CHEMISTRY

MIGUEL RAMIREZ
Bonds
Within ionic lattices exist a type of bonding known as ionic bonding. This type of
bonding is very strong and requires a lot of energy to break. The bond is caused by an
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions (cations and anions). All Ionic
Bonds are solid. This type of bonding usually occurs between non-metals and metals,
although there are some exceptions.

Ionic bonding involves the interchange of electrons amongst the ions. For example:
Sodium, a metal, which has one electron in its valence shell, will give away or lose this
electron. On the opposite side, Chlorine, which has 7 electrons in its valence shell, will
gain this electron. By doing this, both elements achieve noble gas configuration and
complete or empty their valence shell. The bond results in one element negatively
charged, and the other, positively charged. This causes the electrostatic charge that
bonds the two elements together and creates an Ionic bond.

Within the Ionic compound diagram, it is seen that the ions are organized in a three
dimensional figure. In addition, the ion itself is surrounded by different ions of opposite
charge, to create attraction. With this configuration, it can be seen that the bonds are
very strong and require a lot of energy to break. This arrangement is evident in the
diagram of an ionic compound provided. The different sized circles represent different
ions. The ions are arranged in a way that it is surrounded only by oppositely charged
ions. In the diagram, the positive Sodium is surrounded by negative Chlorines and vice
versa. Thus, ionic compounds and lattices have very high boiling and melting points.
Examples of ionic lattices are Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) and Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

A pure substance that is composed of a single covalent molecule is called a covalent
molecular substance. These are the simplest, most fundamental form of the substance
where it can still be distinguished from other similar substances. These substances are
usually composed of non-metals. Examples include C2H6 (Methane) and CO2 (Carbon
Dioxide). Within covalent molecular substances, there are two forces that form different
bonds. These are Intramolecular Forces (Intra Inside), also known as Covalent Bonds
and Intermolecular Forces (Inter Between).

Intramolecular forces (Covalent Bonds) are the forces that hold the atoms of the
molecule together. This force is very strong and requires a large amount of energy to
break. This is because electrons between atoms are shared. Similar to ionic bonds,
Intramolecular forces are caused by attraction between ions. In the provided model,
matchsticks represent the Intramolecular forces, which holds the balls (atoms) together.
Examples of molecules held together by Intramolecular forces are H2 and CH4.

Intermolecular forces are the forces that hold covalent molecules together. They exist
between molecules. These forces are caused by attraction of opposite charge. This force
is weaker than an Intramolecular force. Due to the weaker force, less energy is needed
to break the force. This means that covalent molecular substances have low melting and
boiling points. An example of two molecules held together by intermolecular forces is
2H20. The three dimensional model of CH4 (methane) shows the Intramolecular forces
that exist between atoms. The matchsticks represent this force.

A Covalent Network Lattice is a collection of covalent compounds and molecules,
arranged in a three dimensional lattice structure. All of the atoms are held together by
covalent bonds. Inside a covalent lattice, both inter and Intramolecular forces are
present. Intramolecular forces hold together the atoms in a single molecule.
Intermolecular forces hold all the molecules together. Although the covalent lattice is
held together by this relatively weak force, covalent lattices have high melting and
CHEMISTRY
MIGUEL RAMIREZ
boiling points. This is because a lot of energy is needed to overcome covalent bonding
and separate the atoms within the lattice. Examples of covalent network lattices are
Carbon (C) and Silicon Dioxide (SiO2). In the two dimensional diagram of the covalent
network lattice structure, it can be seen that the molecules are arranged in a seemingly
infinite array. Also, the intermolecular forces holding the molecules together are
represented by lines between the atoms.

These are the bonds that exist within each of the three different types of compounds;
ionic lattices, covalent molecular and covalent network lattice.

Properties
Within the different types of structures, there are differing physical properties. These
properties include melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity, hardness,
malleability and ductility. These properties are affected by many components of the
compound such as its structure and bonding.

Melting and boiling points are adjusted by the amount of energy needed to break bonds
and forces within a structure. Ionic compounds are bonded together by ionic bonding.
Ionic bonding is very strong and requires a great amount of energy to break. Therefore,
ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. Intermolecular forces on the
other hand, hold covalent molecular substances together. These forces are very weak
and little energy is needed to break the force. Therefore, covalent molecular substances
have low melting and boiling points. Covalent network compounds have very strong
bonds called covalent bonds. Covalent bonding is extremely strong and requires a lot of
energy to overcome. Therefore, covalent network structures have a very high melting
and boiling point. Metallic bonding holds metallic structures together. This type of
bonding is very strong and as a result, the melting and boiling points are high. In the
diagram of a covalent network lattice, the numerous bonds and forces are shown. Due to
the sheer number and strength of these bonds, the BP and MP are very high.

Electrical conductivity among these structures varies greatly. Their conductivity can
change when they change states of matter. Ionic compounds conduct in the liquid and
aqueous states as the ions are moving and creating charges. When solid, the particles do
not move and create no charge. Covalent molecular substances do not conduct in any
state. This is because there are no charges created. No ions or electrons are involved in
the bonds. Covalent network lattices do not conduct electricity in any state. There are no
charges and no ions or electrons involved in the bonding. Metals conduct in both solid
and liquid states. This is because electrons are freely moving around positive ions in
both states, creating a charge. In the diagram of a metallic lattice, the electrons are seen
around the metal ions. This is what causes the electric charge.

Each of the different structures has their own unique qualities when it comes to
malleability, hardness and ductility. Ionic compounds are hard, but brittle (not
malleable or ductile). This is because when the structure is moved, the ions are put next
to a similarly charged ion, which repels and breaks bonds. This configuration can be
seen in the diagram of an ionic compound. Covalent molecular substances are very soft
and non malleable or ductile, although there are some exceptions. This is due to the
weak bonds that exist within. Other forces can easily break the forces within. Covalent
network lattices are hard and brittle, similar to ionic compounds (except graphite). They
are hard because the bonds within are strong however, is brittle because the atoms
within cannot slide past each other. Metals are generally very hard, malleable and
ductile. Metals are strong due to their strong bonds. Metals are also malleable as atoms
can slide around each other, as seen in the diagram, and the structure is stable.

CHEMISTRY
MIGUEL RAMIREZ
These are the differences in physical properties between ionic compounds, covalent
molecular substances, covalent network lattices and metals. The table below
summarizes the information.

CATEGORIES Melting Point
(C)
Boiling Point
(C)
Conductivity
S- Solid
L Liquid
A - Aqueous
Hardness,
Malleability
and Ductility
Metals High High Good S & L
N/A - A
Mostly hard,
ductile and
malleable.
Ionic
Compounds
High High Poor S
Good L & A
Hard and
brittle
Covalent
Lattices
Very High Very High Poor S & L
N/A A
Hard and
brittle
Covalent
Molecules
Low Low Poor - ALL Soft

Models
Models are used widely throughout Chemistry as a means of illustrating or visually
demonstrating a certain aspect or area of the science, which cannot be recreated
through other physical means. Scientific models are simplified representations of a
complex reality, which aims to build foundations for improvement in scientific
knowledge. This is achieved through visual, conceptual and mathematical depictions
that illustrate or convey simple meanings.
Simply put, models are a method of presenting information that we cannot or is too
difficult to fathom or envision. This includes and is not limited to atomic structure, or
planetary and galactic relations. Although models greatly assist scientists in presenting
information, they also have their limitations. The benefits and limitations of models vary
greatly and will be further discussed.

In order to assist in the explanation of the structure and bonds, these models are used.
Models of ionic compounds, covalent network lattice molecules, covalent molecular
compounds and metallic crystals are commonly used in order to supplement teachers
when trying to explain the structure of these substances. They help visualize and
understand these structures. Models also allow us to scale the particles of atomic sizes
to relatable size. This can further enhance your understanding. These are the benefits of
using models in chemistry.

Models have many limitations when it comes to comparing models and the actual
structure. They can be misleading, and portray incorrect or inaccurate information. Such
information is evident within the 3D model of methane and the diagrams presented. In
the model, matchsticks represent the Intramolecular forces. This is misleading, as
Intramolecular forces are actually invisible. Also, polystyrene balls represent atoms.
Atoms however are not actually balls, but are very tiny particles. In the diagrams, the
atoms are represented as circles, which again is incorrect. Electrons are represented by
a circle with a in the middle. This is very misleading because electrons not shaped like
circles. The colours used in the model that is used to distinguish different particles are
very incorrect. These particles have no colour. Within the ionic compound diagram, the
ions are arranged three dimensionally in a perfect cube when in fact, they are not cubes.
These are some examples of model limitations. There are many more areas in which a
model is limited however, models are still used as a means of simplifying reality. These
are the limitations and benefits of using models in Chemistry.
CHEMISTRY
MIGUEL RAMIREZ
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