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A 'curved-earth' reference model of the world is referred to as a geodetic
datum. The summary of the characteristics of a geodetic are:
* A geodetic datum is a simplified mathematical representation of the size
and shape of the earth.
** It usually takes the form of a spheroid, this being an ellipse rotated about
its minor (shorter) axis.
*** A geodetic datum is vital to all activities involving spatial data. The
spheroid provides a mathematically simple surface for performing surveying
and navigation computations over a wide area. It also provides a reference
surface on which to base mapping and Geographic Information Systems
(GIS).
****The surface of the spheroid is positioned such that it is a best-fit to the
Earth's sea level surface (ie to the geoid). An exact fit to sea level is not
possible due to anomalies in the Earth's gravity field. Gravity anomalies
(caused by variations in the density and distribution of the earth's mass)
cause irregularities in the sea level surface. This renders sea level
unsuitable as a horizontal reference surface for mapping activities.
*****Sea level is widely used as the reference surface for the measurement
of height. The contours on a map will usually show height above sea level.
However their position will be mapped on the spheroid.

A Local Geodetic Datum is a datum which best
approximates the size and shape of a particular part of the
earth's sea-level surface
A Geocentric Datum is one which best approximates the size and
shape of the Earth as a whole. The centre of its spheroid coincides
with the Earth's centre of mass
The Global Positioning System (GPS), which is operated by the United States
Department of Defence, utilises a geocentric datum to express its positions because of
its global extent. The Russian GLONASS satellite navigation system also uses a
geocentric datum. However it is a different datum to that used by GPS
Reference Ellipsoids
The Global Positioning system is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84).
Datum Shifts
Datum Conversions
Seven Parameter Transformation Formulae
(Bursa-Wolf Model)

= + S
C
where
X
1
, Y
1
, Z
1
= Cartesian Coordinates of Datum 1
X
2
, Y
2
, Z
2
= Cartesian Coordinates of Datum 2
DX, DY, DZ = The difference between the centres of the two spheroids
R
X
, R
Y
, R
Z
= The rotations around the three coordinate axes
S
C

= The scale difference between the coordinate systems
Rotations are positive anticlockwise about the axes of Datum 2 coordinate system when viewing the origin from the
positive axes.
Three-Parameter Transformation Formulae
X
1
= X
2
+ DX Y
1
= Y
2
+ DY Z
1
= Z
2
+ DZ
where

X
1
, Y
1
, Z
1

= Cartesian Coordinates of Datum 1
X
2
, Y
2
, Z
2
= Cartesian Coordinates of Datum 2
DX, DY, DZ = The difference between the centres of the two spheroids
The Standard Molodensky formulas can be used to convert latitude, longitude, and ellipsoid height in one datum to
another datum if the Delta XYZ constants for that conversion are available and ECEF XYZ coordinates are not required.


Coordinate systems
Latitude, Longitude, and Height
The most commonly used
coordinate system today is the
latitude, longitude, and height
system.
The Prime Meridian and the
Equator are the reference planes
used to define latitude and
longitude.
The geodetic latitude (there are
many other defined latitudes) of a
point is the angle from the
equatorial plane to the vertical
direction of a line normal to the
reference ellipsoid.
The geodetic longitude of a point
is the angle between a reference
plane and a plane passing
through the point, both planes
being perpendicular to the
equatorial plane.
The geodetic height at a point is
the distance from the reference
ellipsoid to the point in a direction
normal to the ellipsoid
Geographic Coordinates
Many GIS systems store locations as numbers using latitude and longitude or
geographic coordinates. Latitude and longitude are almost always geocoded, or
captured from the map into computer, in one of two ways.
First format record geographic coordinates in degrees. Precision below degree is
geocoded as minutes and seconds, and decimals of seconds, in one of two
formats: either plus or minus DD.MMSS.XX, where DD are degrees, MM are
minutes, and SS.XX are decimal seconds; or alternatively, as DD.XXXX, or decimal
degrees
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates
define two dimensional, horizontal, positions.
UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longitudinal
strips extending from 80 degrees South latitude to 84
degrees North latitude.
UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones
extending north and south from the equator.
There are special UTM zones between 0 degrees and
36 degrees longitude above 72 degrees latitude and a
special zone 32 between 56 degrees and 64 degrees
north latitude.
World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF
The World Geographic Reference System is used for aircraft navigation
These 15 degree areas are further divided into one degree units identified by 15 characters.

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