4

Strut & Column Buckling

Consider a simply-supported strut with length L and exural rigidity EI loaded axially with a force P (Fig. 22). At buckling it assumes a prole (mode) y(x), where at x

Figure 22: Buckling strut.

we have a bending moment M introduced by the mode shape eccentricity,
M = P y.

(28)

Bending theory states: M = EI curvature, which from linear bending theory can be
written:
d2 y
(29)
M = EI 2 .
dx
Combining eqs. (28) and (29) we obtain the differential equation:
EI

d2 y
+ Py = 0
dx2

(30)

Rewriting this in the form:

P
d2 y
+
y=0
dx2 EI
gives the form of the equation for a free undamped oscillator, or the equation for simple
harmonic motion. It is useful to differentiate this equation twice with respect to x so that
two boundary conditions can be applied at each support.
d4 y
P d2 y
+
=0
dx4 EI dx2

(31)

The solution of this equation has the form:

y(x) = A sin x + B cos x + Cx + D

(32)

where A, B, C and D are constants dependent on the boundary conditions of the strut
and is dened:
P
=
(33)
EI
In the case shown in Fig. 22
y(0) = y (0) = 0 B = D = 0
y(L) = y (L) = 0 C = 0, A sin L = 0
23

(34)

where primes denote differentiation with respect to x, a nontrivial solution (A = 0), is

given by:
sin L = 0 L = 0, , 2, . . . , n where: n Z.
(35)
Therefore the condition for a nontrivial y(x) is
P =

n2 2 EI
.
L2

(36)

Unless the strut is restrained somewhere the lowest value of P (n = 1) is the practical
value for bucklingthe Euler load (PE )
PE =

2 EI
.
L2

(37)

In reality the equilibrium paths are not at, they exhibit a stable-symmetric prole.
However, this stable nature is not signicant until deections get very large, 3 so they
are assumed to be at and the critical load is a fair estimate of the failure load when
struts buckle.
However it is important to note that linearized deections, which we have assumed in
the struts, can only give information on critical loads and say nothing for post-buckling
responses. This means that analysing systems which are asymmetric or unstable with
linearized deections would always overestimate the real structural strength because of
their inherent sensitivity to imperfections. For systems that have a signicant postbuckling stiffness (e.g. rectangular plates supported on all edges) assuming linearized
deections can seriously underestimate the real structural strength.

4.1 Potential Energy Formulation of Euler Buckling

The following potential energy functional contains large displacement (small-strain)
expressions for strain energy and work done by load P of the elasticathe inextensible
strut:

2
2 1
2
2
L
dy
dy
dy
1
1
P 1 1
V =
EI
dx .
(38)

dx2
dx
dx
0 2
This can be expanded as a power series (with primes denoting d/dx):
L

V =
0

1
EIy
2

1 + y + y + ... P

1 2 1 4
y + y + ...
2
8

dx

(39)

Small deection assumptions allow us to truncate the series to rst order (linearization):
L
1
1
2
2
dx
V =
EIy P y
(40)
2
2
0
3

In this case, eq. (12) becomes valid for curvature and the problem becomes that of the elastica (see
Section 1.3 of Thompson & Hunt 1973 or Section 2.7 of Timoshenko & Gere 1961).

24

To obtain the equilibrium equation of the structure, the stationary point of the potential
energy needs to be found. As this is in a form of an integral, the condition for an
integral to be stationary is that the rst variation of the integral must be zero. If V is
expressed thus:
L

(41)

L(y , y ) dx

V =
0

where L is the integrand and is like a Lagrangian function from dynamics theory, we
can express the rst variation of V (denoted as V ) thus:
L

V =
0

where

L
y

y +

L
y

dx.

(42)

1
2
Py ,
2

(43)

L
= P y .
y

(44)

d
d
y and y =
y
dx
dx
and then integrate by parts twice we get the following:

(45)

1
L = EIy
2

and

L
= EIy ,
y

If we also say that:

y =

V = [EIy y (EIy + P y )y]0 +

(EIy

+ P y ) y dx.

(46)

So if V = 0 at equilibrium, the terms in the square brackets must vanish when appropriate boundary conditions are applied:
Simple supports (zero deection and bending moment): y = y = 0
Fixed supports (zero deection and slope): y = y = 0
Free (zero bending moment and shear force): y = 0, EIy + P y = 0.
More importantly the integral vanishes when the integrand is equal to zero, namely
when:
EIy + P y = 0 ,
(47)
which gives the equation of the Euler column. This analysis has used a technique called
the calculus of variations which provides the link between Newtons laws and potential
energy.

4.2 Effective Length Concept

With the solution of the governing ODE we could consider any boundary condition
combination by obtaining a solution of y(x). However, there is a more intuitive way

25

of analysing different cases using the concept of Effective length (L e ). Common cases
follow, the adjusted Euler loads take account of the effective lengths thus:
PE =

2 EI
.
L2
e

(48)

1. Simple supports both ends:

2. Fixed both ends:


 

3. Cantilever (free xed):

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4. Sway column (xed both ends but can also sway across):

)
& ( '
&
5. Simple support xed:

A
0 64 2 1
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There are many cases where end xity lies between the above cases. This is especially
prevalent in frames. Fig. 23 shows two examples. When in doubt, take the largest effective length Le that gives the lowest P C , and always choose the correct mode carefully
to avoid the example pitfall in Fig. 24.

26

(a) Sway

(b) Non-sway

Figure 23: Sway and non-sway frames. For the effective lengths of the vertical members: (a) L < Le < 2L (between cases 1 & 3); (b) 0.5L < Le < 0.7L (between cases 2 &
5).

( 21 )
'&3$"0 (

  


(b) Correct mode

 #! 
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(a) System

(c) INCORRECT

Figure 24: Choosing buckling effective lengths carefully. The central restraint is a pin.

27

4.3 Strut and Column Analysis

Sometimes the combination of boundary conditions and non-uniform cross-section
properties of columns are such that exact evaluation of critical loads is not possible
using the differential equation (31). However, good approximations can be made if
the system is formulated by total potential energy. The strain energy U is given by the
expression in eq. (14), but the work done by the load is thus:
L

1
2

P = P
0

dy
dx

(49)

dx,

which makes the expression for V:

L

V =
0

d2 y
dx2

1
EI
2

dy
dx

dx

(50)

For the standard column, substituting:

y=

Qn sin
n=1

nx
L

(51)

gives correct results since the chosen function in this case reproduces the correct buckling mode. Approximate results for P C can be obtained for approximate expressions
for y(x).

4.3.1

Rayleighs Method

1. Assume a one DOF form for y(x).

2. Substitute y into V given in eq. (50).
3. For critical equilibrium, set:
d2 V
=0
dQ2
Example
For a simply-supported strut of length L, assume:
y = Qx(L x)

(52)

Substituting the assumed y into V gives:

L

U=
0
L

P =
0

d2 y
dx2

1
EI
2
P
2

dy
dx

V = 2EILQ2

dx =
0

dx =
0

1
EI(2Q)2 dx = 2EILQ2
2

P L 3 Q2
P
(QL 2Qx)2 dx =
2
6

P L 3 Q2
6

(53)
(54)
(55)

28

2
Applying d V2 = 0 gives:
dQ

12EI
(56)
L2
which is around 22% too high, this is a pretty poor estimate as the assumed form for y
does not satisfy all the boundary conditions.
PC =

4.3.2

Timoshenkos Method

Note from eqs. (28) and (29) that when a strut buckles assuming small deections:
d2 y
Py
=
2
dx
EI

(57)

hence for U we could write

1
U = EI
2

L
0

d2 y
dx2

P2
dx =
2EI

y 2 dx.

(58)

Example
Assuming the same form as in eq. (52) this time gives:
L

L
P2 2
P2 2 2
P 2 L5 Q 2
w dx =
Q x (L x)2 dx =
60EI
0 2EI
0 2EI
2
L
L
P
P dy
P L 3 Q2
dx =
(QL 2Qx)2 dx =
P =
2 dx
2
6
0
0
3 2
2 5 2
P LQ
PL Q
V =

60EI
6

U=

(59)
(60)
(61)

2
Applying d V2 = 0 gives:
dQ

10EI
(62)
L2
which is only 1.3% too high, this is a very good estimate even though the assumed
form for y does not satisfy all the boundary conditions.
PC =

4.3.3

Notes on the approximate methods

The approximation for y should always satisfy the geometric boundary conditions
to be useful. In the example, the geometric conditions at the boundaries are the
zero displacements. The zero bending moments at the boundaries are not satised by ythis is an example of a static boundary condition.
The origin of integration should be a position of zero bending moment.

29

 Timoshenkos method relies on the expression for relating curvature to deection. Timoshenkos method is a special case of Rayleighs method only really
useful for columns.
As y is generally modelled more precisely than its 2nd derivative, Timoshenkos
method turns out to be more accurate.
Rayleighs method can be used in a wide variety of applications including plates,
shells and even structural dynamics.
Extending the Rayleigh technique to more than one DOF makes the approximation better. Generally, this is called the RayleighRitz method.
It can be shown that an approximate energy method always arrives at upper
bound for P C .

30

Real Columns

For columns that are designed and used in practice, the Euler buckling load is only
part of the story. We also have to consider the effect of material failure, i.e. plasticity
or yielding. A idealized view is given in the graph in Fig. 25 where is the nondimen-



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Figure 25: Idealized graph of real column failure.
sional slenderness ratio of the section dened from the second moment of area I, the
cross-sectional area A and the sectional radius of gyration r. Thus:
I = Ar2 ,
= Le /r,
2 EI
2E
E =
= 2 .
AL2

(63)
(64)
(65)

The expression in eq. (65) is the mean axial stress in the section during Euler buckling.
The slenderness is dened to incorporate the section property and the effective length
into one parameter: high values imply buckling, low values imply yielding failure.
The codes, however, also take account of initial imperfections from experimental data.

5.1 Column Formulae

5.1.1

Some preliminaries

We can plot E against to obtain a 2nd order hyperbola, the so-called Euler hyperbola.
The Euler curve is clearly an upper bound on column strength. We can normalize both
31

stress and slenderness with respect to the material yield stress y thus:
Stress : /y
where r =

Slenderness : /r

(66)

E/y .

For a stocky column, we do not expect buckling but rather squashing (yielding) of the
column. For low values of , this occurs when the mean axial stress reaches y . This
second upper bound on column strength is thus dened when /y = 1.0 for all /r .

5.1.2

The Real Column: PerryRobertson Formula

Object: to determine the value of P that causes the largest stress in the column to reach
y .
At any section we have a combination of (i) a mean axial stress ( = P/A) and (ii)
bending stresses corresponding to a moment (M = P y). The latter is compressive inside
the curve, and tensile outside. Since P/A is compressive, the most stressed location is at
midspan on the inside of the column (i.e. T in the Fig. 26), and this is where rst yield

yi

yi + y

No Load

Load P

Figure 26: Imperfect column under axial load P .

will occur as P is increased. At T the stress T is given by
T =

Md P
+
I
A

(67)

where d is the distance from extreme bre to the neutral axis. As M = P ( + y i ) and
y

32

letting = P/A, we get

P ( + y i )d
y
+
I
PA

=
d yi

+ yi +

AI
E
E
di
y
+ .
=
r2
E

T =

(68)

This is after dening the magnication factor / (E ) which relates the deection
owing to the load, y , to the imperfection y i . Putting = di /r2 nally gives

y
T =

E
+1 .
E

(69)

If we put T = y and solve for the value of which causes yield at T we obtain:
=

y + (1 + )E

y + (1 + )E
2

y E

(70)

This is the PerryRobertson Formula for the mean axial stress to cause failure in a
column. This leads to a graph (Fig. 27) that rounds the corners of the curve in Fig. 25.
BS 449 used the PerryRobertson curve and factored it downwards using an allowable
stress a criterion:
a = 0.6failure .
(71)



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Figure 27: PerryRobertson curve in comparison with the ideal column failure curve.
BS 5950 improved on 449 by combining experimental data with the PerryRobertson
curve with factors accounting for:
33

 section shape, whether UC, UB etc;

residual stresses in rolled and welded sections;
the stocky column effect where failure

y A;

real support conditions.

It has been plotted for specic values of which reect the inuence of geometric
imperfections and residual stresses.
Values of from BS5950:
= 0.001d ( 0 )
where = L/r and the limiting slenderness 0 = 0.2

0
E/y .

Values of d :
Curve a d = 2.0
Curve b d = 3.5
Curve c d = 5.5
Curve a represents rolled hollow sections with relative strengths decreasing as we go
from curves a to c.

5.1.3

Designing columns to BS 5950

Section 4.7 in BS 5950 Part 1 (2000 revision) is the relevant section:

Table 22 denes the effective length;
Table 23 denes which of the curves a, b or c to usedepending on section shape,
manufacture and so on;
Table 24 has the curves a, b and c tabulated against slenderness to obtain the
design strength.

34