SCIENCE REVISION

THE UNIVERSE AND THE EARTH

STARS, GALAXIES
GALAXIES
A galaxy is a massive gravitational bound system containing stars. These may be spiral or elliptical in shape and contain
200 billion stars. The Milky Way galaxy is 2.25 million light years from the nearby Andromeda galaxy. About 24 galaxies
form the Local Cluster, all moving around space together.
QUASARS
Quasars are distant powerful sources of light and radio waves putting out the energy of 100 galaxies. They have been
identified as distant galaxies with an enormous central mass.
STARS
Stars are huge spheres of hydrogen (H) and helium (He). Nuclear fusion occurs at 15 million degrees as hydrogen (H)
nuclei slam together to form the helium (He) nuclei. (It is too hot for electrons to orbit the nucleus and form atoms).
Constellations are groups of stars which form a pattern.
The sun has a mass of

kg and is 1.4 million km in diameter, and called a yellow dwarf. Blue giants can be 10 solar
masses, while red dwarfs are only 0.1 solar masses. In size a red dwarf is less than half the suns size, while the biggest
stars are supergiants of 300 solar masses and would extend out to Jupiters orbit, if placed at the centre of the solar system.
Surface temperature determines a stars colour.
Class Surface Temperature (K) Colour
O 30,000 Blue
B 10,000 to 30,000 Blue/White
A 10,000 White
F 6,000 to 10,000 White/Yellow
G 6,000 Yellow
K 4,500 Orange
M 3,000 Red
BLUE GIANTS
These stars are fusing very fast, so despite being 10 solar masses (Ms), they only last 3-10 million years, and then explode
as supernovae. The core becomes a black hole if it exceeds 3 Ms, while cores between 1.4 Ms and 3 Ms become neutron
stars, and because they spin rapidly they appear to flash or pulsate and so termed pulsars. The gravity is so intense that
atoms are crushed together and therefore the star is very dense. Protons and electrons combine to form neutrons.
WHITE DWARFS
These stars have a high surface temperature (10,000 to 30,000K), so they should be bright, but since they are only Earth
sized, their surface area is small, so as a result, they look dim. These stars are the cooling cores left over after red giants
fail, and so therefore no fusion occurs. These stars are also extremely dense.
RED GIANTS
Red giants form when sun sized stars (0.5 to 4 Ms) burn-up all of the hydrogen at centre. As a result, the star begins to lose
its outer layers; then temperature and pressure increases, until helium fusion occurs. Then the star expands, the surface
cools and reddens. Luminosity, however, increases despite being cooler, due to large size.

SUPERGIANTS
Supergiants are among the most massive stars. Stars larger than the sun (classes B, A and F) will eventually expand to be
500 times larger. Supergiants typically have a mass in excess of 10-60 Ms and are up to 25,000 times more luminous than
the Sun. For a given luminosity, red supergiants are larger than blue supergiants, because they radiate less energy per unit
of area. Antares (the heart of the Scorpion) and Betelgeuse (Orions right armpit) are red supergiants, while Rigel
(the brightest in Orion) is a blue supergiant.
RED DWARFS
Red dwarfs are small and relatively cool stars (they have a mass of between 0.075-0.5Ms, and a surface temperature of
around 4000K), and because of this they fuse slowly, so last up to 3 trillion years. They also have a constant luminosity;
and helium which builds up in the centre of the star is constantly mixed throughout the rest of the star. Then they just
slowly fade away, once all their hydrogen (H) is fused into helium (He). Red dwarfs due to their low luminosity, cannot be
seen from Earth with the naked eye.
BROWN DWARFS
Brown dwarfs (originally called black dwarfs) are between the size of Jupiter and a small star (around 0.075 Ms on
average). Brown dwarfs, due to their size, are not able to sustain the fusion of hydrogen into helium.
MAIN SEQUENCE
The main sequence ranges from red dwarfs to blue giants, fusing slow and fast respectively, and thus surface temperatures
and colours respectively too.
OTHER PARTS OF THE UNIVERSE
BINARY STARS
Binary stars are a star system containing two stars orbiting around each other, and can appear as one star from a great
distance. However, astronomers can identify binary stars by the gravitational influence they have on each other, which has
an effect on their luminosity. Binary stars are very common. Two examples of binary stars include Sirius, and Cygnus X-1
(of which one member is probably a black hole)
BLACK HOLE
Black holes are extremely small in size, but have an extremely high mass. The gravitational attraction of a black hole is so
great that even light does not have the escape velocity speed to escape it. Black holes are located in the centre of every
large galaxy and are believed to be created at the same time as the galaxy they are in. Stellar black holes are the remains of
a giant exploded star, which had a mass of more than 3 solar masses.
PULSAR
A pulsar is a neutron star emitting flashes of energy as it spins, emitting radiation. It appears to change its luminosity.
NEBULA
Nebulae (singular nebula) are columns of hydrogen, helium and other ionized gas, where the birth of new stars occurs.
Examples include the Orion Nebula and the Eagle Nebula.

SOLAR SYSTEM OBJECTS
METEORS AND COMETS
Comets are icy balls of rock and ice. Those that are visible from Earth, originate from the Oort Cloud or Kuiper Belt
(which is located beyond the orbits of Neptune and Pluto). Comets typically orbit the Sun, and are gradually pulled apart
by the gravitational exertion of the Sun. Comets have several distinct parts:
Nucleus: The nucleus is the relatively stable, mostly ice and gas core of the comet.
Tail (coma): Solar radiation and solar wind from the Sun causes the comet to form a trail of dust and gases.
This trail of dust and gas is visible due to the Suns radiation, which is reflected, or gases glowing due to ionization.
The difference between a meteor and a comet is that a meteor is a shooting star an object that has entered the
atmosphere, possibly a comet that has entered the atmosphere, while a comet is an icy ball of rock with 2 tails, 10 km
across and orbiting the sun.
ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are rock objects that can be up to 250 km across. Mars two moons Deimos and Phobos were probably asteroids,
while Jupiter has many satellites that were probably asteroids. Asteroids are located predominantly between Mars and
Jupiter, with some located in the Kuiper Belt, and some located in close proximity to Earth.
PLANETS
Planets are spherical objects, not large enough for fusion, but large enough to be rounded by its own objects.
ORIGINS OF THE UNIVERSE
THE STEADY STATE THEORY
The steady state theory, which was proposed in 1948, states that there was no beginning to the universe. It had always
existed. The theory states that galaxies are continually moving away from each other. In the extra space, new stars and
galaxies are created. Those new stars and galaxies replace those who move away, so that the universe appears the same.
ORIGINS OF THE BIG BANG THEORY
The Big Bang theory was a name used by one of the developers of the steady state theory, Fred Hoyle, to ridicule the
makers of the theory. The big bang theory was first proposed in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre, a Catholic Priest from Belgium.
EVIDENCE FOR THE BIG BANG
Most galaxies show the red-shift of their light because they are moving away. This is a good evidence for an expanding
universe since its beginning 13.7 billion years ago in a Big Bang.
Theoretical physicists predicted certain conditions if there was a Big Bang rather than the Steady State theory being true.
(In thus, the later theory, the universe always existed and matter spontaneously popped into existence. The Big Bang
however implies a beginning).
Conditions:
1. Hydrogen + Helium in 80:20 ratio
2. CMB = cosmic microwave background radiation should exist as a remnant of the Big Bang.
3. Expansion proved by the observation of red shift of light from galaxies.
4. It should look less evolved if we observe it (using Hubble or Keck) further back in time. e.g. In January 2011, Hubble
has viewed galaxies formed only 300,000 years after Big Bang.
There are still problems. The idea of inflation needed to be added on in 1980 to explain why the universe is already so big.
RED SHIFT OF GALAXIES
The movement of the stars towards or away with relation to the Earth can be measured using the Doppler Effect. Doppler
noted the effect on sound waves and relationship between pitch and distance. This is notably present in our daily lives,
with high-speed trains and aeroplanes.
When observing light from a distant star, some dark lines are observed. These dark lines correspond to the colours of light,
which have been absorbed by the substances within the star. Different substances absorb different wavelengths, and
therefore different colours. By identifying, the missing wavelengths (colours), astronomers can figure what elements
compose the star. In many cases, these missing wavelengths (colours) are shifted from their expected positions. These
changes, referred to as Doppler shifts are:
Red shift when the missing wavelengths shift to longer wavelengths, which have lower frequencies or more redder
frequencies than expected is called a red shift and results from a star moving away within relation to the Earth. Nearby
objects such as Sirius (the Dog Star), are moving away from us and display this red shift.
Blue shift when the missing wavelengths shift to shorter wavelengths, which have higher frequencies or more bluer
frequencies than expected is called a blue shift and results from a star moving closer within relation to the Earth.
Some stars show alternate changes between red shifts and blue shifts suggesting that the star is under the gravitational
influence of an orbiting star. The brightness of the circling star reduces corresponds to the appropriate shift of the main
star moving in response to the gravitational influences of the other star.
On a much larger scale, the study of Doppler shifts can determine the movement of galaxies, and provides an amazing
picture of the universe. A relatively small amount of galaxies, including the Andromeda Galaxy is moving towards us, but
the majority of galaxies display red shift, and are moving away from the Earth with considerable speed.
Astronomer, Edwin Hubble (of which the Hubble Space Telescope is named in honour of) first investigated the
relationship between the size of the red shift and the distance with relation to Earth. This is called Hubbles Law. This law
states the further away a galaxy if, the greater its red shift is, and therefore the faster it is moving away from us. This red
shift is present from any point within the universe, not just the planet Earth, as this is consistent with Hubbles law.
THE AFTERGLOW
As space expanded, the temperature cooled. Positions (positively charged electrons) and electrons formed, and then these
collided to form protons and neutrons, which eventually formed the nuclei of the first 3 elements. When the temperature
cooled enough, the nuclei captured the electrons, forming the atom.
George Gamow and Ralph Alpher proposed their version of the big bang theory in 1948. They calculated that the universe
would have a temperature of 2.7 C or (2.7 K) above absolute zero. That is -270C or 2.7 K. Anything with a temperature
above absolute zero (0K or around -273.7C) emits radiation. The nature of the radiation depends on the temperature.
Gamow predicted that because its temperature, the universe would be emitting an afterglow of radiation. This afterglow
became known as cosmic microwave background radiation and was discovered in 1965. Its discovery put an end to the
steady state theory.
THE END OF IT ALL
There are three theories for how the universe might end:
The big crunch theory: The big crunch is where the universe will snap back onto itself in a big crunch. If this happens,
the end result will be a single point, the singularity. Some cosmologists believe that this will be followed by another
big bang.
The big freeze theory: The big freeze is where the expansion of the universe continues and stars use up all their fuel
and burn out, causing planets to freeze. The universe would then consist of scattered particles that would never meet
again.
The big rip theory: The big rip is where the universe rips itself apart violently as a result of expanding at an increasing
speed. According to this theory, the end of the universe will also be the end of time itself.


t = 1,000,000,000 years
The universe was beginning to become a little 'lumpy'
Force of gravity pulled matter towards the 'lumpier'
regions forming galaxies.
t = + 200,000,000 years
First stars appeared consisting of atoms of hydrogen,
helium and lithium pulled together.
Nuclear reactions started forming heavier nuclei.
Swirling clouds of matter cooled and formed planets.
t = + 300, 000 years
Universe about 10
-3
of current size. Temperature had
cooled to 3,000 degrees Celsius.
Electrons had slowed down to be captured by the
nuclei, forming the atoms of the first 3 elements.
t = + 5 min
Nuclei of hydrogen, helium and lithium had formed. Atoms had not yet existed.
t = +1 s
The universe was about 10
24
km across.
Cooled to temperature of about 10 billion degrees
Celsius.
t = +10
-2
s
Universe was still expanding, and cooling rapidly. The universe was now, the same size as solar system
t = +10
-4
s
Protons and neutrons formed due to collisions between
small particles.
Universe was very bright, due to light being constantly
reflected by particles.
t = + 10
-34
s
Universe is size of pea.
Matter existed as positrons and electrons.
Particles collided with each other, releasing huge
amounts of energy in the form of light.
t = + 10
-43
s
Time and space had begun. Space was expanding
quickly.
Temperature of 10
33
Celsius
t = 0 s
No space or time All energy concentrated in single point.
ORIGINS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The universe is thought to be 15-20 billion years old. Some stars in our galaxy are thought to be 13 billion years old.
Our Sun is about 4.6 billion years old. In about 5 billion years from now, our sun will become a red giant then white
dwarf and die. This implies our Sun is a young star.
The most accepted theory for the formation of the solar system is the Nebula Hypothesis. According to this theory an
interstellar cloud of hydrogen gas or nebula is ejected from an exploding older star. At some point inside the nebula,
shockwaves could have caused the gases to spin (in what is referred to as an angular motion) and collects more matter
(in the form of hydrogen gas) due to the force of its own gravity, eventually forming our Sun. (The Sun takes up about
98.2% of the total mass of the Solar System)
The gravity potential energy caused by the growing star (in this case, our Sun) is converted to heat energy. When the
surface temperature reaches 11 million C, nuclear fusion begins. Elements formed up to iron (element no 26) within a
star, other elements require too much more energy and are formed during supernovae (sing. supernova).
Elements are not formed within a planet such as Earth, as the temperature is not hot enough to cause nuclear fusion,
yet new compounds are formed within the centre of the planet.
As the rest of material whirled around the disc of the Sun it formed clumps. These clumps eventually are thought to
have formed the planets and moons.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic (or EM) waves all travel at the same speed in a vacuum. This speed is

m/s or around

m/s or 300,000 km/s. In glass the speed drops to

m/s. The waves all have different frequencies (f) and

wave length ()

WAVES
The following symbols are used to represent properties of waves:
T period of time in seconds (time for wavelength to pass a given point)
A amplitude in metres, that is distance from 0 to crest or trough (height of crest)
f frequency in hertz (Hz) (no of waves per second)
(lambda) wavelength in metres
v velocity speed in metres per second
2a the wave height, is equal to twice the amplitude and is in metres
Transverse waves are waves where the particles oscillate back and forth perpendicular to the direction that the wave
is moving.
Longitudinal waves are waves where the particles oscillate back and forth along the direction that the wave is moving.
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light is made by luminous bodies such as stars, incandescent light-bulbs, fluorescent tubes, glow worms and fireflies
(bioluminescence) and glow-sticks (chemiluminescence). A lighthouse vibrates in all directions; its light is said to be
unpolarised. A polarised filter will enable only the direction to pass, thus polarising the light.
WAVELENGTHS OF VISIBLE LIGHT
LONGER WAVELENGTHS
Infra-red (IR) is 700 nanometres to about 2-3 mm
Microwaves are slightly longer at around 10 centimetres in ovens, but 1 or 2 centimetres if going up to satellites
Radio waves can be 1-2 metres long and even up 5 kilometres in length.
SHORTER WAVELENGTHS
UV rays are from 400 to 100 nanometres
X rays are even smaller from 100 nanometres down to 0.1 nanometres
rays (gamma rays) are 0.1 nanometres
ROCKS, FOSSILS AND EARTHQUAKES
TYPES OF ROCKS
a. Sedimentary rocks Due to the weathering process, extrusive igneous rock, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks,
remains of dead animals and plants, form sediments (accumulation of weathered rocks) lead to sedimentary rocks.
This process is called lithification. The lithification process involves many steps.
i/ Sediments build up at the bottom of river beds, lakes and seas. The pressure of the top layers and water
squeezes the sediments.
ii/ Water moving through the compressed sediments carries minerals which help cement the particles together.
Name Resulted From
Sandstone Sand
Mudstone Mud
Conglomerate Different size particles
Limestone Remains of the organisms
Chalk Remains of tiny sea organisms and their skeletons
Coal compressed plant material
b. Igneous rocks formed from the solidification of molten materials from within the Earth such as magma and lava
from the mantle (lava is the magma that spews out of a volcano).
i/ Lava cools quicker than magma, because it is above the Earths surface and thus the crystals formed are smaller
in size or non-existent. These rocks are called volcanic or extrusive. Examples include pumice and basalt.
ii/ Magma that cools slowly (below the surface of the Earth) forms intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks which
contain large crystals (the slower the rate of cooling, the larger the crystals). Examples include granite.
c. Metamorphic rocks are sedimentary or igneous rocks which are changed (metamorphosed) due to pressure or
temperature or both. Metamorphic rocks are stronger than the mother rock (protolith) because their particles are
fused together. Metamorphic rocks can further be changed due to pressure and temperature.
Name Course of change Resulted From
Limestone (sed.) Heat Marble
Granite (ign.) Heat + Pressure Gneiss
Shale (sed.) Pressure Slate, phylite, gneiss and then schist.
Schist Heat Gneiss
Quartz (sandstone) Heat + Pressure Quartzite
THE LAW OF SUPERPOSITION
According to the law of superposition, suggested by the English surveyor William Smith (1760-1839), during the
process of rock formation younger rocks superimpose on top of older rocks.
However, when the layers of the rocks are folded or faulted, it becomes less obvious the order of the stratigraphy. In
this case, geologists look at the fossils in order to determine the age of the rock layers. The most advanced and
complex fossils of organisms are the youngest.
Sometimes igneous intrusions or extrusions can change the sequence of sedimentary rocks. Sills and dykes spread
between sedimentary layers and cut across. This process is known as the law of cross-cutting relationship.
This law states that igneous rocks that intrude other rocks are younger than the rocks they intrude.
The size of crystals of igneous rocks increases with depth of cooling, due to the slower cooling rate.
Other processes that change rocks overtime include:
a. Metamorphism a process by which sedimentary rocks change over time due to heat or pressure (or both)
b. Unconformities are due to the discontinuity in the geological history of an area.
For example, erosion can cause deposited layers of rock to disappear overtime so there is a gap in the
geological history in that area. New layers can be deposited over the older ones.
DATING OF FOSSILS AND ROCKS LAYERS
Absolute fossil age refers to the actual age of the fossil. However, the absolute age of fossil can never be 100%
accurate.
Relative fossil age indicates whether one fossil is older or younger than another one.

ABOUT RADIOMETRIC DATING
This method is used for determining, the absolute age of a rock or fossil. This is based on the radioactive decay of
radioisotopes. Carbon dating is one widely used radiometric dating type to determine the age of fossils up 50,000 years.
Living things are made up of mainly
Carbon-12 and small amounts of
Carbon-14. Carbon-14 is unstable and
decays into nitrogen. Carbon-12 is
stable. After an organism dies, the
Carbon-14 decays but not the Carbon-12.
By measuring the ratio of Carbon-14: Carbon-12, we can determine the time of death (so the age) of the organism.
ROCK TYPES CONTAINING FOSSILS
Sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone, shale (mudstone), siltstone, coal and conglomerate may contain fossils.
The finer the grainsize, the better the detail of preservation will be. Metamorphism will heat and squeeze rocks and
destroy any fossils, e.g. no fossils in slate, schist or gneiss. Marble is metamorphosed limestone (full of coral, shells) and
will still show the fossils if it only is partially metamorphosed. Igneous rocks such as pumice, granite, basalt and dolerite
were once underground molten magma, and so therefore do not have any fossils.
TYPES OF FOSSILS
1. Unchanged soft parts rare in existence e.g. woolly mammoths from Siberia and Alaska, are only 10,000 to 20,000
years old.
2. Unchanged hard parts
e.g. (1) insects trapped in amber (hardwood tree sap)
e.g. (2) shells and bones
3. Changed hard parts The bone or shell is replaced by mineral such as calcite (carbonisation), that is

calcium
carbonate, maintaining the exact shape. This is a cast. Trees turn into petrified wood, which is made of silicate
materials. In some cases, the tree or bone becomes opalised and has rainbow colours
4. Impressions bones, shells, and leaves can leave an imprint in fine sediments.
This is the reverse image, and is called a mould.
5. Microfossils they are hard to detect, due to their extremely small size and include pollen, algae and bacteria.
6. Trace fossils foot prints are included here of which massive dinosaur footprints can be up to 1 metre across.
Also root tubes and coprolites (poo).
THE PROCESS OF FOSSILISATION
Fossilisation is a rare event, due to organism being easily decomposed by micro-organisms. It is the process of burial and
preservation of the specimen. If oxygen is excluded, the micro-organisms (bacteria) cannot decompose the flesh. Rapid
burial, by dirt, mud, silt, or lava etc., favours best preservation. In March 2011, a 700 year Chinese women was excavated
from a depth of 2 metres. She was in an excellent condition with skin, eyelashes and a green ring-stone present.
Otzi, the iceman, was found in 1991 in the Austrian Alps. He is kept frozen and has sterile water sprayed on his skin which
freezes into clear ice and keeps oxygen away.
INDEX FOSSILS
Some fossils lived over comparatively short period and were widely spread. These are known as index fossils and help us
determine the age of layers of rocks of which they are found.
For instances, different species of ammonites found in different parts of the world are used to determine the age of layers
of rocks within a million of years or so. A more primitive ammonite indicates that the layer is older than other layers
where more developed species are found.

Radioactive Element Decay product Half-life
Rubidium-87 Strontium-87 47 billion years
Uranium-238 Lead-206 4.51 billion years
Potassium-40 Argon-40 1.3 billion years
Uranium-235 Lead-207 0.71 billion years
Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 5730 years
DATING FOSSILS ACCURATELY
Relative dating is used to determine the relative age of a fossil. As the layers of sedimentary rock are usually arranged in
the order they were deposited, so are fossils, which means the more primitive species fossils are found further down than
the more developed species fossils.
In order for relative dating to be accurate, consideration of the earths movement needs to be considered. Such movements
include folding, and faulting. If the process is enough, to metamorphise the rock, the fossils would be destroyed. Layers
containing fossils may have been thrust upwards or sideways, and this needs to be taken into consideration, when
investigating the relative age of fossils within rock layers.
For the absolute age of a fossil, absolute dating is used. The accuracy depends on the measuring instrument used, and also
if the age of the fossil is old enough, than it becomes harder to become more absolute. Radioactive (isotope) dating can be
used to determine this.
FAULTS AND EARTHQUAKES
A fault is defined as a fracture in rocks due to stress and strain which breaks the rock. Some well-known faults:
San Andreas Fault California, USA
Alpine Fault New Zealand
North Anatolian Fault Turkey
A fault line is a fracture where the crust has moved. Following the 1855 Wellington Earthquake in New Zealand, geologists
were able to establish the connection between fault lines and earthquakes.
As far as seismologists can understand is that all, but the deepest earthquakes (600 km or more deep) occur on faults.
Seismic waves are generated when the two sides of the fault rapidly slip past each other:
P waves (primary waves) have a speed of 10 kilometres per second only. These waves are only detected by
seismometers, which are instruments measuring earthquake waves.
S waves (secondary waves) have a speed of 6 kilometres per second. They are felt as preliminary tremors.
L waves (surface or longitudinal waves) causes all the destruction, but are less than 150 kilometres (in length)
For most earthquakes, the faults do not break the surface, so the faults can be seen only through analysing the seismic
waves. Faults can be anywhere from a few metres to several thousand kilometres long. Seismologists still have to learn
more about the mechanism that causes the deepest earthquakes. At 600+ km deep, the earth is probably too warm for
faults to be brittle like glass, so some form of chemical change might occur very rapidly.
Every plate comes in contact with another plate at its boundary:
Spreading zones are where the plates move apart e.g. at mid-ocean ridges.
Subduction zones are where one plate rises over the top of another. They occur at the edge of some continents e.g.
Japan and western South America. Volcanoes form at subduction zones, and earthquakes are common due to friction
between plates.
Collision zones are where two plates collide. These two layers fold to form mountains
e.g. the Himalayas and areas of Southern Europe.
Transform fault zones are where plates slide past each other, in opposite directions causing earthquakes,
e.g. the San Andreas Fault, California, US and the Alpine Fault, South Island, New Zealand.
An earthquake is a naturally occurring movement of the earths crust, beginning suddenly and of short duration, which
causes vibrations to travel through the earth.
FOLDING
Geological folding involves the bending or buckling of a single or multiple layered strata such as sediments and rocks,
which were originally a plane surface. The cause of this is a gradual build-up of strain.
Types of folds:
Anticline folds these folds concave upwards, with the oldest rocks in the middle.
Syncline folds these folds concave downwards, with the youngest rocks in the middle.
Monocline folds these folds have a structure similar to steps. An example of a monocline fold is between Penrith and
Lapstone in the Blue Mountains.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed the idea of moving continents in 1912 (which wasnt popular with geologists).
He stated that all the earths landmasses were clumped into one supercontinent termed Pangaea.
Proof of continental drift came from:
The jigsaw fit of the coastlines
Similar rocks and fossils where the coasts fit.
Sonar could show the ocean floor topography of trenches, abyssal plains, volcanic peaks and mountains. Harry Hess
proposed that the sea floor spread apart to the underwater mountain ridges. Hot magma welled up in the mantle and split
the crust at the ridge.
Confirmation of sea floor spreading came in 1965. Underwater eruptions of basaltic lava had a trace of Earths magnetic
field recorded in minerals containing iron. (The field reverse every thousand years). An almost mirror image of stripes was
detected by magnometers, either side of the Mid Atlantic Ridge. (The same sort of pattern exists over all other ridges). The
theory was then confirmed.
In 1968, the Glomar Challenger drilled into the sea floor at many spots on an 18 month voyage. Results showed that near a
mid ocean ridge sediments were thinner and had younger fossils. Further from the ridge the sediments were thicker and
contained older fossils.
No ocean floor was older than 200 million years. Oceanic crust (under the sediments) is basaltic, while continental crust is
granitic which is less dense, and therefore floats on the basalt.
GENETICS
CELL DIVISION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
When an animal cell is to divide, the nucleus begins to split into two parts. The cytoplasm then starts to also separate,
forming two daughter cells. In the cytoplasm, structures also divide, and are shared equally with each of the daughter cells.
The new daughter cell absorbs the nutrients it requires to grow. Often one of the daughter cells will continue to divide
further into new cells.
When a plant cell is about to divide, the nucleus becomes larger and the vacuole disappears. Then the nucleus divides. New
cell walls grow to separate the two daughter cells. Small vacuoles join together to form a large vacuole. These form in one
of the two daughter cells. Chloroplasts are shared between each daughter cell. Water is then absorbed to make this cell
larger. One of the daughter cells divides again.
STRUCTURE OF DNA
RNA and DNA are macromolecules found in the nuclei of cells. Some DNA is also found in organelles called mitochondria
that generate energy for the organism. RNA is located in small structures in the cells cytoplasm called ribosomes. This is
where protein synthesis occurs within the cell.
In early 1950s, Rosalind Franklin and Linus Pauling used X-ray crystallography to determine the structure of DNA. They
observed the X-ray scattering patterns from the DNA in the hope of accurately determining the structure of the DNA
molecule. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick, using
data collected by Franklin, deduced that the DNA consisted of
a double helix. (This won them the 1962 Nobel Prize)
DNA consists of two helical strands similar in structure to a
twisted staircase, and is composed of molecules called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of three parts; a
nitrogen base, a sugar, and a phosphate group (refer to table).
Alternating sugar and phosphate groups make up the sides of the ladder, while the nitrogen bases join to form the rungs of
the ladders. In DNA, Adenine joins with Thymine, and Guanine joins with Cytosine, while in RNA, Adenine joins with Uracil,
and Guanine joins with Cytosine.
DNA RNA
Sugar group: Deoxyribose Sugar group: Ribose
Nitrogen bases:
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Nitrogen bases:
Adenine (A)
Uracil (U)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
DNA REPLICATION
During normal cell division, the DNA double-helix must unwind to form two new strands. New nucleotides are transported
towards these strands and link them according to the bases that join together. When fully replicated the two new strands
wind back up into the double-helix form. Each double helix strand then becomes part of the chromosomes that move to
opposite ends of the cell. When two new cells are formed, each has an identical copy of the DNA structure in its nucleus.
Genes represent certain sequences of nitrogen bases along the DNA strand. Sequences of three nitrogen bases form a
triplet code. The code is then read (decoded) by a RNA molecule. The RNA molecule moves to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm where the code is translated into an amino acid. A triplet code of CCA produces a different amino code to that
produced by the CGT code. For any one amino acid, there are a number of alternative codes. For e.g. glycine, the simplest
amino acid has four codes, CCA, CCG, CCC and CCT.
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
DARWINS THEORY OF EVOLUTION
Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873) was a geologist who had studied primitive fossils of Wales and Scotland. This led to
establishing the Cambrian Period as the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Through these studies of fossils and strata, he
became convinced that the Earth was extremely old, and that a series of great catastrophes had wiped out most of the life
forms, at various stages in the Earths history. He also believed in divine creation of life over long periods of time.
George Cuvier (1769-1832) was studying the anatomy of living organisms and comparing with that of fossils. By studying
what appeared to be similar fossils, he was able to prove extinction of many species, due to great catastrophes. Cuvier did
not believe that living things could change over time.
Louis Agassiz (1807-1873) was a Swiss-American geologist, who had studied the movement of glaciers. He realised that
signs of glaciation could be seen where none were present today, suggesting a great Ice Age once gripped the Earth, and
caused massive extinctions. He also noted that the simpler life-forms were found in lower layers than the more developed.
He described it all as the grand work of God.
Charles Darwin (born 1804) was chosen by Sedgwick in 1831 to assist in studying the geology of North Wales. Later,
Darwin went on a five year voyage, studying numerous species and great variations between species. On the Galapagos
Islands, he observed many species of finches and giant tortoises. Darwin started to think that the population on finches on
each island had originated from birds that had arrived from the mainland. He reasoned that the changes on each island,
had led to gradual changes in the finches, until the finches eventually became different from each other. For example: some
finches had adapted to feeding on insects and lived mainly in trees. Others lived in low shrubs on the ground, and had
different shaped beaks, and also a different diet.
Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection:
There is natural variation within a species.
In nature, there is a struggle for existence.
Organisms with more favourable variations (characteristics) survive in greater numbers and reproduce.
The next generation will have more individuals that have inherited this favourable characteristic.
Over time, the characteristic of the population change as the favourable characteristics are preserved. These became
more adapted to the environment.
He used this theory to explain the variation between the finches. He argued that the variations in the natural population
had meant that certain characteristics were favoured on one island, and other characteristics on another.
The geographic isolation had meant that populations had rarely inbred, and so each of the different species evolved
separate to one other.
PHYSICS
VELOCITY, ACCELERATION AND DISTANCE
VECTORS AND SCALAR QUANTITIES
Scalars are physical quantities that have magnitude (i.e. size, value)
Examples: distance, speed, pressure, temperature, money, work, current, time etc.
Vectors are physical quantities that have magnitude and direction.
Examples: displacement, velocity, acceleration, electric field, magnetic field, force etc.
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
Distance is the total length between two points, the route it covers.
Displacement is the shortest length between length between one point and another in a given direction.
GRAPHS WITH DISTANCE OR VELOCITY AGAINST TIME
GRAPHING DISTANCE (OR DISPLACEMENT) WITH TIME
1. From this graph we can read directly:
a. the position of the object
b. the time at which the object is at a particular position
2. We can calculate the velocity/speed of the object from the slope of the graph.



3. We can also work out is the object is moving or not.
4. We can work out if the velocity/speed is constant or not and hence if the object accelerates or not.
5. Constant velocity/speed means no acceleration while a variable velocity/speed implies acceleration.
GRAPHING VELOCITY (OR SPEED) WITH TIME)
1. From a velocity/time graph we read directly
a. The velocity/speed for a particular time
b. The time for a particular velocity
2. The acceleration by measuring the gradient of the graph for a particular time interval.
3. The distance and displacement of the moving object by calculating the area under the graph
Distance = Total Area
Displacement = Area below t axis Area below t axis
CALCULATING ACCELERATION
Acceleration =



v = final velocity/speed (ms
-1
)
u = initial velocity/speed (ms
-1
)
a = acceleration (ms
-1
)
t = time (sec)
EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION
1.
2.

3.

B
A

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTIONS
FIRST LAW: THE LAW OF INERTIA
This law states that an object will remain at rest or will not change its velocity (speed and direction) unless it is acted upon
by an outside unbalanced force.
All objects that have mass experience inertia, which is dependent on the amount of mass.
SECOND LAW: THE LAW OF ACCELERATION
This law states that the acceleration of an object is proportional to the net unbalanced force acting on the object, and is
inversely proportional to the mass.
F

Combining this two formulas to get a =

or F = ma
THIRD LAW: THE LAW OF ACTION AND REACTION
This states that all forces occur in pairs and these forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
WEIGHT AND MASS
1. Mass refers to the amount of matter in an object. Mass does not change from one place to another.
2. Weight is a special type of force due to the gravitational attraction of the Earth or any other planet
(moon etc.)
Weight (N) = Mass (kg) Acceleration due to gravity (ms
-2
)
W = mg
KINETIC ENERGY, POTENTIAL ENERGY AND MOMENTUM
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Bodies with a greater velocity have greater kinetic energy. The formula for the
amount of kinetic energy in an object is:

where energy (KE) is in joules (J), mass (m) in kg, and velocity (v) in ms
-1
.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Gravitational energy is the energy an object has due to gravity. Its formula is:

where energy (GPE) is in joules (J), mass (m) in kg, height (h) in metres, acceleration due to gravity (g) in ms
-2

When a body is falling, the sum of the amount of gravitational energy and kinetic energy is constant, if no energy is lost as
heat or sound.
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
An ideal spring will follow Hookes Law which is F = kx so therefore the elastic potential energy in a spring is:

where energy (EPE) is in joules (j), x = distance stretched (in m), that is total distance when stretched distance when un-
stretched (in m), k = spring constant. If the string is released, the energy is converted into kinetic energy.
MOMENTUM
Momentum is proportional to both mass and velocity.
The greater the velocity or mass, the greater the momentum, so therefore:
where momentum (p) in N.s, mass (m) in kg, velocity (v) in ms
-1

WORK
Work is a scalar quantity related to energy and is proportional to both force and distance. Its formula is:
where work (W) in newton metres or Joules (J), Force (F) in Newtons, and distance (s) in metres.
GRAVITY
GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION
Gravity is a force of attraction between two masses.
This force increases as the product of the masses increases:

This force decreases as the square of the separation between the masses increases.

Combining proportionalities:

Turning the proportionality into an equality,

where G is the gravitational constant of the universe, approximately

, and s is the distance between m1 and m2

WEIGHTLESSNESS
Gravity exists everywhere in our Universe. Astronauts floating in an international space station appear to be weightless,
without gravity but what is really happening is that both the astronauts and the space station are falling at the same time
and at the same rate (g = 9.8ms
-2
). Both the astronauts and space station fall at the same rate, but the curvature of the
Earth means that it never touches the surface of the Earth.
ABSORBTION, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
ABSORTION
The process of absorption occurs when sunlight (white light, light containing all frequencies) strikes the object, the
atoms of that object get excited by vibrating its electrons because light is a form of energy. But only some frequencies of
light
(some colours) most easily excite those atoms. These frequencies of light are absorbed into object that is the energy
contained in these frequencies of light starts up the vibrations of electrons. These vibrations are slowly converted to heat
as the electrons collide with neighbouring atoms.
Hence these absorbed frequencies are used to heat up the object, which is why black objects conduct heat well. The
frequencies that were not absorbed are reflected off the surface and it is these frequencies that are visible to eye, and give
the object its colour.
REFLECTION
Reflection is when a ray of light bounces off at the same angle in which it hits the object. The law of relationship between
the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection is: Reflection is also used in
optic fibres.
REFRACTION
Refraction is when a ray of light enters a material of different density and the ray of light bends, for e.g. when the ray of
light enters a denser material like glass and vice versa.



Also (does not include extra variables that could affect the light):

The two things to note:
1. Light bends towards the normal when it enters a material of a greater density (at an angle) and slows down.
2. Light bends away from the normal when it enters a material of a lesser density (at an angle) and speeds up.
Light travels at 299 792 458 kilometres per second in a vacuum. When light enters any other medium, light slows down
and bends. The refractive index (r) measures the change in velocity when light enters a material of different density.

where r is the refractive index, c is the speed of light, v is the speed of light in another medium.
SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES AND THEIR REFRACTION INDEXES:
Substance Refraction Index
vacuum 1
air (at sea level) slightly greater than 1
ice 1.31
water (at 20C) 1.33
ethyl alcohol (at 20C) 1.36
human eye - corona 1.37-1.4
human eye - lens 1.4
glass (crown glass - pure) 1.52
sodium chloride 1.55
CURVED SURFACES
A mirror is an object that reflects light. A lens is an object used for refracting light or bending light. Curved mirrors include
the convex and concave mirrors. Light rays converge to a point called the focus in a concave mirror. Light rays diverge
from a focus in a convex mirror.
The image at the focus can be seen. If real light rays pass through the focus we say that a real image is made. Real images
can be shown onto a screen e.g. like a movie projector. If virtual rays pass through the focus, then we say that a virtual
image is made. These images cannot be shown onto a screen.

CHEMISTRY
ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY AND ATOMIC THEORY
Democritus envisaged the concept of powdered rock having no possible smaller particle. He said it was atomos meaning
indivisible. This became the English atom the smallest part of an element.
Alchemists tried turning lead into gold and making the elixir of life. Eventually the science of chemistry evolved as new
elements and compounds were discovered.
THE PERIODIC TABLE
1. The elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number (Z), by the number of protons in the nucleus.
The simplest element is Hydrogen (H) with Z = 1.
2. The elements with 1 electron (e
-
) in its outer shell are placed in Group I. Groups are the vertical columns of the
Periodic Table. The elements with 2 electrons (2e
-
) in their outer shell are placed in Group II and so on.
3. Group VIII elements have full outer shells and are called Inert or Noble gases.
4. Special names are also given to Group I, II and VII. Group I are the Alkali Metals because the hydroxides of these metals
are alkalis (i.e. basic). Group II elements are called the alkaline earth metals. They also make oxides which are alkaline.
Group VII elements are called halogens (from the vapour of iodine which produced a halogen)
5. The Transition Metals are the elements which have more complicated arrangements. This group contains many
common metals such as Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Silver (Ag), Lead (Hg) and Gold (Au).
6. The Periods are the horizontal rows of the periodic table.
ATOMIC AND MASS NUMBERS
Atomic number (Z) refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Mass number (A) refers to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Therefore to calculate the number of neutrons in a nucleus we subtract Z from A.

CHEMICAL GROUPS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
The elements in a Group resemble each other. Sometimes they look alike, and in general behave in the same way. This is
due to the number of electrons (e

) in their outer shell.

GROUP I THE ALKALI METALS
The first three elements in this group are lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K).
They are solid metals which are stored in jars of oil because they are very reactive.
They are light and float on water (density of less than 1 kg.m
-3
)
They are silvery in colour and shiny when freshly cut but quickly tarnish due to oxidation. They must always cut under
the surface of paraffin oil.
They are soft and melt easily due to their low melting point (m.p.) and boiling points (b.p.), compared to other metals.
They are conductors of electricity.
The electron configuration for Group 1 elements:
Li 2 1
Na 2 8 1
K 2 8 8 1
Rb 2 8 18 8 1
Cs 2 8 18 18 8 1
Fr 2 8 18 32 18 8 1
The reactivity of the elements in this Group increases downwards (i.e. francium is most reactive, and lithium is the least
reactive). NOTE: The reactive series of metals is: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, and Pt

GROUP II THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS
The most reactive elements in this Group, strontium (Sr) and barium (Ba) must be stored under paraffin oil. The
others can be left in air because their oxides layers protect them.
They are all silvery-grey and shiny when freshly cut.
They have higher melting and boiling points compared to Group I elements.
They are denser than Group I elements and sink in water.
They are harder than Group I elements.
They have better conductivity than Group I elements.
GROUP VII: THE HALOGENS
These elements exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2 etc.) They are all coloured non-metals. They do not conduct electricity.
At room temperature: Fluorine is a very pale yellow gas. Chlorine is a yellow green gas. Bromine is a red-brown fuming
liquid. Iodine is a black purple solid. They are all poisonous. They have similar chemical properties because their atoms
have 7 electrons in their outer shell.
NOTE: The reactivity for groups I and II, increases downwards and across to the left in the periodic table.
For groups VI and VII, the opposite is true.
Non-metals such as fluorine have greater reactivity as they have more shells closer to the nucleus, thus more electrostatic
forces thus more reactive than chlorine.
GROUP VIII OR O: THE NOBLE GASES
These elements are all gases found in small quantities in the air. They have no smell or colour. They do not conduct
electricity. No compounds of these elements are found in nature. It was in 1965 that an English chemist, Bartlett, managed
to be Xenon and Krypton react for the first time. Research is still going on today. The noble gases are unreactive because
their atoms have full outer shells.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
THE REACTION BETWEEN CARBON AND OXYGEN
When carbon is heated in oxygen, they react together, and carbon dioxide is formed. The carbon and oxygen are called
reactants, because they react together. Carbon dioxide is the product of the reaction.
Its chemical equation is: C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
THE REACTION BETWEEN HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN
When hydrogen and oxygen react together, the product is water. Its chemical equation is: 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)
ADDING MORE INFORMATION TO EQUATIONS
Reactants and products may be solids, liquids, gases or solutions. You can show their states by adding state symbols to the
equations. The state symbols are:
(s) for solid (l) for liquid
(g) for gas (aq) for aqueous solution (solution in water)
FURTHER EXAMPLES:
1. Calcium burns in chlorine to form calcium chloride, a solid.
Therefore its chemical equation is: Ca(s) + Cl2 (g) CaCl2 (s)
2. In industry, hydrochloric acid is formed by burning hydrogen in chlorine.
Therefore its chemical equation is: H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)
3. Magnesium burns in oxygen to form magnesium oxide, a white solid.
Therefore its chemical equation is: 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s)

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND IONS
An element consists of only one type of atom: e.g. Fe, O2 and S6
A compound consists of two or more different atoms, chemically bonded together (note: if they are not chemically
bonded they may be a mixture or alloy): e.g. H
2
O, H
2
SO
4
and CO
2

Ions are charged particles. Positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons, e.g. Na
+
, Mg
2+
and Al
3+
. Negative
ions are formed when non-metal ions gain electrons e.g. Cl

, S
2
and N
3

A polyatomic ion or radical is a charged particle made up of more than one type of atom, e.g. NH4
+
, SO4
2
and CO3
2

CHEMICAL BONDING
Atoms gain or lose electrons to form anions (negatively charged ions) and cations (positively charged ions). This is
because each atom prefers a full outer shell, for example the ionic bond between Na and Cl.
BONDING BETWEEN PURE METALS:
The bonding between metals, e.g. iron (Fe), gold (Au) and calcium (Ca), is called metallic bonding.
All metals are solid at 25C except mercury (Hg), which is liquid.
COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons and occurs only between non-metals and other non-metals, like carbon
(C) and oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and fluorine (F).
A molecule is composed of non-metals and is the smallest number of atoms that exist bonded together in a stable form.
Atoms of the noble gases exist by themselves and are called monatomic. For carbon dioxide, a molecule consists of one
carbon atom and two oxygen atoms covalently bonded together. This molecular formula represents the number and
types of atoms in the compound.
A diatomic molecule consists of two non-metal atoms covalently bonded together. Elements that exist as diatomic
molecules are the gases hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2), the liquid bromine
(Br2) and solid iodine (I2)
IONIC BONDING
Ionic bonding almost always involves metals combined with non-metals. Ionic compounds are crystalline solids,
unless dissolved in water as an aqueous solution.
The formula of an ionic compound is not a molecular formula, since ionic compounds form large crystal lattices, not
molecules. Instead the formula shows the ratio of ions in the crystal. For example, the ionic compound magnesium
oxide has the formula MgO. This doesnt mean that one atom of magnesium and one atom of oxygen move around
together; it means that in any sample of magnesium oxide, the ratio of magnesium ions Mg
2+
to oxide ions O
2
is 1:1. A
small crystal may contain 1000 ions of each, while a larger crystal may contain millions of ions of each The formula
still stays as MgO.
Sometimes more than one of a polyatomic ion is needed in a formula. This is when brackets are used,
for example Fe2(SO4)3, Ca(OH)2, (NH4)2CO3
Ionic bonds are broken with the substance is dissolved in water.
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER
The Law of Conservation of Matter (or Law of Conservation of Mass) states that: matter cannot be neither created nor
destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another. This means that there must be the same number of each type
of atom on each side of the equation. The atoms are simply being rearranged through the reaction process.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
COMBINATION OR SYNTHESIS
Often, two or more substances, that is elements combine together, to form a single substance. This type of reaction is called
a combination or a synthesis, and it has only one product, for example:
1. Iron (II) + Sulfur Iron (II) Sulfide
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
2. Sodium + Chloride Sodium Chloride
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition involves the reaction of a single substance by which it breaks down into two or more simple substances.
Decomposition reactions have only one reactant, and are caused by either light or heat. In some reactions, a single
substance breaks down into two or more simpler substances. This is called decomposition. A decomposition reaction has
only one reactant, for example:
1. Calcium Carbonate (limestone) (heat) Calcium Oxide+ Carbon Dioxide Gas
CaCO3 (s) (heat) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
2. Copper Carbonate (heat) Copper Oxide + Carbon Dioxide Gas
CuCO3 (s) (heat) CuO + CO2
3. Blue hydrate Copper Sulfate (heat) Copper Sulfate (white) + Water
Cu
2+
(aq)

+ SO4
2
(aq) (+ H2O) CuSO4 + H2O
This reaction requires heat, in order for the reactant to dissolve. Decomposition caused by heat is called thermal
decomposition.
Some decomposition reactions are caused by light. For example silver chloride is a white solid. It breaks down in light to
give tiny black crystals of silver, for examples:
1. Silver Chloride + (through light) Silver + Chlorine
AgCl2(s) (through light) Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)
2. Silver Bromide + (through light) Silver + Bromine
AgBr2 (through light) Ag(s) + Br2 (l)
3. Silver Iodide (through light) Silver + Iodine
AgI2 (through light) Ag(s) + I(s)
Silver bromide and silver iodide decompose in the same way. These reactions are used in black and white photography.
Photographic film and paper have a coating of silver chloride or bromide or iodide in gelatine. The silver compound
decomposes where light strikes it, giving a dark image. The rest of the compound is washed away during processing.
PRECIPITATION
Certain solutions when mixed react to product a suspension in a liquid, an insoluble product, which is a compound,
and is called the precipitate. For example when aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate are mixed, a
white precipitate of silver chloride forms: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Sodium nitrate is soluble in water, so it remains in the solution. The silver chloride precipitates because it is insoluble.
SOLUBILITY
All nitrates (-NO3) are soluble
All acetates (CH3COO-) are soluble.
All chlorides are soluble except for HgCl, AgCl, PbCl2
All sulfates are soluble except for CaSO4, BaSO4 and PbSO4
All carbonates are insoluble except for Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3
All sodium and potassium salts are soluble.
All group 1 compounds are soluble.
COMBUSTION
Combustion is any chemical reaction in which heat and usually light is produced, sometimes called burning.
e.g. 2Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2MgO(s) + heat + white light.
Combustion reactions involve the burning of a usually organic substance with oxygen.
Combustion of organic substances almost always produced CO2 and H2O.
Rapid combustion produces flame and high temperatures e.g. fire
Slow combustion produces low temperatures and no flames.
Combustion reactions are an essential part of our lives: the burning of gas, coal, petrol and oil are all combustion
reactions. The heat they give out is used to cook food, warm houses and drive engines.
CORROSION (RUSTING)
Corrosion refers to the reaction of a metal with gases in the air.
There are many methods to prevent corrosion such as galvanizing, chromium plating, sacrificial protection and tin
plating.
OTHER TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Oxidation:
METAL + OXYGEN METAL OXIDE
Examples:
i. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium Oxide
2Mg + O2 2MgO
ii. Iron (II) + Oxygen Iron Oxide
2Fe + O2 2FeO
iii. Zinc + Oxygen Iron Oxide
2Zn + O2 = 2ZnO
2. Metals with acids:
Note: This type of reaction involves active metals such as Na, K, Hg, Ca etc.
Unreactive metals such as Au (gold) do not react with hydrochloric acid (HCl), no matter how concentrated the acid is.
Copper reacts with HNO3 (nitric acid).
The general word equation:
METAL + ACID SALT + HYDROGEN GAS
Examples:
i. Sodium + Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Chloride + Hydrogen Gas
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(s) + H2 (g)
ii. Zinc + Hydrochloric Acid Zinc Chloride + Hydrogen Gas
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(s) + H2 (g)
iii. Aluminium + Nitric Acid Aluminium Nitrate + Hydrogen Gas
6Al(s) + 6HNO3 (aq) 6Al(NO3)3 (s) + 3H2 (g)
3. Acids with carbonates:
ACID + CARBONATE SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE
Examples:
i. Hydrochloric Acid + Barium Carbonate Barium Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide
2HCl(aq) + BaCO3 (s) BaCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
ii. Hydrochloric Acid + Zinc Carbonate Zinc Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide
2HCl(g) + ZnCO3 (s) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
iii. Sulfuric Acid + Calcium Carbonate Calcium Sulfate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
H2SO4 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
iv. Nitric Acid + Sodium Carbonate Sodium Nitrate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
2HNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (s) 2NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

4. Acids with alkalis (neutralisation):
ACID + ALKALI (in equal molarity) SALT + WATER
Neutralisation is an exothermic reaction, which raises the temperature of the solution.
Examples:
i. Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric Acid Sodium Chloride + Water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
ii. Calcium Hydroxide + Nitric Acid Calcium Nitrate + Water
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
VALENCIES OF COMMON POLYATOMIC IONS
+1 1 2 3
Ammonium Ion
NH4
+
Acetate Ion
CH3COO

Carbonate Ion
CO3
2
Phosphate Ion
PO4
3
Hydrogen Carbonate
HCO3

Chromate Ion
CrO4
2
Purple indicates that
these should be known.
Hydroxide Ion
OH

Dichromate Ion
Cr2CO7
2
Nitrate Ion
NO3

Sulfate Ion
SO4
2
Nitrite
NO2

Sulfite
SO3
2
Valency refers to the number of electrons in the outer shell, that need to be donated or gained to make a stable shell of an
ion or atom, e.g. hydrogens valency is H
+
, lithiums valency is Li
+
and chlorines is Cl

. Dont confuse with charge.

Note: The elements carbon, silicon and germanium dont form ions.
CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES
ACIDS
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Acids have a sour taste however some are dangerous as they burn.
They turn litmus paper from blue to red and universal indicator red as well.
There have a pH less than 7.
All acids are found as solutions of pure compounds in water. Their acidity is caused by the hydrogen ions
Some acids when concentrated are corrosive, which means they can eat away at metal, fabric and skin.
Strong acids are acids where nearly all the acid molecules break up to form ions, for e.g. HCl. Weak acids are acids that
are not corrosive, such as acetic acid which is found in vinegar. In weak acids, some of the acid molecules form ions.
Strong acids always have a lower pH than weak acids.
They react with metals forming hydrogen and a salt
They react with carbonates forming a salt, water and carbon dioxide
They react with metal oxides, forming a salt and water.
INDICATORS
Indicator pH Range Initial Colour Final Colour
Methyl violet 0-1.6 yellow blue-violet
Thymol blue 1.2-2.8 red yellow
Bromophenol blue 3-4.6 yellow blue-violet
Methyl orange 3.2-4.4 red yellow-orange
Methyl red 4.4-6.2 red yellow
Litmus 5-8 pink blue
Bromocresol purple 5.2-6.8 yellow purple
Bromophenol red 5.2-6.8 yellow red
Bromothymol blue 6.2-7.6 yellow blue
Cresol red 7.2-8.8 yellow red
Thymol blue 8-9.6 yellow blue
Phenolphthalein 8-10 colourless pink
Alizarin Yellow 10-12 yellow red-violet
COMMON ACIDS
Acid Molecular Formula PH
acetic acid C2H4O2 (CH3COOH) 2.9
benzoic acid C7H6O2 3
boric acid H3BO3 5.2
butyric acid C4H8O2 4.8
carbonic acid H2CO3 2.8
citric acid C6H8O7 2.2
hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) 1.1
hydrocyanic acid HCN 5.1
hydrofluoric acid HF 2.1
lactic acid C3H6O3 2.4
nitric acid HNO3 1
phosphoric acid H3PO4 1.5
sulfuric acid H2SO4 1.2
sulfurous acid H2SO3 1.5
hydrogen sulfide H2S 4.1
formic acid CH2O2 2.3
malic acid C4H6O5 2.2
arsenous acid H3AsO3 5
oxalic acid H2C2O4 1.3
salicylic acid C7H6O3 2.4
succinic acid C4H6O4 2.7
tannic acid C76H52O46 3.5
tartaric acid C4H6O6 2.2
valeric acid C5H10O2 4.8
BASES
NEUTRALISATION IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Insect stings when a bee stings, it injects an acidic liquid into the skin. The sting can be neutralised by rubbing on
calamine lotion, which contains zinc carbonate, or baking soda, which is sodium hydrogen carbonate. Wasp stings are
alkaline, and can be neutralised with vinegar. Ant stings and nettle stings contain acid as well, and are neutralised with
bases.
Indigestion Hydrochloric acid is present in the stomach which is a very diluted, to assist with digestion. An
imbalance in HCl leads to indigestion, which is very painful. Baking soda or indigestion tablets can rectify this
imbalance through the process of neutralisation.
Soil Treatment Most plants grow best when the pH of the soil is close to 7, otherwise the plants will not grow as well.
Often, it is too acidic, so quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate), are
used to treat it. These are all bases and inexpensive.
Factory Waste Liquid waste from factories often contains acid. If it reaches a river, the acid will kill fish and other
river life. This can be prevented by added slaked lime to the water, to neutralise it.

PROPERTIES OF BASES
Bases are defined as being able to neutralise an acid.
Alkalis are soluble substances that can neutralise acids, and remove its acidity. It does this by reacting with the
hydrogen ions, forming water and a salt.
Bases which are metal oxides, hydroxides, hydrogen carbonates and carbonates can also neutralise acids. Ammonia
solution is also a basic solution. Bases have a pH less greater than 7, turn litmus from red to blue, and can like acids,
burn skin.
However, many of the bases are insoluble in water.
The general reaction of acids with bases are:
1. ACID + METAL OXIDE SALT + WATER
2. ACID + METAL HYDROXIDE SALT + WATER
3. ACID + METAL CARBONATE (or METAL HYDROGEN CARBONATE) SALT + CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
Examples:
1. Magnesium Oxide + Hydrochloric Acid Magnesium Chloride + Water
MgO + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O
2. Magnesium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric Acid Magnesium Chloride + Water
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl MgCl2 + 2H2O
3. Magnesium Carbonate + Hydrochloride Acid Magnesium Chloride + Carbon Dioxide + Water
MgCO3 + 2HCl MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O
4. Zinc Oxide + Sulfuric Acid Zinc Sulfate + Water
ZnO + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O
5. Zinc Hydroxide + Sulfuric Acid Zinc Sulfate + Water
Zn(OH)2 + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + 2H2O
6. Zinc Carbonate + Sulfuric Acid Zinc Sulfate + Carbon Dioxide + Water
ZnCO3 + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + CO2 + H2O
7. Copper (II) Oxide + Nitric Acid Copper Nitrate + Water
CuO + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O
8. Copper (II) Hydroxide + Nitric Acid Copper Nitrate + Water
Cu(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O
9. Copper (II) Carbonate + Nitric Acid Copper Nitrate + Carbon Dioxide + Water
CuCO3 + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
Alkalis are soluble bases.
Alkalis feel soapy to touch some alkalis are dangerous as they burn flesh.
Their solutions turn litmus from red to blue.
They have a pH greater than 7
All alkalis except ammonia will react with ammonium compounds, creating ammonia, a salt and water,
e.g. calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride calcium chloride + steam + ammonia
Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2NH4Cl(s) CaCl2 (s) + 2H2O(g) + 2NH3 (g)
All alkalis react with acids, producing a salt and water.
Alkalis unlike bases all contain OH
-1
ions, which join with the H
+
ions to form water.
Strong alkalis exist almost completely as ions, as solution, e.g. potassium hydroxide.
Weak alkalis form ions, from some of the molecules, e.g. ammonia.
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES
Many substances do not affect the colour of litmus, so are not acids or alkalis. They are neutral. Sodium chloride and sugar
solutions are both neutral.

PLASTICS
TYPES OF PLASTICS
Polythene used for plastic bags, dustbins and plastic basins.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) used for raincoats, seat covers and records
Polystyrene used for plastic cups and packaging materials.
Nylon used for rope, bristle for brushes, tights and clothing.
Melamine used for unbreakable dishes and mugs, and ashtrays.
Phenolic used for electric plugs and saucepan handles.
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
1. They are all carbon compounds
2. They can be moulded into different shapes, plastic meaning easy to mould.
3. The starting materials are usually obtained from oil.
For e.g. polythene and PVC start off as ethene which is made by cracking some of the alkanes in oil.
4. They are all polymers and consist of very long molecules, made by joining many small molecules, called monomers.
Plastics are creating in the process of polymerisation. For example, ethene is reacted with hydrochloric acid to form vinyl
chloride, which is mixed with warm water under pressure, and the monomers polymerise, forming PVC.
ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
Cheap, and easily made
Lighter than wood, stone or metal
Unreactive. They do not corrode in air or water. Many are not affected by acids or alkalis
Insulators of heat, and do not conduct electricity.
Able to be moulded into any shape
Can be made very strong
Can be made coloured, through the addition of pigments.
DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS
Difficult to dispose of. Plastic bags and cartons do not rot when they are thrown away, so they pollute the countryside,
but biodegradable plastics rot away.
Some plastics catch fire very easily.
When they burn, they often produce harmful gases, for e.g. PVC produces fumes of hydrogen chloride when it burns,
which forms hydrochloric acid in eyes and throat.
Are not as aesthetically pleasing as wood or stone.
OTHER PLASTICS
Nylon looks shiny but does not breathe. So tactile was created, a microfibre which is thinner than nylon. Tactile has a
thin layer of cotton which absorbs moisture and encourages evaporation.
Viscous is made from cellulose and high absorbing of moisture.
Denim is a heavy-duty cotton, which is stylistic and commonly used, but takes ages to dry and shrinks.
Tensel is twice as strong as ordinary fibres, dyes well and is highly absorbent. It behaves like a cotton denim but
shrinks less

THERMOPLASTICS AND THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
Thermoplastics are plastics which get soft and runny when they are heated and hard again when they are cooled. They can
be made hard and soft repeated amount of times. This is because of their structure, where the polymer chains lie next to
each other. A thermoplastic gets soft on heating, because the chains can slide past each other. The soft plastic can be
moulded into any shape, and the shape can easily be changed again. Some thermoplastics include Polythene, PVC,
Polystyrene and Nylon.
Thermosetting plastics (thermosets) only get soft once, which is the first time they are heated. Initially, the polymer chains
in a thermoset are like this. When heated for the first time, it softens, and therefore can be moulded into a shape. But the
heat causes bonds to form between the chains. The plastic sets firmly into its new shape. The bonds keep it hard, even
when it is heated again. Examples include phenolic and melamine.
ALKANES
There a three million known organic compounds. This large number is due to the fact that carbon atoms can join together
easily, making chains of different lengths. The carbon atoms join by sharing electrons with each other, to form covalent
bonds.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain only hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons can be arranged into families
of compounds that are alike in some way. The simplest family of these is called the alkanes.
Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10) are gases at room temperature. The boiling point
increases with chain length, so the next twelve alkanes are liquids and the rest are solid at room temperature.
Alkanes are found in natural gas and crude oil. Natural gas is mostly methane, with small amounts of ethane, propane
and butane. Crude oil is a much more complicated mixture of hydrocarbons, and can contain alkanes with up to 100
carbon atoms in their molecules.
In all alkane molecules, each carbon atom forms four single bonds.
Alkanes are unreactive. For example acids and alkalis
have no effect on them. However they do burn well in a
good supply of oxygen, forming carbon dioxide and water
vapour. The reactions give out plenty of heat, so alkanes
are often used as fuels. When propane burns, the reaction
is: C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g) + heat
Both propane and butane are used as camping gas, and in
gas lighters. Calor gas is mainly butane, and natural gas is
used for cooking and heating in homes.
ISOMERS
Some compounds have the same formula, but their molecules have different structures. One such example is butane and
methyl propane, which both have a formula of C4H10 but the butane is a chain, while the methyl propane has a branch
outwards.
ALKENES
Another family of hydrocarbons is the alkenes. In each of the alkene molecules above, each carbon atom forms four bonds,
of which one of them is a double bond between carbon atoms.
Alkanes also burn in oxygen like alkanes, and have very similar chemically properties.
e.g. C2 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g) + heat
However, alkanes are unreactive compounds, but alkenes are not, reacting with hydrogen and other compounds.
e.g. C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) C2H6 (g)
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes. The double bond within carbon atoms can break to form single bonds, so can
combine easily with other elements such as Hydrogen or Oxygen. This reaction is called
combination or synthesis. Ethene is unsaturated (not full) since its molecules can add on more atoms, while ethane is
saturated (full), since its molecules cannot fit in more atoms because there are no double bonds to break, and each carbon
atom already has four single bonds.
Name Chemical Formula
methane CH4 (g)
ethane C2H6 (g)
propane C3H8 (g)
butane C4H10 (g)
pentane C5H12 (l)
hexane C6H14 (l)
heptane C7H16 (l)
octane C8H18 (l)
nonane C9H20 (l)
decane C10H22 (l)
TESTING FOR UNSATURATION
There are two ways of testing a hydrocarbon to determine whether it is an alkane or alkene.
1. The addition of bromine water. Bromine water is an orange solution of bromine in water. It turns colourless in the
presence of an alkene, because the bromine adds on to the alkene, to form a colourless compound:
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (aq) C2H4Br2
ethane + bromine water 1,2-dibromoethane
2. The addition of potassium manganate. This is purple, but turns colourless when an alkene is present.
POLYMERISATION
Alkene molecules can combine with each other, due to their double bonds in a process called polymerisation. During
polymerisation, many small molecules, called monomers, join together to from very large molecules, called polymers.
Polythene is an example of such a molecule which is formed by this process. It is formed, when ethene is heated, under
high pressure. More than 1,000 ethene molecules can combine through this process to make a single molecule of polythene.
Polythene is a solid. It is unreactive, as there are no double bonds present. It can be rolled into thin sheets and moulded
into different shapes, and because that is easy to mould, it is called a plastic.
RADIATION
Some atoms have more or less neutrons in their nucleus than usual and become unstable. The nucleuses of these atoms
break down or decay. When this happens, the nucleus will emit radiation in the form of high kinetic energy charged
particles or EMR. Also, the atomic and mass number of the atom changes and so a new element is formed.
Three types of nuclear radiation are released:
1. Alpha particles:
are helium nuclei (2 protons & 2 neutrons)
have a high ability to ionise biological matter
can be stopped by a few centimetres of air, a sheet of paper
2. Beta particles:
Are electrons
Travel several metres through air
Stopped by sheet of A1 paper or 1 cm layer of wood
3. Gamma rays:
High frequency, high energy electromagnetic waves
Not very ionising
Can travel kilometres through air
Can be stopped by more than 2-3 cm of lead

BIOLOGY
REPRODUCTION
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Suckers When a plant is burnt or cut down, small stems can grow from the base of the stump. The small stems,
referred to as suckers, and can grow into new trees.
Runners Some plants reproduce by sending out a side branch along the ground that is called a runner. Along the
runners are nodes or joints. New roots or shoots can grow at these points. Later, the connecting runners may rot
away, leaving separate plants.
Rhizomes are a stem of the plant underground, often sending out roots or shoots, if a rhizome separates, the
fragments form new plants.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS AND HORMONES
Fallopian tubes (oviduct):
The fallopian tubes (oviduct) connects the ovaries to the uterus (womb). The fallopian tube is also where the egg is
fertilized by any sperm.
Uterus (womb):
The uterus (womb) is where the egg develops.
Ovaries:
The ovaries are responsible for the production of the female sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
Placenta (afterbirth)
The placenta is the link to between the mother and the baby.
Zygote, embryo and foetus:
The zygote is the newly fertilized ovum (egg). The zygote travels down the fallopian tube (oviduct) to the uterus
(womb), where it grows inside a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. The embryo is the growing baby during the
first two months, after the first two months, the embryo is referred to as the foetus, as development of sex organs start
to take place.
Oestrogen and progesterone:
Oestrogen is one of the female hormones, and progesterone is the other female hormone. They both produce the
various secondary sexual characters of females.
Scrotum:
The scrotum is a pair of sacs which hang separate from the body. The scrotum contains the testes which produces the
male hormone of testosterone. The scrotum hangs from the body as the production of sperm require a temperature of
35C.
Prostate:
The prostate is a gland that produces the thick milky alkaline fluid for the sperm to swim in, which neutralises the acid
of the vagina, which would otherwise kill the sperm.
Seminal vesicle:
The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands which produce a fructose (sugar in fruits) fluid that provides food for the
sperm.
Vas deferens (sperm duct):
The vas deferens (sperm duct) stores the sperm, until it is ready for use.
Epididymis:
The epididymis are the thicker tube made up of the smaller sperm-producing tubes.
Urethra male vs. female:
The urethra in a male goes through the penis, and carries sperm and urine to the outside, in a urethra in females
carries urine from the bladder to an opening near the vagina.
Testosterone:
Testosterone is the male hormone which stimulates the secondary sexual characteristics.

"Normal" cell division maintains the same number of chromosomes and is called mitosis. In the type of division called
meiosis the chromosome number is halved. The only two organs in which meiosis occurs are the testes and ovaries.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS (INCLUDING PUBERTY)
For the first 9 weeks after conception all babies are female. After this time, if the baby is going to be a boy, the
hormone testosterone is produced stops the growth of the female sex organs.
The onset of puberty is controlled by the pituitary gland.
Puberty lasts 6-7 years and begins in girls at age 10-12 and in boys at age 11-12. Boys have a growth spurt from ages
13-16.
The female hormone made in the ovaries is called oestrogen.
Secondary sex characteristics showing the change of girls into young women include:
pubic hair development, growth of breasts, changes in bones (especially hips), fat distribution to hips and thighs and
development of sexual desires.
Another name for periods is menstruation. It lasts for about 5 days and involves a loss of 0.1 litres of blood which
comes from the breakdown of the uterus wall.
Sperm cells are made in the testes. The testes also produce the male hormone called testosterone.
Secondary sex characteristics showing the change of a boys into young men include:
larger face, growth of body and facial hair, increased muscle development, thickening of vocal chords (deepening of
voice), skeletal changes, fat distribution to the abdomen, stimulation of sweat and oil producing glands.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN PLANTS - FLOWERS
Petals are used to attract insects to the flower; they may guidelines on them and may be scented. Especially in the
case of bees, which can see a lower range of the light spectrum and also part of UV light which humans cannot see can
be present on flowers.
Stigma is covered with a sticky substance that pollen grains will adhere to. The style raises the stigma away from the
ovary to decrease the likelihood of pollen contamination. It varies in length. The nectary is where the sugary solution
called nectar is held to attract insects. From this nectar, honey is made.
The ovary protects the ovule and once fertilisation has taken place, it will become the fruit, which becomes food for
various animals. The ovule is like the egg in animals and humans, and once fertilization has taken place, it will become
the seed.
The receptacle is the flowers attachment to the stalk and in some cases becomes part of the fruit after fertilization e.g.
strawberries and tomatoes. The flower stalk gives support to the flower and elevates for insects. The flower is formed
on the stalk, using glucose formed in the leaves of the plant. The flower starts as a bud, then opens to reveal its petals,
anthers and stigma. While the flower is developing from a bud, the sepal protects it.
The filament is the stalk of the anther. The anthers contain pollen sacs. The sacs release pollen on to the outside of
insects such as bees, on entering the flower. The pollen then deposited, is transferred to the stigma of another flower
or the same flower. The ovule can now be fertilized, and the plant can continue to survive as a species.
The ovule, stigma and style are known together as the carpel or female parts of the flower. The filament and the
anthers are collectively known as the stamen or the male parts of the flower.
THE BRAIN AND COMMUNICATIONS IN THE HUMAN BODY
The communications systems in the human body are the nervous system and the endocrine system. They act together to
co-ordinate the body, maintaining humans as functioning organisms. Both systems incorporate feedback mechanisms, to
modify their response to changing circumstances, especially change instigated by the system.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is responsible for most control and all
conscious thought. The spinal cord is responsible for information dissemination to peripherals and for the reflex arc.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTION:
The nervous system of our body and control and coordinates all parts of the body.
The nervous system is the most complex and least understood of all our body systems.
It consists of two main parts: The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The CNS is the control centre and receives messages from all parts of the body. After receiving this information, the brain
examines it and sends instructions to different parts of our body about the action they must take.
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The PNS is made up of sensory receptors and nerves which continuously inform the CNS of the changing conditions, and
transmits the decisions taken by the CNS back to the effector organs such as muscles and glands.
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
RECEPTORS
Receptors are the end of a nerve, which are sensitive to certain stimuli in the environment of an organism such as heat,
touch or light and responds to stimuli by transmitting to the CNS the information. Some receptors include:
Taste receptors (taste buds) receptors located on the tongue which are sensitive to different chemicals, such as acids,
sugars or salts.
Olfactory receptors receptors located in back of the nose, which are sensitive to smells and odorants.
Trigeminal nerve receptors receptors located also in the back of the nose, are responsible for touch, pressure, pain
and temperature sensations in the mouth, eyes and nasal cavity.
Photoreceptors (light receptors) receptors located in the retina of the eye, called rods and cones. Rods are
responsible for black and white colour, brightness and darkness, and night vision. Cone cells are responsible for colour
vision, but require bright light.
EFFECTORS
An effector is the muscle, gland or organ cell capable of responding to a stimulus at the terminal end of a efferent neuron
or motor neuron. They are responsible for the actions, in response to the environment of the organism:
Muscles contract and relax, to produce movements.
Glands, which are part of endocrine system, release chemicals called hormones which have an effect on the organisms
actions.
NEURONS
Neurons are nerve cells, responsible for the transmitting of information between the receptors and the CNS,
and the CNS and the effector.
Sensory neurons carry information from the sensory receptors to the CNS. Receptors, when stimulated, send of
electrical pulses along the sensory neurones to the CNS.
Motor neurons carry information from the CNS to the effector, such as a muscle or gland. They carry electronic pulses
which contain within the message from the CNS to the effector, regarding the movement by the muscle, or release of
hormones from glands.
Motor neurons and sensory neurons are not directly connected. Connector neurons (association neurons), found with
the CNS to allow movements and release of hormones, by completing the transmission of information from the
receptor to the effector.
NERVES
Nerves are cable-like bundles of the axons of neurones, in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common
pathway for the impulses to travel along the axons (fibres) to the peripheral organs.
Afferent nerves conduct signals from sensory neurons to the central nervous system.
Efferent nerves conduct signals from the CNS along the motor muscles to the effectors.
Mixed nerves conduct signals both to and from the central nervous system.
Spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord.
Cranial nerves connect directly to the brain, especially the brainstem. One such example is the optic nerve.
MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
Multipolar neurons are a type of neuron that has one axon, but multiple dendrites, which means they are able to take in a
lot of information. They constitute the majority of neurons located in the brain, and include motor neurones and connector
neurons (interneurons).
BIPOLAR NEURONS
Bipolar neurons are a type of neuron that has two extensions, acting as specialised sensory neurones, for the transmission
of special senses. They are used to transmit motor signals to control muscles. They are also present in the eye, as retina
bipolar cells, which are located between the photoceptors (rods and cones) and the ganglion cells (another neuron cell
type that takes the input from the photoceptors)
SYNAPSE
Neurons are not connected, there a small expanse between them. The electrical message is converted into
neurotransmitter chemicals which are released at the end of the axon which stimulates the dendrite of the receiving
neuron.
PARTS OF A NEURON
Cell body:
The cell body contains a nucleus and supplies energy and nutrients for the activity of the neuron.
Axon:
The axon is a long structure through which the nerve impulse passes from the cell body, which branches at the end, is
covered by myelin.
Dendron:
A dendron is one of the several cytoplasmic processes (projections) arising from the cell body of a neuron. It carries
impulses towards the cell body.
Dendrites:
Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron that conduct the electrical impulse which travels along the neuron.
Dendrites also receive information from other cells.
Myelin:
Myelin is an insulating layer around nerves including those in the brain and spinal cord, and is made up of protein and
fatty substances. Myelin allows impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. When it is damaged,
diseases such as multiple sclerosis can result.
THE PROCESS OF SENDING AN IMPULSE
When an impulse reaches the axon terminals, it causes chemical compounds called neurotransmitters to be released into
the synapse. The neurotransmitters alter the chemical surroundings of the next neurons dendrites significant enough that
this change is detected, and the next neuron fires, and the impulse continues along the next neuron.
The speed with which information is carried by neurons and nerves is between 1-100 ms
-1
. Messages travel as electrical
pulses.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord
The peripheral system consists of all the nerves that connect to the central nervous system.
Sensory and effector nerve cells have a long tail like structure called an axon.
The gap between two neurons is called a synapse.
THE BRAIN
THE BRAINS PROTECTION
The brain is well protected within the skull, and is also covered with three layers of a connective tissue called meninges,
and is also surrounded by cerebral fluid that cushions the brain against bumps and knocks.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
The brain is made up of about 80% water, 10% fat, 8% protein and small amounts of other substances. The brain is also
made up of one hundred billion cells and is the most complex organ in your body. The brain will grow to the size of large
grapefruit, and weighing 1.5 kg. The size, weight of the brain and the learning connections between cells in your brains
differs between people due to experiences.
The human brain consists of:
The cerebrum makes up 90% of the brains volume and is composed of two hemispheres, which appear grey due to
the large amounts of grey matter (cell bodies of interneurons) and small amounts of white matter (the myelin sheath
that protects the axons). The cerebrum controls memory, speech and though. All conscious actions, such as walking,
running and speaking are controlled in this area of the brain.
The cerebellum is located towards the back of the brain, underneath the cerebrum, where the skull curves inwards.
The cerebellum is pink in colour, and is responsible for balance and co-ordination of complex muscle actions.
The brain stem (medulla) controls the activities such as heart rate, breathing and digestion. It also controls
unconscious or involuntary thoughts. The brain stem also connects to the spinal cord.
The limbic system is one of the other parts of the brain and contains the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the
hippocampus. It is located at the top of the brain stem.
The thalamus is the gatekeeper for messages passed from the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
The hypothalamus controls emotions, and regulates temperature by telling the body to sweat when overheated,
and to shiver when cold.
The hippocampus sends memories to be stored in sections of the cerebrum, and then recalls them when necessary.
The pituitary gland (see Endocrine System) is the main endocrinal organ. It has three lobes and produces several
hormones (most stimulate other glands in the body). The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is
connected to the hypothalamus by nerve fibres.
THE BRAIN AND STIMULUS SIGHT
Sight is a complex function of the brain that extends from the front to the back of the head. Sight is produced through the
eyes capture information, and is send through the optic nerve to the brain. The brain also incorporates other sensory
stimuli, to result in the application of sight, such as picking up an object. Problems with sight may occur due from damage
to certain parts of the brain.
OPTIC NERVE
An image is created when light reaches the retina located at the back of the eye. This image is then sent along the optic
nerve to the brain. The optic nerve (second cranial nerve) connects the eyes with the brain. The optic nerve crosses at the
optic chasm which explains why information from the eye is sent to the opposite side of the brain.
OCCIPITAL LOBE
The occipital lobe is one of the specific parts within the brain that processes sight, and is located at the back of the brain.
Each hemisphere has its own occipital lobe, which processes all sight-related information sent to that hemisphere. The
occipital lobe, if damaged, may result in visual field cuts, and problems identifying colour or movement of an object. This is
because the occipital lobe controls a persons perception of sight.
VISUAL CORTEX
The visual cortex is the part of the brain where sensory and motor information is integrated with vision, and is located
within the occipital lobe. Multiple visual pathways are involved in the processing of the information, for example:
The dorsal visual pathway controls a persons visual motor response to objects.
The ventral visual pathway controls how a person identifies an object.
THE BRAIN AND STIMULUS HEARING
Hearing is the function of the brain that is heavily linked and involved with language. When sound information is
processed in the language centres of the brain, it allows the person to understand what is being heard. Hearing is also
connected to music, through identification of sounds and tones.
THE EARS
The ears gather the stimulus needed by the brain to process in order to produce hearing. The ear is made up three parts:
The Outer Ear (pinna) collects sounds vibrations.
The Middle Ear contains small bones called the ossicles, which convert the sound vibrations into mechanical
vibrations.
The Inner Ear contains the Organ of Corti, a sensory receptor, located within the cochlea, which has hair cells which
are the nerve receptors used for hearing.
ACOUSTIC NERVE
The sound information is passed from the ears to the brain by the acoustic nerve (eighth cranial nerve). The acoustic nerve
splits into two pathways (one to each hemisphere), allowing each hemisphere to hear information from both ears.
TEMPORAL LOBE
The hearing processing centre of the brain is the temporal lobe, which is located near the ears. The temporal lobe in the
left hemisphere is the language part of the brain, and is responsible for comprehension and understanding what someone
is saying. The temporal lobe in the right hemisphere is the musical part of the brain, and is responsible for the identifying
of musical information, and the identification of different sounds. Located within the temporal lobe is the auditory cortex,
which is responsible for recognising patterns of sound, auditory discrimination, and timing aspects of hearing.
THE BRAIN AND STIMULUS SPEECH
Speech and other language abilities are lateralised brain, which means they are all located on one side of the brain.
Generally, speech is located on the left hemisphere.
97% of right-handed people have left hemisphere language areas
19% of left-handed people have right hemisphere language areas.
An additional 68% of left-handed people have language areas in both hemispheres.
BROCAS AREA
Brocas area (discovered by Paul Broca in 1861) is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for producing speech.
When this area is damaged, it results in inability to form words properly and has slow, slurred speech
WERNICKES AREA
Wernickes area (discovered by Karl Wernicke in 1876) is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible for
understanding speech. When this area is damaged, it results in the patient saying words that do not make sense.
ARCUATE FASCILICUS
The arcuate fascilicus is a tract of nerves that connects the Brocas area with the Wernickes area, allowing a person to
create clear and coherent speech. If this is damaged, it does not result in problems with speech production and
comprehension, but instead the inability to repeat language that they have heard.
OTHER SENSES
SMELL
Multiple areas of the brain are responsible for the interpretation and perception of odours. From the olfactory receptors in
the nose, signals travel to the olfactory bulb, thalamus and amygdala (part of the limbic system). These signals are sent
from there to the temporal and frontal lobes.
TASTE
Taste sensations are generated by chemical receptors located within the tongue, roof of the mouth and throat. These enter
via the brain stem and travel to the limbic system, which also receives sensory input for odours. These signals are sent
from there to the temporal and frontal lobes. The senses of smell and taste are closely interconnected due to the close
proximity of their signals.

THE LOBES OF THE BRAIN
In the brain there are four lobes:
Frontal Lobe This lobe is the closest to the front of the brain. The frontal lobe is responsible for numerous functions
like reasoning, planning and problem-solving. The frontal lobe also controls some basic movements and responses in
emotional situations. In the left hemisphere, the frontal lobe contains the Brocas area, an area of the brain involved in
speech. The frontal lobe also is responsible for other functions including consciousness, activity with the environment
and personality.
Parietal Lobe This lobe is behind the frontal lobe. Within this lobe is the sensory cortex, which enables the brain to
perceive, identify, interpret and react to stimulus such as touch, pressure, temperature and pain, leading to spatial
relationships. Touch perception occurs primarily in the somatosensory cortex. The parietal lobe is also responsible for
visual attention and voluntary movement.
Temporal lobe This lobe, located near the ears and the temples, contains the hippocampus, the brain structure
responsible for consolidating short term memories into long-term memories. The temporal lobe also contains
Wernickes area, another area of the brain involved in speech. The temporal lobe functions include smell, hearing and
object categorising.
Occipital lobe This lobe, located at the back of the brain, above the cerebellum, is responsible for vision and sight.
The colour and movement of an object is also a function of this lobe.
CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain and is responsible for voluntary movement. The cerebellum controls
balance, posture and equilibrium (emotionally stability and stable body functions such as temperature). Procedural
memory storage, from motor memory is also in the cerebellum.
PARTS OF THE BRAIN STEM
Pons The functions of this section of the brain stem involve movements in the eyes and face.
Medulla This section of the brain stem controls vital functions, such as heart rate and breathing.
(Medulla is sometimes used to name the entire brain stem)
THE REFLEX ARC
The body has a mechanism to respond to situations that could potentially threaten the organism, such as extremely hot
objects or sharp objects. This response is called the reflex arc.
No conscious thought is required for this type of action. The impulse follows a direct route from the receptor to the
effector with an interconnecting link in the spinal cord. Additional impulses are sent to the appropriate part of the brain to
inform the organism of what happened.
THE BRAIN AND SLEEP
Nerve-signalling chemicals called neurotransmitters control whether we are asleep or awake by acting on different groups
of nerve cells or neurons located in the brain. Neurons in the brain stem produce neurotransmitters such as serotonin and
norepinephrine that keeps parts of the brain active while we are awake. Other neurons at the base of the brain began
signalling when we fall asleep, which appear to switch off the signals that keep us awake. Research suggests that a
chemical called adenosine builds up in our blood, while we are awake, causing drowsiness. (This chemical breaks down
during sleep).
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is responsible for the release of chemicals called hormones which stimulate actions and responses
within the body.
TYPES OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
The pituitary gland is under the brain. It is often called the master gland of the endocrine system because it produces so
many hormones, of which include the human growth hormone. Other hormones stimulate the thyroid gland and the
release of eggs from the ovaries. The pituitary gland is also responsible for the instigation of puberty through the release of
microscopic quantities of hormones, which control the release of hormones from the ovaries in females, and testes in
males.
The thyroid gland makes thyroxin, which controls the speed of chemical reactions in cells. Not sufficient amounts of
thyroxin in children cause slow physical and mental growth.
The adrenal glands, (renal meaning of the kidneys), are located on the top of the kidneys, and produce the hormone
adrenalin which happens in response to threats. Adrenalin works by preparing the body for action by speeding up
heartbeat and breathing, raises blood pressure, and tells the liver to release more glucose into the blood.
The pancreas is located below the stomach and is responsible for producing the hormone insulin. Insulin is the hormone
that tells your liver to store blood glucose as a substance glycogen, effectively controlling the levels of glucose (sugar) in
the blood. Diabetes type 1 is when the pancreas stops producing insulin. Diabetes type 2 is when the body is insensitive to
its own insulin.
The ovaries produce the sex hormones progesterone and oestrogen. Oestrogen gives females their feminine features, such
as breasts, soft skin, and a high voice. It also gets the womb ready for a baby.
The testes produce the male sex hormone testosterone, which gives males them masculine features, such as a deep voice,
body hair and muscular body.
GLUCOSE
The amount of glucose needs to be maintained at a constant level. The digestion of food increases the amount of glucose,
and exercise reduces the amount. Two hormones act against each other in order to keep glucose levels steady. Insulin is
the hormone that instructs the liver to remove more glucose from the blood, which the liver converts into glycogen.
Glucagon instructs the liver to release more glucose. The liver destroys these hormones when the blood sugar level is
stabilised.
HOMEOSTASIS
Inside our body there is a balance, with certain conditions required to be present, for example our internal temperature is
constant, and the amount of water, sugar and other substances is constant. This is called homeostasis and is maintained by
the release of hormones.
The body has many feedback systems, for example the amount of glucose in blood, carbon dioxide in blood, water in blood,
temperature etc. Each feedback system has sensors in the body and a control unit. The control unit is usually in the brain
in a region called the hypothalamus. Messages travel from the sensors to the control unit and from the control unit to the
effector organs by nerves and hormones.
An example of feedback is rate of breathing. Sensors in the arteries near the heart detect the amount of carbon dioxide in
the blood. If there is too little carbon dioxide then a nerve message is sent to brain, which sends a message to the
diaphragm and chest muscles to cause deeper and quicker breathing. If the level of carbon dioxide is too high, the message
to the muscles is to cause faster and faster breathing. When these levels of carbon dioxide have been restored to normal
levels, normal breathing returns.

DISEASES AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Infectious diseases are spread from person to person by pathogens. Pathogens are micro-organisations
(microscopic organisms) that cause disease.
Prokaryotes include organisms in the Monera kingdom as their cells do not contain any internal membrane-bound bodies.
Their genetic material consists of a circular strand of DNA which contains the codes for cellular control and reproduction.
Eukaryotes include organisms in the Protista and fungi kingdoms as their cells contain a membrane-bound organelles and
a distinct nucleus. The genetic material consists of a number of strands or chromosomes that contain the DNA.
BACTERIA
Bacteria are single-celled organisms that can reproduce by binary fission very rapidly in warm moist environments.
Bacterial diseases include tetanus, tuberculosis and cholera,
e.g. tetanus bacteria releases toxin that attacks the nervous system. Symptoms include painful spasms and convulsions.
VIRUSES
Viruses are not truly living organisms but they cause diseases nonetheless. They are much smaller than the bacterial cell.
A virus reproduces by entering a cell, programming it to make even more viruses and then releasing them, after destroying
that cell. Viruses cause diseases such as chicken-pox, influenza, AIDs and the common cold.
FUNGI
Not many fungi cause disease. Fungal infections often attack the nails, hairs or skin,
e.g. athletes foot causes itching and dry sky and is easily transmitted by fungi remaining on surfaces shared by many
people (locker room floors at swimming pool, bathrooms etc.)
PATHOGENS
Monera i.e. Bacteria
bacilli (rods): e.g. tuberculosis, tetanus, anthrax, leprosy, diphtheria, typhoid, whooping cough, bubonic plague
spirilla (spirals): e.g. cholera, meningitis
cocci (spheres): e.g. bacterial pneumonia, scarlet fever, boils
Protista i.e. Protozoans
pseudopodia (blobs): e.g. amoeba, radiolarian, foraminifera
ciliates (tiny hairs): e.g. paramecium,
flagellates (whip-like tails): e.g. euglena, trypanosomes (causes sleeping sickness)
sporozoans (parasites): e.g. malaria
Fungi
mushrooms and toadstools,
yeast: e.g. beer and bread
moulds: e.g. penicillin
mildew
HUMANS DEFENCES AGAINST MICROBES
Skin is a physical barrier. Unbroken skin is impervious to moisture and also bacteria, i.e. unable to penetrate.
This is due to acids and oils secreted from hair roots and pores. The nose contains mucus and hairs for trapping
pathogens and our tears wash away foreign particles.
Stomach acid creates acidic juices which normally digest foods. The hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach helps also
destroy bacteria.
White blood cells are produced by the body in order to fight microbes that enter the bloodstream.
These are called phagocytes.
Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in order to fight specific diseases. They do this by attaching
to the pathogen allowing the white cell to engulf it more easily.
A phagocyte is a scavenging white blood cell, which destroys and removes foreign material, such as bacteria, viruses and
any aged or damaged cells. They are produced in the bone marrow.
A lymphocyte is a white blood cell that starts its growth in the bone marrow. Some mature there while others are
transferred to the thymus where they mature. After they mature, they are stored in the spleen and lymph nodes. B-cells
mature in the bone marrow and produce antibodies. T-cells mature in the thymus and control the number of B-cells and
also some of them help attack invaders.
COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
There are two types of circuits: (I) series, and (II) parallel.
1. Resistors in series
VTOTAL = V1 + V2 + V3
RTOTAL = R1 + R2 + R3
ITOTAL = I1 = I2 = I3 =

2. Resisters in parallel:
VTOTAL = V1 = V2 = V3 =
RTOTAL or REQUIVALENT

ITOTAL = I1 + I2 + I3 +
ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND CIRCUITS
ELECTRICITY (REVIEW OF YEAR 8)
Electricity comes from the fact most major sub-atom particles are electrically charged. Protons are positively charged and
electrons are negatively charged. Electrical energy is mostly moving charged particles, typically electrons. It is most the
wide used form of energy in our homes, offices, schools and factories.
THE FLOW OF ELECTRONS
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), one of the most renowned scientists who studied electricity, incorrectly assumed that
electricity flowed from the positive source to a negative terminal. Also, many scientists at that time believed that it was the
flow of positive charges. This misconception resulted in the concept of conventional current being from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal. However, it is understood, that electrons flow from the negative terminal (anode) to the
positive terminal (cathode).
VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
The relationship between voltage, current and resistance is V = IR (Ohms Law).
voltage: voltage is a representation of the electric potential energy per unit of charge
current: the flow of electric charge (electrons)
resistance: the force that opposes the flow of electric charge
SERIES CIRCUITS
ADVANTAGES
Easy to add more devices, such as more batteries, and increase the force of the output.
Series circuits are easy to make, and learn, because their design is simple.

DISADVANTAGES
As more output devices are added, resistance is also increased, and their effects the output, for e.g. if more light-bulbs
are added to a series circuit, they dim, as voltage is shared between devices.
If one output device stops working, the other devices will stop working too. This also means that if operated by a
switch, the switch controls all lights.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
ADVANTAGES
If one of the output devices burns out, then only that device stops working. This also means that each light-bulb can be
operated by its own light switch, effectively controlling the branches of the circuit.
Resistance does not increase as extra output devices are added.
Voltage is constant which means for example, light-bulbs dont dim.
DISADVANTAGES
If there are multiple power sources, the voltage doesnt increase.
Some devices require a certain amount of current in order to function. If the current input is no significant, the voltage
will decrease.
SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS
Solid-state circuits are circuits which the electrons (or other charge carriers) are confined within the solid materials
(elements and compounds) of which the circuit is made of.
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
OPTIC FIBRES
The laws of refraction mean that when light enters a medium of greater density, it slows down, and refracts (bends)
towards the normal. The critical angle is the angle where the light is refracted directly along the surface of the two
mediums. For any angle greater than this, there is no refraction, only internal reflection.
This concept allows optic fibres to use this concept of total internal reflection to allow the light to travel great distances.
Optic fibres are used in telecommunications and in the medical industry, and are a key example of total internal reflection.
Optic fibres are essentially two cylinders a core cylinder and cladding. The core cylinder has a higher refractive index than
the cladding and therefore would result in total internal reflection, no matter what the incident angle happens to be.
Note: The refractive index of a medium can be found from:

DIODES
Diodes are two terminal devices like resistors and capacitors. They are polarised meaning they act differently when the
direction of the current is changed or reversed. Diodes have the ability to turn alternating current into pulsating direct
current because diodes allow current to flow in one direction only, which can be filtered and regulated to produce stable
DC.
HIGH TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNICATIONS
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
There are many man-made satellites that orbit the Earth. Some satellites are in polar orbits which means they travel over
the north and south poles. Other satellites remained fixed above the same point this is called a geostationary orbit.
These satellites need to be much higher that polar-orbiting satellites and must move fairly fast to remain in exactly the
same position over a particular point on the Earth as the Earth rotates.
Communication signals are generally in geostationary orbits. Radio signals near microwave frequencies are best suited for
carry large volumes of communication traffic. These signals travel in straight lines are not deflected by the atmosphere as
other frequencies would be. Satellites are cheaper than spacing microwave towers
(which need to be spaced around 40 km apart for a strong signal)
Satellites are used for many other purposes, including navigation, weather forecasting and military purposes, as well as
orbiting observatories that look out into space.
CELLULAR PHONE COMMUNICATIONS
These work by dividing geographical regions into areas called cells which are hexagonal in shape, and several kilometres
in diameter. The cell has its own base station that is connected to a mobile telephone switching centre so calls can be
connected to the normal telephone network.
In Australia, the range of frequencies for mobile phone is between 825 to 960 MHz. As the user moves from cell to cell, the
cellular phone is able to switch from one channel to another. This is done by a computerised switching system so quickly
that it is undetectable by the user. Due to the limited number frequencies, radio channels are re-used in cells many
kilometres apart. This means transmitting power needs to be very low. This leads to a limitation where calls can drop out
when the transmitted signal is not strong enough.
Two radio frequencies are used in transmission: one from the mobile phone to the base station, the other from the base
station to the mobile phone. The second frequency is 45 MHz higher.
ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS
ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of how living things relate to each other & their environment. The ecosystem can be as large as the
world or divided into polar/desert/tropical regions or be in a local swamp, river, garden or fish pond. A single species will
form a population while several species live in a community.
Producers (are plants) make their own food.
Consumers herbivores (plant eaters), carnivores (meat eaters) and omnivores (bears/man which eat both)
Decomposers fungi/bacteria break down dead organisms & turn them into useful nutrients.
Chemical nutrients plants need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, often in the form of NH3NO3 and (NH4) SO4
as N2 has the N atoms stably held in a triple bond which plants cannot use. P (phosphorus) is derived from
phosphate rock (bird guano) from Nauru. Ca3 (PO4)2 is treated with H2SO4 to make it more soluble (but leaves the
soil acidic).
ABOTIC FEATURES
Temperature e.g. coral only grows in water above 27C, but some bacteria survive in boiling hot pools at 98C.
Water liquid water is essential. Too little water causes desiccation (drying out). But too much can drown crops and
damage human kidneys.
Wind Too much wind from the same direction can be harmful for trees and shrubs. This is often noticed on costal
cliffs. Strong winds cause sandstorms and dust storms and blow away topsoil.
Light allows plants to photosynthesise: 6CO2 + 6H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Pine plantations produce tall straight trees (useful for timber) as the trees strive to reach the light overhead & dont
grow sideways into their shadows. Many creatures stay in the dark e.g. slaters, mice as not to be picked off by
predators.
Soil clayey soils hold water while sandy soils dry out quickly. Humus in the form of mulch (grass clippings) and
horse manure are added to increase fertility.

END OF SCIENCE REVISION