passive one.
"e form the passive by using the verb to be in an appropriate tense folloed by the
8ast 8articiple of the main verb. The main verb is alays a transitive verb.
The article 1as 1ritten by a famous riter.
* ne theory 1as discovered by this scientist.
They should have received a more severe punishment.
%o meat is served in this restaurant.
&n spoken 7nglish e sometimes use the verb Gto getH instead of Gto beH in the passive.
They got punished for making too much noise.
29
2assive verb forms may be used ith the different tenses of the verb Gto beH folloed by
a 2ast 2articiple. The tenses and the rules for their use are the same as for active verb
forms. Thus e have!
2resent Tense (imple $ This poem is dedicated to my mother.
2ast Tense (imple T The first pri.e 1as 1on by the best man.
Iuture Tense (imple T This building 1ill be restored ne5t month.
2resent 2erfect (imple T This symphony has been performed thousands of times.
2ast perfect (imple T "hen the police arrived everything had been stolen.
Iuture 2erfect (imple T +y the time the festival begins a ne concert hall 1ill have been
built.
2resent Tense ,ontinuous T The car isn't ready because it is still being repaired.
2ast tense ,ontinuous T "hen e arrived at the stadium the national anthem 1as being
played.
U %ote that 2resent 2erfect ,ontinuous and 2ast 2erfect ,ontinuous are not used in the
passive voice.
=odal verbs and &nfinitive and -erunds may also be used in the passive . 8ere are some
e5amples!
=odals in the 2resent T This medicine should not be ta3en more than tice a day.
=odals in the 2ast ( 2erfect =odals ) T The pyramids must have been built more than
<,AAA years ago.
2resent &nfinitive (Gto beH F 2ast 2articiple) T 8e ants to be ta3en seriously all the
time.
2erfect &nfinitive (Gto hae beenH F 2ast 2articiple) T 8e as pleased to have been
a1arded the first pri.e.
2resent -erund (GbeingH F 2ast 2articiple) T & enjoy being given floers.
2erfect -erund (Ghaing beenH F 2ast 2articiple) T Caving been stung by bees she has
no love of insects.
1.2. !easons for using the passive voice
to focus on the action hen the agent is either not important, unknon or obvious.
The criminal 1as sentenced to life imprisonment.
& 1as born in 1?@1.
,offee 1ill be made available before lunch.
=y nephe has been arrested tice this year.
the agent is Vpeople or things in general'
(ome verbs cannot be used in the passive.
the agent is a long phrase
2:
Bane as e5tremely surprised by all the messages of encouragement she received.
to focus on ne information by making it the topic of the sentence
(everal basic types of influen-a have been identified.
to make a statement more impersonal and formal by avoiding the use of personal
pronouns or vague ords
"t is generally recogni-ed that smoking is bad for your health.
This paper cannot possibly be finished in to hours. (the paper is the problem not
our incompetence)
to avoid the use of GyouH in orders and rules!
6ou must hand in your applications before the end of the month. +ecomes! *ll
applications must be handed in before the end of the month.
in factual riting hen the focus is usually on events, achievements rather than
agents.
Qaccination had been pioneered to hundred years earlier.
in scientific and formal pieces of riting to highlight the objectivity of the
discourse
The time taken to travel beteen the units is calculated by the microprocessor.
U%ote that not all Ito beH F 2ast 2articiple verb forms are passive. They may also be
adjectives!
=y friend has been depressed since her boyfriend left her.
2. 2%NT( N= &#P%:T(
2.1. The gent
2<
The agent in a passive sentence is the same person or thing as the subject of an active
sentence. ,ompare!
& as ama.ed by their achievements.
Their achievements ama.ed me.
The agent is only e5pressed hen it is important to say ho or hat something is
done by. &n most passive sentences there is no agent as e have no interest in ho or
hat performs the action. "hat e are interested in is the action itself, ho or hat is
affected by the action, or hat is the result of it. (tatistics sho that only about 2AW
of passive sentences mention the agent!
* ne mall has just been opened.
The car has been damaged again.
&Mm alays being blamed for other people's mistakes.
"e mention the agent hen e consider that the information provided by it is really
important, especially if e ant to say more about it ith a relative clause!
The survivors 1ere rescued from the ater by a cruise liner 1hich had heard their
desperate calls.
& remember being taught 7nglish by a 1onderful teacher 1ho 1as really
passionate about everything she 1as doing.
The agent is usually introduced ith GbyH but after some 2articiples hich are used
like adjectives, other prepositions are used instead of GbyH to introduce the agent!
"e ere orried about (or by ) her silence.
& as e5cited at (or by ) the prospect of travelling abroad.
*re you scared of alligators#
2.2. The &b7ect
=any verbs, such as gie* tell* send* show* lend* get* bring* buy* hand* offer* pay* teach*
write* can be folloed by to objects ( a /irect Jbject and an &ndirect Jbject), hich
usually refer to a person and a thing. These verbs that have to objects in the active voice
usually have to passive forms because either of the objects can become subjects.
,onsider the folloing e5amples!
( &J) ( /J )
*ctive = 8e sent her a letter.
2assive = letter as sent to her.
2assive = (he as sent a letter.
( /J) ( &J )
2C
*ctive = They gave the a1ard to a famous actor.
2assive = The a1ard as given to a famous actor.
2assive = famous actor as given the aard.
"e usually add a preposition before the personal object. )sually this preposition is GtoH .
(ometimes e may use GforH as ell.
* note 1as given to the specialist.
* ne room 1as prepared for the guests.
"e can use some verbs, such as allow* ask* cause* forgie* deny* ithout a preposition!
*ccess 1as denied him.
2ermission 1as refused them.
*ll his sins 1ere forgiven him.
2.9. Verbs 1ith limited use in the passive
e cannot use intransitive verbs in the passive because they don't have an object
that can be changed into the subject
*ctive = /inosaurs disappeared many ages ago.
U2assive = /inosaurs 1ere disappeared many ages ago.
*ctive = They have a nice house.
U2assive = * nice house is had by them.
*ctive = 6our father lac3s diplomacy.
U2assive = /iplomacy is lac3ed by your father.
the verbs Gto suggestH and Gto explainH cannot change the indirect object to
subject!
*ctive = "e e+plained him the procedure.
2assive = The procedure 1as e+plained to him.
U 2assive = Ce 1as e+plained the procedure.
*ctive = They suggested us a ne time.
2assive = * ne time 1as suggested for us.
U2assive = Je 1ere suggested a ne time.
some verb phrases ith to objects cannot be passive at all!
Met me 1ish you the best of luc3.
The album earned them a fortune.
& bear him no ill 1ill.
2E
after some verbs, the /irect Jbject can be folloed by a noun or adjective hich
describes the object!
*ctive = They elected him 8resident.
2assive = Ce as elected 8resident.
*ctive = "e considered him a genius.
2assive = Ce as considered a genius.
*ctive = The other children called him stupid.
2assive = Ce as called stupid.
*ctive = "e regarded him as an e+pert.
2assive = Ce as regarded as an e+pert.
9. "N>"N"T"V%( N= 2%!'N=( "N TC% 8(("V%
9.1. "nfinitives after certain verbs
Qerbs such as make* see* help* hear* let have different patterns in the active and the
passive voice. &n the active voice the verb is folloed by object F short infinitive
(ithout the particle GtoH ) hile in the passive e use a long &nfinitive ( ith the
preposition GtoH). ,onsider the folloing e5amples!
*ctive = They made us pay ten pounds for each ticket.
2assive = "e 1ere made to pay ten pounds for each ticket.
*ctive = The police sa1 the burglar enter the house.
2assive = The burglar 1as seen to enter the house.
*ctive = & heard him shout.
2assive = 8e 1as heard to shout.
*ctive = & helped him find the right path.
2assive = 8e 1as helped to find the right path.
"e cannot use the verb Gto letH in the passive hen it is folloed by a verb phrase.
Therefore in such cases it should be replaced by G to be allowed to G or Gto be
permitted toH.
*ctive = They let the prisoner go free.
2assive = The prisoner 1as allo1ed/permitted to go free.
*ctive = =y parents let me 1atch TQ henever & anted.
2assive = & as allo1ed/ permitted to 1atch TQ henever & anted.
%evertheless e can use the verb Gto letH in the passive in some fi5ed phrases.
2@
The dog 1as let loose.
They 1ere let do1n by your attitude.
9.2. "mpersonal passive constructions
*fter verbs referring to mental processes, such as think* say* beliee* feel* presume*
understand* know or reporting verbs , such as claim* mention* request* point out* rumour
the passive can be formed in to ays!
a) &t F passive verb F GthatH ,lause
b) (ubject F passive verb F 2resent42erfect &nfinitive.
The latter construction is generally used in ritten 7nglish. &t is often used in
nespaper reports to avoid mentioning the source of the information. ,onsider the
folloing e5amples !
"t is rumoured that the president is unell.
The 8resident is rumoured to be unell.
"t is believed that the elections have been forged.
The elections are believed to have been forged.
"t is thought that they have left the country.
They are thought to have left the country.
"t is considered that he is a very dangerous man.
Ce is considered to be a very dangerous man.
"e often introduce a statement ith V&t is said thatD' meaning V2eople generally
think, believeD'!
"t is said that e5ercising improves physical health.
?. (T!':T'!%( J"TC GET N= HAVE
?.1. :ausatives
2?
"e use GgetH and GhaeH in both active and passive voice hen e talk about
ma3ing other people do something for us.
The active patterns meaning Vcause or order somebody to do something' are the
folloing!
GgetH F person F Mong &nfinitive ( ith the particle GtoH)
GhaeH F person F (hort &nfinitive ( ithout the particle GtoH)
& ill get the aiter to bring you the menu.
& ill have the aiter bring you the menu.
& ill get the students to help you ith the revision.
& ill have the students help you ith the revision.
U %ote that Ghae G is much more common in *merican 7nglish hile Gget G is
common in spoken +ritish 7nglish

the passive pattern meaning Varrange for somebody else to do something' is the
folloing!
Gget+haeH F object F 2ast 2articiple
& ill have /get the menu brought to you.
& ill have/ get the students help you .
& must go and have/get my hair cut .
& had to get/have my dress cleaned after one night in a club.
& ill have /get the photocopies made for you in a moment.
ithout including it in the group of causatives one should mention the fre3uent
use of the pattern GhaeH F object F 2ast participle to describe things that happen
to us, often misfortunes. &n these cases the subject is the person ho e5periences
hat happened.
& have had my car damaged.
& need to have /get my passport stamped before the end of the month.
They had/got their house bro3en into last night.
(he has had her application for a job in banking turned do1n.
in spoken 7nglish e can sometimes use GgetH instead of GhaeH
(he has got her article published in the nespaper.
U%ote that sometimes it is only the conte5t that can provide the e5act meaning!
They had their house demolished. (The to possible meanings are the folloing!
either they employed someone to demolish their house = causative> or the house as
demolished ithout their knoing it)
9A
T87 ()+B)%,T&Q7
(6%T87T&,*MM6 $ JM/ = infinitive (present subjunctive)
$ =J/7L% $2*(T ()+B)%,T&Q7
$ 2*(T 27LI7,T ()+)%,T&Q7
*%*M6T&,*M T =J/*M Q7L+FQ7L+
1. T87 ()+B)%,T&Q7 =JJ/ e5presses!
an $ )%L7*M
$ Q&LT)*M states or events
$ )%*,,J=2M&(87/
&%/. $ factual
()+B. $ non$factual
There are to categories of subjunctive!
the synthetical subjunctive
the analytical subjunctive
The syntactical subjunctive has to forms!
$ the old form hich is only formally identical ith the infinitive and the
modern form hich evinces to tenses! 2ast and 2ast 2erfect.
&. The synthetical sub7unctive ith the old form is also called 2L7(7%T
()+B)%,T&Q7 by some grammarians. &ts meaning shos an event or state hich can
be fulfilled and hich is thus assumed possible. This is hy this mood can convey
assumption, time, concession, conditions, ishes, order, doubts, purpose, re3uests.
The syntactical subjunctive does not enjoy a ide circulation in +ritish 7nglish,
but it is 3uite fre3uently used in *merican 7nglish.
a. &ndependent sentences and main clauses make use of this mood in formulaic set
phrases sometimes!
91
J&ong lie king =eorgeJ
>ome what may3
% month come tomorrow.
@ar be it form me to hint that3
#o be it3
<e that as it may
>ome rain and she will know how to use an umbrella.
b. The old subjunctive is also used in certain e5clamations to e5press a ish or
hope, very often involving supernatural poers.
=od bless you3
7amn you3
Heaen help us3
>urse* this fog3
=ood-bye ' =od be with you(
c. &t is sometimes used in poetry, either to e5press a ish or in clauses of
condition or concession.
/f this be error* and upon me proed 'if this is error(
(ynthetically (ubjunctive in its modern forms knos to tenses! 2ast
(ubjunctive and the 2ast 2erfect (ubjunctive.
a. The past subjunctive has the same form as the simple past tense in all verbs
e5cept to be, hose past subjunctive is 1ere for all persons.
b. The past perfect subjunctive is the same as the past perfect indicative.
2*(T ()+B)%,T&Q7 used after if) if only) as if / though and 1ish.
2ast subjunctive can be used after if and if only to e5press improbability or
unreality in the present.
/f it rained for six months ' improbable(
/f we all lied underground 'unreal(
/f only we had a rope 'unreal(.
if only < 1ould can e5press regret about a present action , an alternative to if only
< past tense ( it has the same meaning as 1ish < 1ould)
/f only he would drie more slowly 1 we are sorry he isn't welling to drie more
slowly.
2*(T 27LI7,T ()+B)%,T&Q7 is used hen the supposition refers to
the past!
/f it had rained last month 'but it didn't(
T87 2*(T ()+B)%,T&Q7 can be used similarly after as if/as
though to indicate unreality or improbability or doubt in the present (there is no
difference beteen as if and as though)
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He behaes as if he owned the place 'but he doesn't own it(
*fter as if / though e use a past perfect here referring to a real or imaginary
action in the past.
He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself 'but he hasn't(.
The past sub7unctive is used after 1ish to indicate an unreal situation in the
present.
"ish F past subjunctive is really an e5pression of regret!
/ wish / knew 1 /'m sorry / don't know.
"hen the action regretted occurred in the past, e use the past perfect !
/ wish he hadn't gone 1 /'m sorry he went.
Jish < 1ould
"ould is used after ish to e5press a not very hopeful ish concerning the future!
/ wish it would stop raining.
2*(T ()+B)%,T&Q7 used after!
it is time F subject
1ould rather / sooner F subject
*fter it is time e can either use !
a past sub7unctive
for < ob7ect < infinitive construction.
/t is time we went
$ implies that it is already a little late.
/t is time for us to go ' the correct time has arrived)
8igh is sometimes added to make the e5pression more emphatic!
Jould sooner / 1ould rather are folloed by the infinitive (ithout to) hen
then is no change of subject i.e. hen the subject of ould rather 4 sooner is the subject of
the action hich follos!
$om would rather go 1 $om would prefer to go.
+ut hen the person ho e5presses the preference is not the subject of the action
hich follos e use!
a. ould prefer F object F infinitive
/'d prefer her to go by train
b. ould rather 4 sooner F subject F past subjunctive.
but / would rather she went by train
T87 *%*M6T&,*M ()+B)%,T&Q7
$ is more used in contemporary +ritish 7nglish.
The analytical subjunctive makes use of au5iliary verbs hich are folloed by the
! $ indefinite
or of le5ical verbs
$ perfect infinitive
99
(imultaneity or posteriority to the action in the main clause is e5pressed by the
indefinite infinitive form.
nteriority to the action in the main clause is rendered by the subjunctive
containing the perfect infinitive.
1. Day or Dight < "nfinitive occur
a. in main clauses conveying a 1ish:
"ay you lie long3
b. in subordinate clauses e5pressing hope or fear!
Bohn hopes you may come back soon.
c. in subordinate clauses e5pressing purpose!
#he has told you this so that you ma know what kind of men he is.
d. in subordinate clauses of concession
,hateer she may say do not heed her words.
e. in adverbial clauses of comparison after
as if
as though
#he talks as she may be the boss here.
f. after phases like!
it is possible
it is li3ely
it is probable.
/t is possible that =eorge may see her.
g. after ish to e5press an unfulfilled action!
Berry wishes he might hae met you.
:an / could < infinitive is employed as an informal e3uivalent for may 4
might F infinitive. The can 4 could subjunctive implies that action is vieed as being real!
&Gll sho you my book so that you can 4 could reali.e its importance.
$ 1ill / 1ould may be used in clauses of purpose to form the analytical subjunctive!
$hey are climbing higher so that the will get a better iew.
He worked late last night so that he would be free today.
(hould < "nfinitive replaces the synthetically subjunctive and this shos that an
action is desired 4 possible.
&t appears!
a. in subordinate clauses of purpose) negative clauses) sub7ect clauses) time
clauses) ob7ect clauses:
/t is a shame that you should make such mistakes. (sub7ect(
He gae you this money so that you should keep quiet. (purpose(
He ran lest he should miss the train.
=o oer calculations until you should make sure they are correct. (time)
9:
b. in subordinate clause of concession hen the action is in the future.
;o matter what mother should think about at* her son will follow
her adice. (concession)
c. That...should can be used often certain verbs as an alternative to a gerund.
* suggest
* propose
* insist on
$om suggested selling the house 'gerund(
$om suggested my selling the house. 'possessie adjectie K gerund(
$om suggested that / should sell the house.
recommend,
advise can take
either gerund < 8oss.
or infinitive < cc
or should
He recommended my buying new tyres
He recommended me to buy new tyres
He recommended that / should buy new tyres.
d. determined
as determined take either infinitive
agreed or
demanded should
He agreed to diide the priAe between $om and %nn
He agreed that $om and %nn should share the priAe.
e. arrange
stipulate can be folloed by for < ob7ect < infinitive
be an5ious or should construction
/ am anxious for nobody to know where / am going.
/ am anxious that nobody should know when / am going.
f. order
command
urge
normally take an ob7ect < infinitive construction. +ut that...should is sometimes used,
particularly in the passive.
He urged the committee to buy the site. 'acc(
He urged that the site should the bought.
9<
g. that...should after it is 4 as F certain adjectives
that...should can be used after.
$ it is / 1as $ necessary
$ admissible
$ essential
$ better
$ vital
$ important
$ right
$ fair these are often preceded by only
$ natural
$ just
$ reasonable
as an alternative to a for < infinitive construction
/t is better for him to hear it from you that he should hear it from you.
$ that...should can be used after !
it is 4 as strange
odd
surprising
ama.ing as an alternative to that F present/ past
annoying
ridiculous
absurd
/t is ridiculous that we should be short of water in a country when it is always
raining.
9C