Casting

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One half of a bronze mold for casting a socketed spear head
dated to the period 1400-1000 BC.
Casting is a process by which a material is introduced into
a mold while it is liuid! allowed to solidify in the shape inside the mold! and then
remo"ed producing a fabricated ob#ect or part. $he finished product is also called a
casting. Casting is often used for creating one or more copies of an original piece of
sculptural %three-dimensional& artwork. 't is also used e(tensi"ely in the automobile
manufacture industry! such as the casting of engine blocks or cylinder heads! or "acuum-
forming of plastics and in the lost core process. $he process! particularly when performed
with molten metals! is also called founding.
Casting may be used to form hot! liuid metals or meltable plastics %called
thermoplastics&! or "arious materials that cold set after mi(ing of components such as
certain plastic resins %e.g. epo(y&! water setting materials such as concrete or plaster! and
materials that become liuid or paste when moist such as clay! which when dry enough to
be rigid is remo"ed from the mold! further dried! and fired in a kiln.
Casting may be used to create artistic sculptures
Lost wax casting process
$he )ost *a( casting process is an ancient practice that is still in widespread use today.
$he process "aries from foundry to foundry! but the steps which are usually used in
casting small bronze sculptures in a modern bronze foundry are as follows+
1. ,culpting. -n artist creates an original artwork from wa(! clay! or another material.
*a( and oil-based clay are often preferred because these materials retain their
softness.
.. /ouldmaking. - mould is made of the original sculpture. /ost moulds are at least
two pieces! and a shim with keys is placed between the two hal"es during
construction so that the mould can be put back together accurately. /ost moulds of
small sculptures are made from plaster! but can also be made of fiberglass or other
materials. $o preser"e the fine details on the original artwork0s surface! there is
usually an inner mould made of late( or "inyl! which is supported by the plaster part
of the mould. 1sually! the original artwork is destroyed during the making and initial
deconstruction of the plaster mould. $his is because the originals are solid! and do not
easily bend as the plaster mould is remo"ed. Often long! thin pieces are cut off of the
original and moulded separately. ,ometimes! especially in the case of large original
%such as life-size& sculptures! many moulds are needed to recreate the original
sculpture.
2. *a(. Once the plaster and late( mould is finished! molten wa( is poured into it and
swished around until an e"en coating! usually about 134 inches think! co"ers the entire
inner surface of the mould. $his may be done in se"eral layers.
4. 4emo"al of wa(. $his new! hollow wa( copy of the original artwork is remo"ed from
the mould. $he artist may reuse the mould to make more wa( copies! but wear and
tear on the mould limit their number. 5or small bronze artworks! a common number
of copies today is around .6.
6. Chasing. 7ach hollow wa( copy is then 8chased8+ a heated metal tool is used to rub
out all the marks which show the 8parting line8 or 8flashing8 where the pieces of the
mould came together. *a( pieces that were moulded separately can be heated and
attached9 foundries often use 8registration marks8 to indicate e(actly where they go.
:. ,pruing. Once the wa( copy looks #ust like the original artwork! it is 8sprued8 with a
treelike structure of wa( that will e"entually pro"ide paths for molten bronze to flow.
$he carefully-planned spruing usually begins at the top with a wa( 8cup!8 which is
attached by wa( cylinders to "arious points on the wa( copy.
;. ,lurry. - 8sprued8 wa( copy is dipped into a ceramic slurry! then into a mi(ture of
powdered clay and sand. $his is allowed to dry! and the process is repeated until a
half-inch thick or thicker surface co"ers the entire piece. Only the inside of the cup is
not coated! and the cup0s flat top ser"es as the base upon which the piece stands
during this process.
<. Burnout. $he ceramic-coated piece is placed cup-down in a kiln! whose heat hardens
the ceramic coatings into a shell! and the wa( melts and runs out. $he melted wa( can
be reco"ered and reused! although often it is simply combusted by the burnout
process. =ow all that remains of the original artwork is the negati"e space! formerly
occupied by the wa(! inside the hardened ceramic shell. $he feeder and "ent tubes
and cup are now hollow! also.
>. $esting. $he ceramic shell is allowed to cool! then is tested to see if water will flow
through the feeder and "ent tubes as necessary. Cracks or leaks can be patched with
thick ceramic paste. $o test the thickness! holes can be drilled into the shell! then
patched.
10. ?ouring. $he shell is reheated in the kiln to harden the patches! then placed cup-
upwards into a tub filled with sand. Bronze is melted in a crucible in a furnace! then
poured carefully into the shell. 'f the shell were not hot! the temperature difference
would shatter it. $he bronze-filled shells are allowed to cool.
11. 4elease. $he shell is hammered or sand-blasted away! releasing the rough bronze.
$he spruing! which are also faithfully recreated in metal! are cut off! to be reused in
another casting.
1.. /etal-chasing. @ust as the wa( copies were 8chased!8 the bronze copies are worked
until the telltale signs of casting are remo"ed! and the sculptures again look like the
original artwork. ?its left by air bubbles in the molten bronze are filled! and the stubs
of spruing filed down and polished.
12. ?atinating. $he bronze is coloured to the artist0s preference! using chemicals applied
to heated or cooled metal. $his colouring is called patina! and is often green! black!
white or brownish to simulate the surfaces of ancient bronze sculptures. %-ncient
bronzes gained their patinas from o(idisation and other effects of being on 7arth for
many years.& Aowe"er! many artists prefer that their bronzes ha"e brighter! paint-like
colours. ?atinas are generally less opaue than paint! which allows the lustre of the
metal to show through. -fter the patina is applied! a coating of wa( is usually applied
to protect the surface. ,ome patinas change colour o"er time because of o(idisation!
and the wa( layer slows this down somewhat.
On the left is an e(ample of a lost-wa( process mold! and
on the right is the resulting bronze sculpture.
$he lost-wa( process can also be used with any material
that can burn! melt! or e"aporate to lea"e a mold ca"ity.
,ome automobile manufacturers use a lost-foam techniue
to make engine blocks. $he model in this case is made of polystyrene foam! which is then
placed into a casting flask! consisting of a cope and drag! which is then filled with casting
sand. $he foam supports the sand! allowing shapes to be made which would not be
possible if the process had to rely on the sand alone to hold its shape. $he metal is then
poured in! and the heat of the metal "aporizes the foam as the metal enters the mold.
o 5lash animation of lost-wa( casting
Other casting processes used in creating artworks
,and-casting is mainly used for casting flat! relief-like sculptures. -luminum is one
material which is commonly used in sand-casting. $he process starts with a tub filled
with sand. $he sand is wetted! and an ob#ect is pressed into the wet sand! or the sculptor
uses his hands or tools to make the desired design in the sand! which is then dried.
/olten aluminum is carefully poured into the depression and left to cool. $hen the artist
may choose to continue refining the ob#ect by 8chasing8 it or lea"e it with the roughened
surface that is characteristic of sand-cast ob#ects.
Cuttlefish casting using cuttlebone as a mould is a traditional casting method used by
#ewelers and sil"ersmiths for small ob#ects! especially in taking a copy from a metal
original. $he fine grain of the calcium carbonate cuttlebone offers good definition!
although it imparts a characteristic surface te(ture to the cast.
Casting in manufacturing
Casting is a process by which a fluid melt is introduced into a mold! allowed to cool in
the shape of the form! and then e#ected to make a fabricated part or casing. 5our main
elements are reuired in the process of casting+ pattern! mold! cores! and the part. $he
pattern! the original template from which the mold is prepared! creates a corresponding
ca"ity in the casting material. Cores are used to produce tunnels or holes in the finished
mold! and the part is the final output of the process.
,ubstitution is always a factor in deciding whether other techniues should be used
instead of casting. -lternati"es include parts that can be stamped out on a punch press or
deep-drawn! items that can be manufactured by e(trusion or by cold-bending! and parts
that can be made from highly acti"e metals.
$he casting process is subdi"ided into two distinct subgroups+ e(pendable and
none(pendable mold castingBB
Expendable mold casting
7(pendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand! plastic! shell! and
in"estment %lost-wa( techniue& moldings. -ll of these in"ol"e the use of temporary and
nonreusable molds! and need gra"ity to help force molten fluid into casting ca"ities.'n
this process the mould is used only once.
Sand casting
Sand casting is a means of producing rough metal castings
that are further refined by any or all of hammer peening! shot
peening! polishing! forging! plating! rough grinding! machine
grinding or machining. ,and castings not further worked by
polishing or peening are readily recognized by the sand-like
te(ture imparted by the mold. -s the accuracy of the casting
is limited by imperfections in the mold making process there
will be e(tra material to be remo"ed by grinding or
machining! more than is reuired by other more accurate
casting processes.
atterns
5rom the design! pro"ided by an engineer or designer! a craftsperson called a
patternmaker produces a master of the ob#ect to be produced! often using wood. -s the
metal to be cast will shrink somewhat between the time it first solidifies and the time it is
cool the master must be made slightly larger than the finished product. $o simplify the
making of the pattern the patternmaker will use an appropriately scaled o"ersize rulerC
called a shrink ruleCspecific to the type
of metal to be cast. -dditional paths for
the entrance of metalCthe sprueCand
the e(iting of gasCthe riserCare added
to the pattern.
Cope D drag with cores in place on the drag
!olding box and materials
- multi-part molding bo( %known as a casting flask! sometimes referred to as the cope
and drag& is prepared to recei"e the pattern. /olding bo(es are made in segments that
may be latched to each other and to end closures. 5or a simple ob#ectCflat on one sideC
the lower portion of the bo(! closed at the bottom! will be filled with prepared casting
sand or green sandCa slightly moist mi(ture of sand and clay. $he sand is packed in
through a "ibratory process called ramming and! in this case! periodically screeded le"el.
$he surface of the sand may then be stabilized with a sizing compound. $he pattern is
placed on the sand and another molding bo( segment is added. -dditional sand is
rammed o"er and around the pattern. 5inally a co"er is placed on the bo( and it is turned
and unlatched! so that the hal"es of the mold may be parted and the pattern with its sprue
and "ent patterns remo"ed. -dditional sizing may be added and any defects introduced
by the remo"al of the pattern are corrected. $he bo( is closed again. $his forms a 8green8
mold which must be dried to recei"e the hot metal. 'f the mold is not sufficiently dried a
steam e(plosion can occur that can throw molten metal about. 'n some cases! the sand
may be oiled instead of moistened! which makes possible casting without waiting for the
sand to dry. ,and may also be bonded by chemical binders! such as furane resins or
amine-hardened resins.
Chills
'f it is desired to ha"e most of theCiron or steelCcasting in a tough! ductile! state but
with a few surfaces hard! it is possible to introduce! into the mold! metal platesCchillsC
where the metal is to be hardened. $he associated! local! rapid! cooling will form a finer-
grained and harder metal at these locations. $he inner diameter of an engine cylinder is
made hard by a chilling core.
Cores
$o produce ca"ities within the castingCsuch as for liuid cooling in engine blocks and
cylinder headsCnegati"e forms are used to produce cores. 1sually sand-molded! cores
are inserted into the casting bo( after remo"al of the pattern. *hene"er possible! designs
are made that a"oid the use of cores! due to the additional set-up time and thus greater
cost.
$wo sets of castings %bronze and
aluminum& from the abo"e sand mold
*ith a completed mold at the
appropriate moisture content! the bo(
containing the sand mold is then
positioned for filling with molten metal
Ctypically iron! steel! bronze! brass!
aluminum alloy! or "arious pot metal
alloys! which often include lead! tin! and zinc. -fter filling with liuid metal the bo( is
set aside until the metal is sufficiently cool to be strong. $he sand is then remo"ed
re"ealing a rough casting that! in the case of iron or steel! may still be glowing red. *hen
casting with metals like iron or lead! which are significantly hea"ier than the casting
sand! the casting flask is often co"ered with a hea"y plate to pre"ent a problem known as
floating the mold. 5loating the mold occurs when the pressure of the metal pushes the
sand abo"e the mold ca"ity out of shape! causing the casting to fail.
)eft+- Corebo(! with resulting %wire
reinforced& cores directly below. 4ight+-
?attern %used with the core& and the
resulting casting below %the wires are
from the remains of the core&
-fter casting! the cores are broken up by
rods or shot and remo"ed from the
casting. $he metal from the sprue and
risers is cut from the rough casting.
Earious heat treatments may be applied
to relie"e stresses from the initial
cooling and to add hardnessCin the case of steel or iron! by uenching in water or oil.
$he casting may be further strengthened by surface compression treatmentClike shot
peeningCthat adds resistance to tensile cracking and smoothes the rough surface.
"esign re#uirements
$he part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the
process! as it must be possible to remo"e the pattern without disturbing the molding sand
and to ha"e proper locations to recei"e and position the cores. - slight taper! known as
draft! must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line! in order to be able to
remo"e the pattern from the mold. $his reuirement also applies to cores! as they must be
remo"ed from the core bo( in which they are formed. $he sprue and risers must be
arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to a"oid an
incomplete casting. ,hould a piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be
embedded in the final casting! forming a sand pit! which may render the casting unusable.
Fas pockets can cause internal "oids. $hese may be immediately "isible or may only be
re"ealed after e(tensi"e machining has been performed. 5or critical applications! or
where the cost of wasted effort is a factor! non-destructi"e testing methods may be
applied before further work is performed.
"ecorati$e use of patterns
Old wood-patterns! once used to make molds for casting machine parts! are sought out
and collected by some for use as interior decorations.
%lternati$e casting methods
,and casting for mass production has largely been superseded by other methods.
/odern mass production methods can produce thin but accurate moldsC
superficially resembling paper mache! such as is used in egg cartons! but that is
refractory in natureCthat are then supported by some meansCsuch as dry sand
surrounded by a bo(Cduring the casting process. Gue to the higher accuracy it is
possible to make thinner and hence lighter castingsCe(tra metal does not ha"e to
be present to allow for "ariations in the moldsCthese thin-mold casting methods
ha"e been used since the 1>:0s in the manufacture of cast-iron engine blocks and
cylinder heads for automoti"e applications.
Earious automoti"e mechanical components are now freuently made of
aluminum! which for appropriately shaped components may be made either by
sand casting or by die casting! the latter an accurate process that greatly reduces
finishing and machining costs. *hile the material and the processing setup is
more e(pensi"e than the use of iron this is one of the most straightforward ways
to reduce weight in a "ehicle! important as a contributor to both fuel economy and
acceleration performance.
,tarting in the early 1><0s! some castings such as automoti"e engine blocks ha"e
been made using a sand casting techniue conceptually similar to the lost wa(
process! known as the lost foam process. 'n this process! the pattern is made of
polystyrene foam! which the sand is packed around! lea"ing the foam in place.
*hen the metal is poured into the mold! the heat of the metal "aporizes the foam
a short distance away from the surface of the metal! lea"ing the molding ca"ity
into which the metal flows. $he lost-foam process supports the sand much better
than con"entional sand casting! allowing greater fle(ibility in the design of the
cast parts! with less need for machining to finish the casting. $his techniue was
de"eloped for the clay mold casting of abstract art pieces and was first adopted for
large uantity commercial production by the ,aturn company. 1nfortunately! this
process burns plastic in an uncontroled way! producing a great deal of smoke.
laster casting &of metals'
?laster casting is similar to sand molding e(cept that plaster is substituted for sand.
?laster compound is actually composed of ;0-<0H gypsum and .0-20H strengthener and
water. Fenerally! the form takes less than a week to prepare! after which a production rate
of 1-10 units3hr-mold is achie"ed with a capability to pour items as massi"e as 46 kg and
as small as 20 g with "ery high surface resolution and fine tolerances.
Once used and cracked away! normal plaster cannot easily be recast. ?laster casting is
normally used for nonferrous metals such as aluminium-! zinc-! or copper-based alloys. 't
cannot be used to cast ferrous material because sulfur in gypsum slowly reacts with iron.
?rior to mold preparation the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting compound to
pre"ent the mold from sticking to the pattern. $he unit is shaken so plaster fills the small
ca"ities around the pattern. $he form is remo"ed after the plaster sets.
?laster casting represents a step up in sophistication and reuired skill. $he automatic
functions easily are handed o"er to robots! yet the higher-precision pattern designs
reuired demand e"en higher le"els of direct human assistance.
laster casting &of plaster or concrete'
?laster itself may be cast - either using single use waste molds! multiple use piece molds!
or molds made of fle(ible material such as late( rubber %which is in turn supported by an
e(terior mold&. $he finished product is! unlike marble! relati"ely unattracti"e! lacking in
transparency! and so is usually painted! often in ways that gi"e the appearance of metal.
-lternati"ely! the first layers cast may contain colored sand so as to gi"e an appearance
of stone. By casting concrete! rather than plaster! it is possible to create sculptures!
fountains! or seating for outdoor use.
Shell molding
,hell molding is also similar to sand molding e(cept that a mi(ture of sand and 2-:H
resin holds the grains together. ,et-up and production of shell mold patterns takes weeks!
after which an output of 6-60 pieces3hr-mold is attainable. -luminium and magnesium
products a"erage about 12.6 kg as a normal limit! but it is possible to cast items in the 46-
>0 kg range. ,hell mold walling "aries from 2-10 mm thick! depending on the forming
time of the resin.
$here are a dozen different stages in shell mold processing that include+
1. initially preparing a metal-matched plate
.. mi(ing resin and sand
2. heating pattern! usually to between 606-660 I
4. in"erting the pattern %the sand is at one end of a bo( and the pattern at the other!
and the bo( is in"erted for a time determined by the desired thickness of the mill&
6. curing shell and baking it
:. remo"ing in"estment
;. inserting cores
<. repeating for other half
>. assembling mold
10. pouring mold
11. remo"ing casting
1.. cleaning and trimming.
$he sand-resin mi( can be recycled by burning off the resin at high temperatures.
(n$estment Casting
'n"estment casting %lost-wa( process& yields a finely detailed and accurate product! with
e(cellent metallurgical properties.
?olystyrene foam is also used in in"estment castingCsee lost-foam casting.
-fter a "ariable lead time! usually weeks! 1J1000 pieces3hour-mold can be produced in
the mass range ..2J..; kg. 'tems up to 46 kg and as light as 20 g are possible for unit
production.
$he process starts by creating an in#ection die to the desired specifications. $his die will
be used to in#ect wa( to create the patterns needed for in"estment casting. $he patterns
are attached to a central wa( sprue! creating an assembly! or mold. $he sprue contains the
fill cup where the molten metal will be poured into the assembly.
$he wa( assembly is now dipped multiple times in a ceramic slurry! depending on the
shell thickness desired. - layer of fine sand %usually zircon& is added on top of each
ceramic layer. $his process will be repeated until the desired shell is created.
-fter the shell is created to the specifications desired! the wa( must be remo"ed9 this is
normally achie"ed using an autocla"e. $his is where the name 8lost-wa( process8 comes
from. $his lea"es an impression of the desired castings! which will be filled with metal.
Before being cast! howe"er! the shells must be heated in a furnace so they do not break
during the casting process.
=e(t! the desired metal is poured into the hot ceramic shell. $he metal fills each part on
the assembly! and the central sprue ca"ity and fill cup. $he indi"idual parts will be
remo"ed after the mold cools and the shell is remo"ed. $he shell is generally remo"ed
with water-blasting! although alternate methods can be used. *hat remains are the cast
metal parts! but they are still attached to the sprue assembly. $he indi"idual parts are
remo"ed by cold-break %dipping in liuid nitrogen and breaking the parts off with
hammer and chisel& or with large cutoff saws.
$he last step is finishing. 5irst the gate! or the place where the part was connected to the
sprue! must be remo"ed. $he gate is ground off to part specifications. ?arts are also
inspected to make sure they were cast properly! and if not are either fi(ed or scrapped.
Gepending on the in"estment casting facility and specifications! more finishing work can
be done on-site! sub-contracted! or not done at all.
'n"estment casting yields e(ceedingly fine uality products made of all types of metals. 't
has special applications in fabricating "ery high-temperature metals! especially those
which cannot be cast in metal or plaster molds and those which are difficult to machine or
work.
)onexpendable mold casting
=one(pendable mold casting differs from e(pendable processes in that the mold need not
be reformed after each production cycle. $his techniue includes at least four different
methods+ permanent! die! centrifugal! and continuous casting.
ermanent !old Casting
?ermanent mold casting %typically for non-ferrous metals& reuires a set-up time on the
order of weeks to prepare a steel tool! after which production rates of 6-60 pieces3hr-mold
are achie"ed with an upper mass limit of > kg per iron alloy item %cf.! up to 126 kg for
many nonferrous metal parts& and a lower limit of about 0.1 kg. ,teel ca"ities are coated
with refractory wash of acetylene soot before processing to allow easy remo"al of the
workpiece and promote longer tool life. ?ermanent molds ha"e a life which "aries
depending on maintenance of after which they reuire refinishing or replacement. Cast
parts from a permanent mold generally show .0H increase in tensile strength and 20H
increase in elongation as compared to the products of sand casting.
$he only necessary input is the coating applied regularly. $ypically! permanent mold
casting is used in forming iron-! aluminum-! magnesium-! and copper-based alloys. $he
process is highly automated.
"ie*Casting
'n die-casting molten metal is in#ected into a mould at high pressures. ,et-up time for dies
is 1-. hours! after which production rates of .0J.00 pieces per hour-mould are normally
obtained. /a(imum mass limits for magnesium! zinc! and aluminum parts are roughly
4.6 kg! 1< kg! and 46 kg! respecti"ely %though larger machines do e(ist&9 the lower limit
in all cases is about 20 g. Gie in#ection machines are generally large %up to 2 K < m& and
operate at high pressures C 100 megapascals %1000 kgf3cm
.
& and higher! although
aluminum usually is processed at lower pressure. - well-designed unit produces o"er
600!000 castings during the production lifetime of a single mould. *hile the dies used in
the process are uite e(pensi"e! if a "ery large number of castings can be produced!
significant cost sa"ings can be achie"ed when a component is manufactured by die
casting. $he ma#or production step is die construction! usually a steel alloy reuiring a
great deal of skill and fine tooling to prepare. /ostly non-ferrous materials are die-cast!
such as aluminum! zinc! magnesium! and copper-based alloys.
$his is the process used in the production of certain toys! notably that of model
automobiles! see+ die-cast toy! /atchbo(
Centrifugal casting
Main article: Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal casting is both gra"ity- and pressure-independent since it creates its own
force feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to >0 g %>00
m3sL&. )ead time "aries with the application. ,emi- and true-centrifugal processing permit
20-60 pieces3hr-mold to be produced! with a practical limit for batch processing of
appro(imately >000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit of ..2-4.6 kg.
'ndustrially! the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of the
method de"eloped by Ferman industrial company Irupp and this capability enabled the
rapid growth of the enterprise.
,mall art pieces such as #ewelry are often cast by this method using the lost wa( process!
as the forces enable the rather "iscous liuid metals to flow through "ery small passages
and into fine details such as lea"es and petals. $his effect is similar to the benefits from
"acuum casting! also applied to #ewelry casting.
Continuous Casting
Main article: Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous! high-"olume
production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. /olten metal is poured into an
open-ended! water-cooled copper mould! which allows a 0skin0 of solid metal to form o"er
the still-liuid centre. $he strand! as it is now called! is withdrawn from the mould and
passed into a chamber of rollers and water sprays9 the rollers support the thin skin of the
strand while the sprays remo"e heat from the strand! gradually solidifying the strand from
the outside in. -fter solidification! predetermined lengths of the strand are cut off by
either mechanical shears or tra"elling o(yacetylene torches and transferred to further
forming processes! or to a stockpile. Cast sizes can range from strip %a few millimetres
thick by about fi"e metres wide& to billets %>0 to 1:0 mm suare& to slabs %1..6 m wide
by .20 mm thick&. ,ometimes! the strand may undergo an initial hot rolling process
before being cut.
Continuous casting pro"ides better uality product as it allows finer control o"er the
casting process! along with the ob"ious ad"antages inherent in a continuous forming
process. /etals such as steel! copper and aluminum are continuously cast! with the
largest tonnage poured being steel.
Cooling rate
$he rate at which a casting cools affects its microstructure! uality! and properties.
$he products of sand casting and slurry-mold processes! often large with thick walls!
generally cool slowly. $his increases the metal0s grain size! creating a coarse
microstructure that lowers the strength of the casting. Coarse grains can allow elements
of an alloy to separate! which also weakens the casting. But slower cooling keeps the
casting metal liuid longer! which allows more gases and waste metal to escape! reducing
the "oids and inclusions that can weaken a casting.
Con"ersely! the products of die casting and metal-mold processes generally cool more
uickly! resulting in a fine microstructure with small grain and less alloy segregation but
more trapped gases and inclusions. On the other hand! according to the ?illings Bedworth
4atio! strength of a material is in"ersely proportional to the suare root of its grain size.
?ro"ided de-gassing techniues are used during molten metal preparation! die cast
products may ha"e superior strength when compared with eui"alent sand castings.
Shrinkage
)ike nearly all materials! metal is less dense as a liuid than a solid! and so a casting
shrinks as it cools -- mostly as it solidifies! but also as the temperature of the solid
material drops. Compensation for this natural phenomena must be considered in two
ways.
+olumetric Shrinkage
$he shrinkage caused by solidification can lea"e ca"ities in a casting! weakening it.
4isers pro"ide additional material to the casting as it solidifies. $he riser %sometimes
called a 8feeder8& is designed to solidify later than the part of the casting to which it is
attached. $hus the liuid metal in the riser will flow into the solidifying casting and feed
it until the casting is completely solid. 'n the riser itself there will be a ca"ity showing the
metal which was fed. 4isers add cost because some of their material must be remo"ed! by
cutting away from the casting which will be shipped to the customer. $hey are often
necessary to produce parts which are free of internal shrinkage "oids.
,ometimes! to promote directional shrinkage! chills must be used in the mold. - chill is
any material which will conduct heat away from the casting more rapidly that the
material used for molding. $hus if silica sand is used for molding! a chill may be made of
copper! iron! aluminum! graphite! zircon sand! chromite or any other material with the
ability to remo"e heat faster locally from the casting. -ll castings solidify with
progressi"e solidification but in some designs a chill is used to control the rate and
seuence of solidification of the casting.
Linear Shrinkage
,hrinkage after solidification can be dealt with by using an o"ersized pattern designed for
the rele"ant alloy. ?attern makers use special 8shrink rulers8 to make the patterns used by
the foundry to make castings to the design size reuired. $hese rulers are . - : H
o"ersize! depending on the material to be cast. 1sing such a ruler during pattern making
will ensure an o"ersize pattern. $hus! the mold is larger also! and when the molten metal
solidifies it will shrink and the casting will be the size reuired by the design.