1.

CONCEPTS OF SOIL
What is soil?
SOIL IS SOUL OF INFINITE LIFE
The word soil come from Latin word solum means floor or ground. It is one of the most
important natural resources which are the heart of terrestrial ecosstem! and
understanding of soil sstem is "e success of an human use of land.
#gronomist! Engineers! $edologist! Ecologist! %eologist! Ecologist! &icro'iologist!
Farmers! and Lamans thin" of soil in different was and for different purposes. The
concept of soil depend on what use we ha(e for it.
The farmers ma"es a li(ing ' growing crops in soil) an engineers uses soil as a
foundation for roads and houses) the soil scientist studies soil to understand and manage
it properl! and a parent sees soil as something to 'e remo(ed from a child.
Soil as a general term usuall denotes the unconsolidated! thin! (aria'le laer of mineral
and organic matter! usuall 'iologicall acti(e! that co(ers most of the earths land
surface.
Soils are comple* 'iogeochemical materials on which plants ma grow. The ha(e
structural and 'iological properties that distinguish them from the materials from which
the normall originate.
The also are dnamic ecological sstems! pro(iding plants with support) water nutrient
and air for growth and also supporting a large population of microorganisms that reccle
the materials of life.
Function of soil in our ecosystem
+. &edium of plant growth
The soil mass pro(ides phsical support! anchoring the root sstem so that the
plant does not fall o(er
$lant roots depend on the prices of respiration to o'tain energ. #llowing c,- to
escape and fresh o- to enter the root .one. This (entilation is accomplished (ia
the net wor" of soil pores
The soil pores also a'sor' rain water and hold it can 'e used ' roots.
Soils also moderates temperatures fluctuations occurred in the root en(ironment
%ood soils protect plants from to*ic concentration ' (entilating gasses!
decomposing/a'sor'ing organic to*ins or ' suppressing to*ins producing
organism.
Soil suppl plants with inorganic mineral nutrients in the form of dissol(ed ions
in amounts and relati(e proportions appropriate for plant growth.
It is true that plants can grown in nutrient in nutrient solutions with out soil
0hdroponics1! 'ut then the plant support functions of soils must 'e engineered
into the sstem and maintained at a high cost of time! effort and management.
2. e!ulatory of "ater su##lies
Soil properties are principal factor controlling the fate of water in the hdrologic
sstem. 2ater loss! utili.ation! contamination and purification are all affected '
the soil.
If the soil 0permea'le and deep1 allows the rain to soa" in some of the water ma
'e stored in the soil and used ' the tress and other plants! while some ma seep
slowl down through the soil laers the ground water! e(entuall entering the
ri(er o(er a period of month or ear as 'ase flow.
If the water is contaminated! as it soa"s through the upper laer of soil it is
purified and cleared ' soil process that remo(e man impurities and "ill potential
disease organism.
$. ecycler of ra" materials
2ith in the soil! waste products and dead 'odies of plants! animals and peoples are
assimilated and their 'asic elements are made a(aila'le for reuse ' the ne*t
generation of life.
The soil sstem plas a pi(otal role in the ma3or geo chemical ccles
%. &a'itat for soil or!anisms
Soils har'or much of the earths genetic di(ersit. It pro(ides ha'itat for a marad
of li(ing organism! from small mammals and reptiles to tin insects to
microscopic cells of unimagina'le num'ers and di(ersit.
(. En!ineerin! me)ium
In human 'uilt ecosstem soil plas an important role in as an engineering
medium.
Soil is not onl an important 'uilding materials in the form of earth fill and 'ric"s
0'a"ed soil materials1! 'ut also pro(ides the foundation for (irtuall e(er road!
air port and house we 'uild.
1.2 &ISTO* OF SOILS
4istorians place the 'eginning of agriculture in &esopotamia a'out 5,,, ears
ago. In ancient Egpt! ci(ili.ation flourished along the Nile. 4ere silts were a
'lessing at the ri(er replenished the land with a new addition of soil with each
flood farming the ri(er delta was a sustaina'le practice until the construction of
dams on the ri(er.
The earliest in(estigator into the nature of soils could 'e called Edaphologists
0those who stud soil as a ha'itat for organism and! particularl as the medium in
which plants grow1.
Those who stud soil as geologic entit its origin! morpholog geolog and
ta*onom are called $enologists.
6enophon! a %ree" historian078,98::;.<1 is credited with recording the merits of
soil enriching crops when he wrote! = whate(er weeds are upon the ground! 'eing
turned into the earth! enrich the soil as much as dung
<ato 0-879+7> ;.<1 recommended that intensi(e culti(ation. <rop rotation the use
of legume and manure for soil impro(ement.
Earl +5
th
centur an e*periment performed ' ?an 4elmont 0+:559+@771 he
reasoned that water was the = principal of (egetation
?on Lie'ig stated that car'on was deri(ed from solu'le soil forms rather than
from <O
-
. 4e also postulates the law of minimum! which stases that the growth of
plants is limited ' the essential elements presents in the least relati(e amount.
A. ; .Lawes and A.4. %il'ert 0+B781 were esta'lished the first modern agricultural
e*periment station 0UC1. On Dothmasterd station the ga(e man theories on soil
plant nutrients.
In the histor of $edolog! ?.? .Eo"uchaie( and N.& Si'erste( were de(eloping
new concepts of soil. The stated that soils as independent! natural 'odes! each
with uniFue com'ination of climate! li(ing matter parent materials! relief! and
time. The hpothesi.ed that properties of each soil is reflected on the 'asis of
soil forming factors.
In the +>-,s <.F.&ar'ut adapt the Dussian approach to the #merican
sstem.+>8B the U.S department of agriculture ear'oo" contained the first
e*tensi(e soil classification sstem for the United States.
In +>5: U.S National co9operati(e soil sur(e under the leadership of %u Smith!
de(eloped sstem of soil classification.
1.$ CO+PONENTS OF SOIL
&ineral particles! organic matter! air and water are the components of soil. The
relati(e proportion of these four components greatl influence the 'eha(ior and
producti(it of soil.
4alf of soil (olume consists of solid materials 0minerals and organic1) and the
other half consists of pore spaces field with air and water.
a, The Soli) Com#onents
Soil has two "inds of solid components) mineral deri(ed from weathering roc"s!
and organic materials from plants and microorganisms.
+ineral-inor!anic.
E*cept in the case of organic soils! most of a soils solid frame wor"
consists of mineral particles.
The mineral particles of soil and roc"s are nearl alwas distinct!
crstalline! su'stances) apprecia'le amount of iron! <alcium! $otassium!
apprecia'le or magnesium.
The mineral particles present in soils an e*tremel (aria'le in si.e. The
larger soil particles which include stones! gra(el and coarse sands are
generall roc" fragments and the are aggregates of se(eral different roc"
fragments and the are aggregates of se(eral different minerals smaller
particles tend to 'e made of a single mineral.
The three ma3or inorganic soil particles are sand 0-.,9,.,:mm1! silt 0,.,:9
,.,,-mm1 and cla 0G ,.,,-mm1.
The smaller particles of cla 0G ,.,,+mm1 which ha(e large surface area
per unit of mass ha(e colloidal properties.
Soil or!anic matter
It consists of a wide range of organic 0<alcareous1 su'stances! including
li(ing organism 0the soil 'iomass1.
Organic matter comprises onl a small fraction of the mass of a tpical
soil ' weight tpical well9drained mineral surface soil contain from +9
@H of organic matter.
Organic matter 'inds mineral particles into a granular soil structure that is
largel responsi'le for the loose! easil managed condition of producti(e
soils.
Organic matter also increases the amount of water a soil can hold and the
proportion of water a(aila'le for plant growth.
Euring the deca of plant tissue! large comple* molecules form that
remain in the soil as a resistant ' products. These organic colloids are
hummus! which is responsi'le for the 'row and 'lac" color of the top
laer of some soils.
', Soil #ores
The solid mineral particles and organic coatings are the soils s"eleton. The pores
'etween the particles control the soils (entilation! water inta"e! water storage and
drainage.
The si.e and shape of pores and the total pore space are important. Smaller pores!
for instance! hold water well! 'ut large interconnected pores are needed for water
and air to mo(e frell into and out of the soil.
The soil air
It is the channel for the mo(ement 0diffusion1 of o*gen and other gasses it is
the soils connections with earths atmosphere.
2hen water enters the soil! it displaces air from some of the pores) the air
content of a soil is therefore in(ersel related to its water content.
2hen the smaller pores are field with water the (entilation sstems 'ecomes
clogged.
The soils drains from hea( rain or irrigation! large pores are the first to 'e
filled with air! followed ' medium si.ed pores! and finall the small pores! as
water is remo(ed ' e(aporation and plant use.
The soil "ater
2ater is of (ital importance in the ecological functioning of soils. The
presence of water in soils is essential for the sur(i(al and growth of plants and
other soil organisms.
2ater is held with in soil pores with (aring degree of tenacit depending on
the amount of water present and the si.e of the pores. The attraction 'etween
water and the surface of soil particles of soil particles greatl restricts the
a'ilit of water to flow.
Soil water is ne(er pure water! 'ut contains hundreds of dissol(ed organic and
inorganic su'stances) it ma 'e more accuratel called the soil solution. #n
important function of the soil solution is to ser(e as a constantl replenished
dilute nutrients solution 'ringing dissol(ed nutrient elements to plant roots.
1.% SOIL +INE/LS
&inerals are natural occurring inorganic material! distinct phsical
characteristics! internal structure and definite composition.
The soil mineralog is primaril determined ' soil parent material and
weathering process that ha(e occurred.
9 ;ased on the occurrence/a'undance the are 'roadl classified into Essential and
#ccessor mineral
Essential minerals
#re those mineral which are (er important! the dictate the
charctestics and proprieties of roc"s. The are chief constituents of
roc".
Iuart.! Feldspar! &ica! #mphi'oles! and Ei(ines are good e*amples
of essential minerals.
Accessory minerals
#re those minerals which are presenting low Fuantities and the dont
dictate the characteristics of roc". The are not chief constituent of
roc".
#patite! $rites! Jircon are e*amples
9 ;ased on origin/ formation! the minerals are 'roadl classified as primar and
Secondar minerals.
Primary minerals.
#re those minerals formed at high temperature and pressure conditions and
inherited from the parent roc" 0Igneous roc" and &etamorphic roc"1 with
out 'eing chemicall changed.
E*amples of primar minerals including Iuart.! Oli(ine! Feldspar
0Orthoclase and $lagioclase1! &ica 0;iotite and &usco(ite1! $ro*enes!
#mphi'oles and others.

Secondary minerals.
#re those minerals formed from primar minerals due to metamorphism. It
is formed as a result of chemical alteration and dissolution of primar
minerals and su'seFuent precipitation of secondar minerals. Formations
of secondar minerals are a comple* process.
<ommon secondar minerals including %psum! <ar'onate! phosphorus
minerals! Doc" phosphate! o*ides! aluminum hdro*ides o*ides and o*
hdro*ides! iron! manganese! .inc! copper! 'oron! mol'denum! sodium
minerals! <la minerals 0laer silicates1 including Caolinite! Smectite!
?ermiculite! <hlorite! &ica etc.
1.( SOIL POFILE
Soil #rofileK is a (ertical cross section of the soil with depth e*posing through all its
hori.ons and e*tending into the parent material.
Soil hori0on1 is a laer of a soil! appro*imatel parallel to the soil surface! differing in
soil properties and characteristics from ad3acent laers 'elow or a'o(e it.
Each hori.on is different from other hori.ons in the profile. usuall 'ut not
alwas! the difference 'etween ad3acent hori.ons a'o(e or 'elow! are Fuite
o'(ious to the ee 0color! structure differences1 or the difference can 'e felt ' the
fingers0(ariation in cla content1.
4ori.ons with in the soil ma (ar in thic"ness and ha(e some what irregular
'oundaries! 'ut generall the are parallel to the land surface. The 'oundaries
'etween hori.ons in profile ranges from indistinct to a'rupt and clear. Some
'oundaries are relati(el smooth 0the hori.on is the same thic"ness in that (olume
of soil1 other ha(e tonguing patterns 0large (ertical (ariation1. Usuall a hori.on
is separated from others hori.onsK
The hori.on has accumulated more humus and is dar" colored
The hori.on has had some of its cla and humus mo(ed to greater depth and
is a leached hori.on.
The hori.on has accumulated or produced more cla than is in other hori.on
and
The hori.on has accumulated some secondar minerals 0<alcite! silca! or
iron o*ides1! forming hori.ons such as lime .ones or hard pans.
There are four tpes of soil hori.ons
1. +aster2+a3or hori0on
2. Su'or)inate hori0on
$. Transition hori0on
%. 4ia!nostic hori0on
1. +aster2+a3or hori0on
Fi(e master soil hori.on are recogni.ed and are designated using the capital letters O, /,
E, 5, C L
O6 &OI7ONS
Organic hori.on in which most lea(es! stem! litter are su'3ected to humification
and minerali.ation.
It is found a'o(e the mineral soil. <ommon in forested areas and are referred to as
forest floor.
2hich ha(e three su' hori.onsK
O
i
hori.onK plants and animal parts are slightl decomposed 0Fi'ric material1
O
e
hori.onK partiall decomposed 04emic materials1.
O
a
hori.onK highl decomposed 0Sapric material1
/6&OI7ONS
It the top most mineral hori.on consisting ofK
9 Organic matter which gi(e the soil a color dar"er than that of the lower
hori.ons.
9 Ellu(iation of cla! iron or alumunium with resultant concentration of
Fuart. or other resistant minerals of sand or silt si.e.
9 &a*imum 'iological acti(ities.
2hich ha(e su' hori.ons
/
h
hori.onK contains high amounts of humus 0M+H O&1
/
#
hori.onK ploughed 0culti(ated1 laers
/
!
hori.onK gleed 0spot of different color/mottles e*ists1
6 Eue to fluctuation of water 0water coming and going1
9 #naero'ic situation which cause Fe L &n reduction.
E 8&OI7ONS
It a .one characteri.ed ' ma*imum ellu(iation 0leaching1 of silicates clas and
iron and alumunium o*ides
It lea(es concentration of resistant minerals such as Fuart.! sand and silt.
<ommonl occurs a'o(e the ;9 hori.on and 'elow #9hori.on. %enerall lighter
in color 0'leached1 than either the #9 hori.on a'o(e it or hori.on 'elow.
It is common in soils de(eloped under forests 0high rain fall areas1 'ut the rarel
occur in soils de(eloped under grassland.
The su' di(ision
E
!
hori.onK 'leached laer with spot of different color
5 8&OI7ONS
It .ones of ille(ation 0accumulation1. Small particles that ha(e washed from O! #
or E hori.ons 0iron! aluminum o*ides! silicate clas1 ha(e accumulated 'ecause
of filteratin 0lodging1 or lac"ing of enough water to mo(e them deeper
Earl ;9 hori.on de(elopment stages of soil ma ha(e onl redder 0orange!
ellow 'rown1 colors of weathering caused ' the color iron and aluminum
hdrous o*ide.
In this hori.on the structural formation is good 0'loc" or prismatic1.
Su' hori.ons are)
5
!
hori.onK gleed
5
h
hori.onK humus accumulation
5
s
hori.onK sesFuo*ide 0iron and aluminum hdrous o*ide1 accumulation
5
t
hori.onK translocated cla
5
"
hori.onK alteration ' weathering 0distincti(e color or structure1
5
y
hori.onK gpsum accumulation
5
0
hori.onK salt accumulation
C 8&OI7ONS
It is a mineral hori.on or laer e*cluding 'ed roc"! which is relati(el affected '
pedogenic processes. It is unconsolidated material underling the solum 0# and
;1 hori.ons.
It ma or ma not 'e the same as the parent material from which the solum
formed.
Few root! massi(e gra(el and roc"s are found.
The su' hori.ons are
C
!
hori.onK gling
C
9
hori.onK accumulation of <a<o
8

C
m
hori.onK cemented laer of silca and calcium.
C
:
hori.onK fragipan 0 high 'ul" densit! 'rittle hard pan! silt te*ture1
C
y
hori.onK accumulation of gpsum
C
0
hori.onK cementing material of salt
6Layers
These are underling consolidated roc"! with little e(idence of weathering. It is
hared 'ed roc" li"e 'asalt! granite or sand stone and digging is impractical. In
these laer when the roc" crac"s it filled with soil.
Su' )i;ision "ith in master hori0ons
#ra'ic numerals following hori.on letter indicate (ertical su'di(ision within a
hori.on. Often distincti(e laers e*ists with in a gi(en master hori.on and these
arte indicted ' numeral following the letter designation. For e*ample! if three
different com'inations of structures and colors can 'e seen in the ; hori.on! then
profile ma include ;
+
9;
-
9;
8
seFuence.
#ra'ic numerals infront of master hori.ons indicate discontinuities.
For e*ample losses of # hori.on o(er limestone ; hori.on would ha(e the
; written as -; to show parent material change 0discontinuities1.
-<
g
indicates apparent materials with strong gleing and of differing
parent material than the hori.on a'o(e.
For organic laer and and (olcanic soil we dont use lithological discontinuities. It
is onl used for soil forms discontinuities ' geological process.
2. Transition hori0on
Transition laers 'etween the master hori.ons 0O! #! E! ;! and <1 ma 'e
dominated ' properties of one hori.on 'ut also ha(e prominent characteristics of
another
e.g. #E! E;! ;E! ;<
Letters com'inations such as E/; are used to distinct the transition hori.ons.
where distinct parts of the hori.on ha(e properties of E while other parts ha(e
properties of ;.
$. Su'or)inate hori0on
Specific hori.on characteristics ma 'e indicated ' a lower case letter following
of master hori.on designation.
The distinctions of these hori.ons include special phsical properties and the
accumulation of particular material! such as clas and salts.

a<..organic matter highl decomposed s
m<..
<ementing materials iron o*ide
'<..'uried soil hori.on 0
m<.
<ementing materials salt
c<..concretions or nodules y
m<<
<ementing materials gpsum
)<.dense unconsolidadated materials n<<accumulation of sodium
e<.organic matter partial decomposed. oN... accumulation sesFuo*ide
fN. fro.en #NNplow/culti(ated
ff<.permafrost 0no ice1 =NN accumulation of silca
!<.gleing r<<weathering of soft 'ed roc"
hN.accumulation of humus sNN accumul. of O&! Fe! #l o*ide
i<. organic matter slightl decomposed ss<..sillic"ensides
3<..3arosite tNNaccumulation of silicate clas
33 N<rtotur'ation ;<<plinthite
9<accumulation of car'onate "<.. 2eathera'le
m<cementation or induration :N.. fragipan
9
m
...<ementing materials <a<o
8 y<<..
accumulation of gpsum
=
m....
cementing material silca 0<< accumulation salts
%. 4ia!nostic hori0on
#re used in the in the new soil ta*onom sstem to differentiate among soils
orders su' orders! great groups and su' groups.
Epipedons1 the diagnostic hori.on that occur at the soil surface
+ollic1 soft! a thic"! dar" fria'le not strongl acidic
/ntro#ic1 people made mollic hori.on
&istic1 organic surface hori.on underlain ' mineral
+elanicK thic"! 'lac"! fria'le hori.on! formed in (olcanic areas
/l'ic1 strongl leached E hori.on
Ochric1 thin or light colored surface
Pla!!enK people cause! high humus hori.on
Endopedons1 the diagnostic hori.on that occur 'elow the surface
/!ric1 tillage caused cla and humus accumulation
/r!illic1 cla accumulation
Cam'ic1 color or wea"l de(eloped ; hori.on
>an)ic1 argilic hori.on of "aolinite li"e clas
Natric1 li"e an argillic 'ut with high e*changea'le sodium content
O:ic1 thoroughl weathered ; hori.on
Somic1 an acidic! humus accumulation! tropical ; hori.on
S#o)ic1 an acidic! cool area ; hori.on with an accumulation oh humus
iron aluminum o*ides0sesFuo*ides1
?lossic1 degrading argillic "andic or nitric
Endopedon(accumulation of solublized substances)
Calcic1 calcium car'onate accumulation
?y#sic1 gpsum accumulation
Salic1 solu'le salt accumulation
Sulfuric1 hori.on high in sulfides
Hardpan horizons
4uri#an1 silca cemented hardpan usuall ha(ing car'onates
Fra!i#an1 dense! 'rittle! minimal cemented hard pan
Petrocalcic1 hard car'onate cemented
Petro!y#sic1 hard gpsum cemented
Placic1 (er hard! iron cemented

2. SOIL FO+/TION /N4 4E@ELOP+ENT
It descri'es mi*tures of minerals or hard roc" as it changes into loosened material
in which plants and other organisms will 'e a'le to li(e and into which air and
water mo(e.
The parent material from which soils de(eloped (aries widel around the world
and from one location to another onl a few meters apart. Cnowledge on these
materials their source of origins! mechanisms for their weathering! and means of
transport and deposition are essential to understand soil genesis.

2.1 SOIL FO+IN? OC>S
Doc"s are natural occurring inorganic consolidated material consists of more than
one mineral.
The are classified into three ma3or di(isions
1. I!neous roc9
2. Se)imentary roc9
$. +etamor#hic roc9
1. I!neous roc9
2hen molten magma from under the earths crust is e*posed on the surface or at
different depth in the earth.
Euring (olcanic eruption molten heated liFuid materials erupt from the ground.
;ased on the eruption classified into
E:trusi;e i!neous roc9
Intrusi;e i!neous roc9
E:trusi;e i!neous roc9
The e*pelled igneous roc" 0from (olcanic eruption1 cools on the surface rapidl. It is
formed out side the earth surface and cause natural disasters.
The glass and amorphous 0low crstalli.ation1 and formed fine te*tured soils.
0<la and cla loam1
e.g. ;asalt! #ndesite! Dholite
Intrusi;e i!neous roc9
&agma cools near the surface 'ut not e*pelled into e*posure to air. The roc"
formed inside the earth surface. Those minerals in material less rapidl cooled
from small crstals in the roc" mass.
The are high crstalli.ations and formed coarse te*tured si.ed soils 0sand
soil1
e.g. %ranite! Eiorite! %a''ro
Igneous roc" IS composed of primar mineral such as
Li!ht colore)1 Iuart.ite! &usco(ite! and Feldspar
4ar9 colore)1 ;iotite! #ugite! and 4orn'lend
In general! dar" colored minerals contain iron and magnesium and are eaisl
weathered. There fore dar" colored igneous roc" such as %a''ro and ;asalt are
more easil 'ro"en down than are granite and other light colored igneous roc".
Eecomposition of igneous roc" depends on
The chemical composition 0silica content1
Formation of roc" 0cooled magma1
2. Se)imentary roc9
Those roc"s formed ' weathering and erosion process from pre e*isting roc"s
other process li"e transformation.
Doc" minerals and soil particles or solu'le su'stances that 'ecome consolidated
or cemented into hard masses.
The are the most common tpe of roc" encountered co(ering a'out 5:H of the
earths land surface.
;ased on decomposition and re cementation classified as
+echanical se)imentary roc9
Chemical se)imentary roc9
Or!anic se)imentary roc9
+echanical se)imentary roc9
&aterials formed ' loose sediment at suspension. &o(ing water 0ri(er1 carr
stones! gra(el! sand! silt! cla
e.g. <onglomerates! Sandstones! Shale
Chemical se)imentary roc9
&aterials formed due to precipitation of solutions/sediment
e.g. <alcite! Eolomite! Limestones
Or!anic se)imentary roc9
Formed from either plant or animals origin. Eue to decomposition of organic
matters.
e.g. <oal! Lignite! #nthrasite
Eecomposition of sedimentar roc"s depends on
<hemical composition
<ementing agent
$. +etamor#hic roc9
It is formed ' metamorphism of pre e*isting igneous and sedimentar roc"s.
Those roc"s masses are su'3ected to tremendous heat and pressure.
It ma 'e as hard as or harder than! the igneous! sedimentar roc" from which
the formed! 'ut the weathered to produce similar soils.
;ased on the profound modification /laer or foliation classified as
Foliate)/Layere) +etamor#hic roc9
Non foliate)2 non layere) +etamor#hic roc9
Foliate)/Layere) metamor#hic roc9
The laer formaton are non massi(e. It is soft and easil e*posed to weathered.
e.g. Schists! Slate! %nesis
Non foliate)2 non layere) metamor#hic roc9
The laer formations are massi(e. It is (er hard and ta"es long time to
weathered.
e.g. &ar'le! Iurti.ite
Eecomposition of metamorphic roc" depends on chemical composition L te*ture.
2.2 SOIL FO+IN? F/CTOS
Fi(e soil forming factors primaril responsi'le for the character of the de(eloped
soil.
1. Parent material 0unconsolidated material or roc"1
2. Climate 0primaril temperature and precipitation1
$. 5iota 0li(ing organisms! organic residues1
%. To#o!ra#hy 0slope! aspect! ele(ation1
(. Time
1. Parent material
%eological processes ha(e 'rought to the earths surface numerous parent
materials in which soils form.
The include e*posed 'ed roc"! 'ut the largest soil areas are formed from
unconsolidated materials.
The nature of parent materials profoundl influences soil characteristic.
e.g. Sand te*ture soil from coarsed grain! Fuart. rich materials such as
%ranite or Sand stone
The chemical and mineralogical composition of parent material also influences
'oth chemical weathering and natural (egetation
e.g. $resence of limestone in parent materials will dela the de(elopment of
acidit.
$arent material also influences the Fualit and tpe of cla minerals present in the
soil profile.
$arent material classified with regarding to the mode of placement in their current
location.
esi)ual 0 formed in place from roc"1
Trans#orte) 0<ollu(ial! #llu(ial! &arine! Lucustrine! %lacial! Folian1
/ccumulate) #lant )e'ris 0organic matter1
2. Climate
It is the most influencing factors acting on parent material 'ecause it determines
the nature and intensit of the weathering that occurs o(er large geographic areas.
The principal climatic (aria'les influencing soil formation are effecti(e
precipitation and temperature.
Preci#itation
To 'e effecti(e in soil formation! water must penetrate into the regolith. The
greater the depth of water penetration! greater in weathering and soil
de(elopment.
$ercolating water stimulates weathering reaction and helps differentiate soil
hori.on.
In the process of chemical weathering 0hdration! hdrolsis reduction and
dissolution1 water has ma3or roles.
Dainfall comes togther with ions which increases weathering process. Leaching
of cla! car'onates solu'le salts and accumulation in the hori.on.
Tem#erature
It influences reactions in soil forming process. For e(er +,
o
c rise in temperature!
the rate of 'iochemical reaction more than dou'led.
Fluctuation of hot and cold temperature causes e*pansion and contraction on the
parent material 0roc" and minerals1.
Temperatures controls e(apotranspiration indirectl affects the effecti(e rainfall
0e*ist in the soil1.
If warm temperature and a'undant water are present in the profile at the same
time! the process of weathering leaching and plant growth will 'e ma*imi.ed.
2hen the temperature increases! the soil 'ecome more gra color! amount of
organic matter reduced due to decomposition and a'sorption.
4irect effects of climate on soil formation
LimeK 0in al"aline soils1 can accumulate at shallow depth. In low rain fall areas
calcium car'onate not leached when little water present.
#cidic soilK humid areas due to intensi(e weathering and leaching out of 'asic
cations.
Erosion of soils on sloping land constantl remo(es de(eloping soil laers.
Eeposition of soil materials down slope co(ers de(eloping soil laers.
Indirectl affects action on (egetation.
$. 5iota
Li(ing plants and animals and their organic wastes! residues ha(e mar"ed
influences on soil de(elopment.
Organic matter accumulation! 'iochemical weathering! profile mi*ing nutrient
ccling! and aggregates sta'ilit are all enhanced ' the acti(ities of organisms in
the soil.
@e!etation
Forest land
Tree lea(es falling on the forest are the principal source of organic matter.
In humid forest (egetation ma de(elop man hori.on
Organic matter in the forest floor and a thin # hori.on.
%rass land
&uch of organic matter added to the soil is from deep fi'rous grass rot
sstem
Soils generall ha(e thic"er # hori.on and a deeper distri'ution of organic
matter.
5urro"in! animals
&oles! gophers! prairie dogs! earth worms! ants and termites are important in soil
formation when the e*ists in large num'ers
;ring the lower hori.on to the surface
Encouraging mo(ement of water and air into the su'surface laers.
&i*ing the lower and upper laers hori.ons 0pedotur'ation1.
Ingest soil particles and release organic residues
Increase sta'ilit of soil aggregates.
+icro or!anisms
Slowl decomposing organic matter and forming wea" acid that dissol(es mineral
faster than that does pure water.
&uman interferencesA
Eestruction of natural (egetation! su'seFuent tillage! mining and ur'ani.ing areas.
%. To#o!ra#hy
Influences soil formation primaril through its modification of water and
temperature.
It relates to the configuration of the land surface and is descri'ed in terms of
differences in ele(ation! slope and land scape position
Stee# slo#es
Encourage erosion of surface laers
#llow less rainfall to enter the soil 'efore running off
There is no possi'ilit for formation of deep soil
Less effecti(e moisture e*ists
Less di(erse plant co(er! low organic matter.
?entle slo#es
&ore water passing (erticall through them
The profile is deeper
The (egetation are more lu*uriant high organic matter
Topograph affects the a'sor'ance of solar energ in a gi(en land scape
# higher temperature on south and west slopes results in greater loss of water
' e(aporation) the net result in regions where water is limiting is often soils
with thinner hori.ons and less (egetation co(er than soils on north and east
slopes.
It can also interact with parent material. In man land scapes! topograph reflects
the distri'ution of residual! collu(ial and allu(ial parent materials.
Desidual K upper slopes
<ollu(ial K co(ering the lower slopes
#llu(ial K filling the (alle 'ottom
(. Time
The degree of which material with in soil to change depends on the amount of
time.
For soil de(elopment! the length of time reFuired to de(eloped laer! called
genetic hori.ons depending on man interrelated factors of climate! nature of
parent material! the organism and topograph.
4ori.on de(elop most rapidl in warm! humid! forested climates where there are
adeFuate water to mo(e.
In rates of weathering! where the other factor of soil formation are fa(ora'le.
Organic matter ma accumulate to form dar"ened # hori.onN Eecade
Incipient ; hori.on has 'ecome discerni'le on humid regionN.7,ears
The formation of ; hori.ons with altered colors and structuresN<enturies
The accumulation of silicates clas usuall 'ecome noticea'leNThousands ears
# mature! deepl weathered soil NNNNNNhundreds of thousands ear
2hen we spea" of oung or mature soil! we are not so much referring to the
age of the soil in laers as to 'e degree of weathering and profile de(elopment.
Desidual parent material has generall 'een su'3ected to soil forming process for
longer periods of to time than material transported.
The age of soil detected ' half life car'on.
2.$ Weatherin! of roc9s
2eathering is 'iochemical process that in(ol(es destruction and snthesis. The
original roc"s and minerals are destroed ' 'oth phsical distigration and
chemical decomposition.
It 'rea"s up roc"s and a mineral modif or destro their phsical and chemical
characteristics and carries awa the solu'le products.
It is a continuous reaction in the soil de(elopment until there is e(en not reactant
is present 0with out noticing the change1.
2eathering proceeds 'elow and with in the solum
%eochemical weathering
9 Occurred 'elow the solum! in < hori.on.
$edochemical weathering
9 Eecomposition! distigration! modification
9 #ll associated with 'iological and other soil forming factors
9 <ommon in # and ; hori.ons
The two ma3or tpes of weathering are
1. Physical "eatherin! -)isite!ration.
2. Chemical "eatherin! -)ecom#osition.
1. Physical "eatherin! -)isite!ration.
2eathering includes 'rea"ing or grinding particles to smaller si.e with out
change in the chemical composition.
Effect of climate on phsical weathering.
Tem#erature
In hot region
Doc"s heat up during the da and cool down at nigh! causing alternating
e*pansion 0heating1 and contraction 0cooling1 of their constituents minerals
which cause the roc" to crac" apart.
;ecause the outer surface of a roc" is often warmer or colder than the inner! more
protected portion! some roc"s ma weathered ' e*foliation 0peeling awa of
outer laers1.
e.g. low land areas! desert areas
In temperate regions
Doc"s e*posed for lower temperature 0free.ing and thawing/wetting and dring1.
The process accelerated if ice forms in the surface crac"s.
e.g. high land areas
Water -ainfall.
2hen loaded with sediment! with sediment! water has tremendous cutting power.
Erosion! remo(al/rolling of material at the 'ottom of stream 0collision9'rea"s the
roc"/mineral1
e.g %orges! Da(ins! ?alles! rounded ri(er 'ed roc"! 'each sand gra(el