Chap 1 - 1 Chap 1 - 1 Chap 1 - 2 Chap 1 - 2

The Birth of Modern Physics The Birth of Modern Physics

Classical Physics of the 1890s
Mechanics
Electromagnetism
Thermodynamics
Unresolved Questions of 1895
Existence of Atoms
The atomic theory controversy raises fundamental questions.
The structure of matter remained unknown with certainty.
Fundamental problems:
The question of the existence of an electromagnetic medium
The problem of observed differences in the electric and magnetic field
between stationary and moving reference systems
The failure of classical physics to explain blackbody radiation.
The more important
fundamental laws and facts of
physical science have all been
discovered.
Chap 1 - 3 Chap 1 - 3
Additional Discoveries Contribute to the
Complications
Discovery of X-rays
Discovery of radioactivity
Discovery of the electron
Discovery of the Zeeman effect
The Birth of Modern Physics The Birth of Modern Physics
These new discoveries and the many resulting complications
required a revision of the fundamental physical assumptions.
modern theory of relativity and
quantum mechanics
Chap 1 - 4 Chap 1 - 4
CHAPTER 1:
SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Frame of reference
1.3 Newtonian Relativity
1.4 Transformation laws
1.5 The Galilean transformations
1.6 The speed of light and the Ether
1.7 The Michelson-Morley experiment
1.8 Einsteins principle of relativity
1.9 The Lorentz transformations
1.10 The length contraction
1.11 The time dilation
1.12 The relativity of simultaneity
1.13 The combination of velocities
1.14 Relativistic dynamics
1.15 Relativistic energy
1.16 The equivalence of energy and mass
Chap 1 - 5 Chap 1 - 5
1.1 Introduction (I)
Classical or Newtonian mechanics:
Deals with the motions of bodies travelling at velocities that are
very much less than the velocity of light.
Three fundamental concepts of Physics, i.e., space, time and
mass are all absolute and invariant.
1. The length of an object is independent of the conditions under which
it is measured.
2. The interval of time between two events has the same value for all
observers.
3. If two events are simultaneous for an observer, they are
simultaneous for all observers.
4. The mass of a body does not depend on the velocity of its motion.
5. The mass of an isolated system of bodies does not change with any
processes occurring within the system (law of conservation of mass).
Chap 1 - 6 Chap 1 - 6
1.1 Introduction (II)
Relativistic mechanics:
Deals with the motions of bodies travelling at velocity of light
(c) or v c.
The space, time, and mass are becomes state-of-motion
dependent (via ).
The speed of light in free space (vacuum) is constant.
(a) Length Contraction
(b) Time Dilation
(c) Simultaneity
Chap 1 - 7 Chap 1 - 7
Question???
The Classical or Newtonian mechanics are out of
date.
Why still need to learn/take the ZCT 101
Mechanics???
Chap 1 - 8 Chap 1 - 8
1.1 Introduction (III) Coordinate system
Space is 3-D in the sense that it is possible to describe
the position of a point by 3 coordinates numbers.
In special theory of relativity (STR), the space and
time coordinates cannot be treated separately.
E.g., LT, time dilation, length contraction formula.
A convenient way to express the results of STR is to
regard events as occurring in a 4-D space-time in
which the usual 3 coordinates x, y, z refer to space and
a 4
th
coordinate ict refers to time, where i
2
= -1.
In general, we cannot visualize space-time (i.e., just an
imaginary).
Chap 1 - 9 Chap 1 - 9
1.1 Introduction (IV)
We choose ict as the time coordinate instead of just t
because the quantity (length squared):
s
2
= x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
- (ct)
2
is invariant under Lorentz transformation. (Do it as an (Do it as an
exercise). exercise).
In this case, the quantity of s has the dimension of
length and is called the space-time. It is analogous to
distance in classical mechanics.
Minkowki diagrams can be used to classify the entire
universe of space-time and clarify whether or not one
event could be the cause of another.
Pls. refer to Arthur Beiser, Concepts of Modern physics,
Appendix 2.
Chap 1 - 10 Chap 1 - 10
Space-time diagram and Causality
Classification of one-dimensional space-
time into past, future, and elsewhere
regions. A particle with world line
passing through O cannot reach regions
marked elsewhere.
Three pairs of events in space-time:
V,W; A,B; C,D.
V could cause W.
A could cause B.
C could not cause D.
Chap 1 - 11 Chap 1 - 11
Frame of reference
Chap 1 - 12 Chap 1 - 12
Frame of reference
Chap 1 - 13 Chap 1 - 13
1.2 Relativity & Frame of reference
A system of coordinate axes which
defines the position of a particle in
2D or 3D space is called a frame of
reference.
E.g.: Cartesian system of coordinates.
x
z
y
STR and the Galilean-Newtonian Relativity deals with
how we observe events, particularly how objects and
events are observed from different frames of reference.
EVERYTHING IS RELATIVE NOTHING IS
ABSOLUTE.
Chap 1 - 14 Chap 1 - 14
EVERYTHING IS RELATIVE NOTHING IS ABSOLUTE.
Chap 1 - 15 Chap 1 - 15
1.3 Newtonian Relativity (Classic theory)
If Newtons laws are valid in one reference frame, then
they are also valid in another reference frame moving at
a uniform velocity relative to the first system.
This reference frame is referred as inertial frame.
This means that the all the Newtons laws are identical in all
inertial frames of reference.
This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of
relativity or Galilean invariance.
Chap 1 - 16 Chap 1 - 16
Inertial frame
A reference frame in uniform motion of translation relative to one
another is Galilean frame or inertial frame.
All the Newtons laws are valid in that frame.
This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of relativity or Galilean
invariance
An inertial frame is one in which a free body, subject to no forces,
travels in a straight line at constant velocity, i.e., Newtons 1
st
law holds.
Any reference frame moving with constant velocity with
respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame.
Example of inertial frame:
Earth is an inertial frame.
A train moving at constant velocity with respect to the ground (earth) is
also an inertial frame.
By invariance of an equation it is meant that the equation
will have the same form when determined by two observers.
Chap 1 - 17 Chap 1 - 17
Inertial frames
Chap 1 - 18 Chap 1 - 18
Non-inertial frames
Chap 1 - 19 Chap 1 - 19
EVERYTHING IS RELATIVE NOTHING IS
ABSOLUTE
Chap 1 - 20 Chap 1 - 20
Which one is moving???
Chap 1 - 21 Chap 1 - 21
EVERYTHING IS RELATIVE NOTHING IS
ABSOLUTE
2
nd
Initial Frame
Rocket frame
(Moving frame)
Constant
v
x1
1
st
Initial Frame
Lab frame
(stationary frame)
3
rd
Initial Frame
Rocket frame
(Moving frame)
Constant
v
x2
Chap 1 - 22 Chap 1 - 22
1.4 Transformation laws
Measurements done by any observers from all frame of
reference are equally valid, and are all equivalent.
Transformation laws such as Galilean transformation
(GT) and Lorentz transformation (LT) can be used to
relate the measurements done in one frame to another.
In other words, once you know the values of a
measurement in one frame, you can calculate the
equivalent values as would be measured in other frames.
Chap 1 - 23 Chap 1 - 23
View from different frames
In the Lab frame, the
observer on the
ground sees a
parabolic trajectory
In the Rocket frame,
the pilot sees the
projectile to follow a
vertically straight line
downwards
Chap 1 - 24 Chap 1 - 24
Transformation law for the coordinates
In Lab frame
y = (gt
2
)/2 + H
x = v
x
t
In rocket frame
y = (gt
2
)/2
x = 0
H
y
y
Transformation law relating the coordinates
of projectile in both frames is
y = y - H , x = x - v
x
t
y = 0
y = 0
Chap 1 - 25 Chap 1 - 25
1.5 The Galilean transformations (I)
S and S are two inertial frames.
S at rest and S move with uniform velocity v along the
positive X direction.
Assume that v << c.
Let the origins of the two frames coincide at t = 0.
Suppose one event occurs at the point P.
Chap 1 - 26 Chap 1 - 26
1.5 The Galilean transformations (II)
Since there is no relative motion between S and S along the axes of
Y and Z, we have:
y = y and z = z
Let the time proceed at the same rate in both frames.
In Newtonian Relativity, the time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental
invariant, i.e., its the same for all inertial observers.
The distance moved by S in the positive X direction in time t is =
vt.
So the X coordinates of the two frames differ by vt.
Then, the Galilean Transformation equations from S to S are given
by:
x = x-vt y = y z = z t = t
Chap 1 - 27 Chap 1 - 27
The Inverse transformation from S to S
Step 1. Replace -v with +v.
Step 2. Replace primed quantities with unprimed and
unprimed with primed.
x= x + vt y= y z= z t= t
Chap 1 - 28 Chap 1 - 28
In other words
Galilean Transformation equations from S to S
The quantities (x, y, z, t) are KNOWN in system S.
The quantities (x, y, z, t ) are UNKNOWN in
system S.
Galilean Transformation equations from S to S
The quantities (x, y, z, t ) are KNOWN in system
S.
The quantities (x, y, z, t) are UNKNOWN in system
S.
Chap 1 - 29 Chap 1 - 29 Chap 1 - 30 Chap 1 - 30
Galilean addition law for velocities
- Galilean transformations (in terms of velocities)
Galilean Transformation equations from S to S are given
by:
Here
v
x
= velocity measured in system S
v
x
= velocity measured in system S
V = velocity of system S relative to system S
v
x
= v
x
-V v
y
= v
y
v
z
= v
z
t = t
Chap 1 - 31 Chap 1 - 31
Example 1.1:
Two cars are traveling at constant speed along a road in
the same direction. Car A moves at 60 km/h and car B
moves at 40 km/h, each measured relative to an observer
on the ground (Figure 1.0a). What is the speed of car A
relative to car B?
FIGURE 1.0a As observed by
O at rest on the ground.
Chap 1 - 32 Chap 1 - 32
Example 1.1:
Two cars are traveling at constant speed along a road in
the same direction. Car A moves at 60 km/h and car B
moves at 40 km/h, each measured relative to an observer
on the ground (Figure 1.0a). What is the speed of car A
relative to car B?
Chap 1 - 33 Chap 1 - 33
Solution:
Let O be the observer on the ground, who observes car A to move
at v
x
= 60 km/h.
Assume O' to be moving with car B at u = 40 km/h. Then
v
x

= v
x
- u = 60 km/h - 40 km/h = 20 km/h
Figure 1.0b shows the situation as observed by O'.
FIGURE 1.0 (b) As observed by
O' in car B.
Chap 1 - 34 Chap 1 - 34
Quick test:
In Example 1.1, What is the speed of car B relative to car
A?
Chap 1 - 35 Chap 1 - 35
Quick test:
In Example 1.1, What is
the speed of car B relative
to car A?
1.The Lab Frame (or stationary frame) is: (O, Car A, or Car B).
2.The Rocket Frame (or moving frame) is: (O, Car A, or Car B).
3.The speed of car B relative to the car A is:.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V).
4.The speed of the car A namely, the 60 km/h is:.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
5.The speed of the car B namely, the 40 km/h is :.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
Chap 1 - 36 Chap 1 - 36
Example 1.1a:
Two cars are traveling at constant speed along a road in
the same direction. Car A moves at 60 km/h to the right
and car B moves at 40 km/h to the left, each measured
relative to an observer, O on the ground. What is the
speed of car A relative to car B?
Chap 1 - 37 Chap 1 - 37
Example 1.1a:
Two cars are traveling at constant speed along a road in
the same direction. Car A moves at 60 km/h to the right
and car B moves at 40 km/h to the left, each measured
relative to an observer, O on the ground. What is the
speed of car A relative to car B?
1.The Lab Frame (or stationary frame) is: (O, Car A, or Car B).
2.The Rocket Frame (or moving frame) is: (O, Car A, or Car B).
3.The speed of car B relative to the car A is:.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V).
4.The speed of the car A namely, the 60 km/h is:.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
5.The speed of the car B namely, the 40 km/h is :.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
Chap 1 - 38 Chap 1 - 38
Example Extra example:
A spaceship moving away from the Earth at a speed of
0.80c fires a missile parallel to its direction of motion
(Figure 2.0). The missile moves at a speed of 0.60c
relative to the ship. What is the speed of the missile as
measured by an observer on the Earth?
FIGURE 2.0. A spaceship moves away from Earth at a speed of 0.80c. An
observer O' on the spaceship fires a missile and measures its speed to be 0.60c
relative to the ship.
Chap 1 - 39 Chap 1 - 39
Example Extra example:
1) The Lab Frame (or stationary frame) is:
(observer on Earth, spaceship, or missile).
2) The Rocket Frame (or moving frame) is:
(observer on Earth, spaceship, or missile)..
3) The speed of the missile as measured by an observer on the Earthis:
.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V).
4) The speed of the spaceship namely, the 0.80c is:.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
5) The speed of the missile namely, the 0.60c is :.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
Chap 1 - 40 Chap 1 - 40
Solution:
Need to find out:
The speed of the missile as measured by an observer on the Earth, i.e., v
x
.
Here,
Earth = lab frame
Spaceship = moving frame.
Given that:
The speed of the spaceship relative to the Earth = 0.80c = V.
The speed of the missile relative to the ship = 0.60c = v
x
.
By using: v
x
= v
x
+ V , then, v
x
= 0.60c + 0.80c = 1.40c
Chap 1 - 41 Chap 1 - 41
The mystery of the speed of light The mystery of the speed of light
Chap 1 - 42 Chap 1 - 42
The mystery of the speed of light The mystery of the speed of light
Chap 1 - 43 Chap 1 - 43
The Transition to Modern Relativity
Although Newtons laws of motion had the same form
under the Galilean transformation, Maxwells equations
did not.
In Maxwells theory the speed of light, in terms of the
permeability and permittivity of free space, was given
by:
i.e., the velocity of light is a constant ( c 3.00 10
8
m s
-1
.)
0 0
1 = c
Chap 1 - 44 Chap 1 - 44
The mystery of the speed of light The mystery of the speed of light
Chap 1 - 45 Chap 1 - 45
The mystery of the speed of light The mystery of the speed of light
Chap 1 - 46 Chap 1 - 46
1.6 The speed of light and the Ether
The laws of mechanics are the same in all inertial reference frames.
Naturally, it is assume that the laws of electricity and
magnetism also are the same in all inertial reference frames.
This assumption leads to a paradox concerning the velocity of light.
From the Maxwells theory, the speed of light is a constant.
This deduction stands in contradiction to the Galilean
transformation:
The velocity of light ought not to be the same in all reference frames.
Ether was proposed as an absolute reference system in which the
speed of light was a constant and from which other measurements
could be made.
As an direct analogy to mechanical wave propagating in elastic
medium such as sound wave in air
light is thought to be propagating in a medium called ether.
Chap 1 - 47 Chap 1 - 47
1.7 The Michelson-Morley experiment (I)
The Michelson-Morley (MM)
experiment was an attempt to show
the existence of ether.
Edward Morley
(1838-1923)
Albert Michelson
(1852-1931)
Albert Michelson was the first U.S. citizen to receive the
Nobel Prize for Physics (1907), and built an extremely
precise device called an interferometer to measure the
minute phase difference between two light waves
traveling in mutually orthogonal directions.
Chap 1 - 48 Chap 1 - 48
The Michelson Interferometer
Chap 1 - 49 Chap 1 - 49
1.7 The MM experiment (II)
Michelson and Morley
realized that the earth could
not always be stationary
with respect to the ether.
And light would have a
different path length and phase
shift depending on whether it
propagated parallel and anti-
parallel or perpendicular to the
ether.
Perpendicular
propagation
Mirror
Supposed velocity of earth
through the ether
Parallel and anti-
parallel
propagation
Beam-
splitter
Mirror
Chap 1 - 50 Chap 1 - 50
1.7 The MM experiment (III)
If light requires a medium,
then its velocity depends on
the velocity of the medium.
Velocity vectors add.
Parallel velocities Anti-parallel velocities
v
ether
r
v
ether
r
v v + v
lig total ht ether
=
total
v
r
v
light
r
v v - v
lig total ht ether
=
v
total
r
v
light
r
Parallel velocities Anti-parallel velocities
v
ether
r
v
ether
r
v v + v
lig total ht ether
= v v + v
lig total ht ether
=
total
v
r
v
r
v
light
r
v v - v
lig total ht ether
= v v - v
lig total ht ether
=
v
total
r
v
light
r
In the other arm of the
interferometer, the total
velocity must be
perpendicular, so light must
propagate at an angle.
Perpendicular
velocity to mirror
Perpendicular
velocity after mirror
v
ether
r
v
light
r
v
total
r
v
ether
r
v
light
r
v
total
r
2 2
ether light total
v v v =
Perpendicular
velocity to mirror
Perpendicular
velocity after mirror
v
ether
r
v
ether
v
ether
r
v
light
r
v
light
v
light
r
v
total
r
v
total
r
v
ether
r
v
ether
v
ether
r
v
light
r
v
light
v
light
r
v
total
r
v
total
r
2 2
ether light total
v v v =
Chap 1 - 51 Chap 1 - 51
1.7 The MM experiment (IV)
Let c be the speed of light, and v be the velocity of the ether.
The delays for the two arms depend
differently on the velocity of the ether!
Perpendicular
propagation
Parallel and anti-
parallel propagation
v
ether
r
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
v v
( v) ( v)
v v
2
v
2 1
[1 v / ]
L L
t
c c
L c L c
c c
Lc
c
L
c c
= +
+
+
= +

=

||
2 2
2 2
2
v
2 1
1 v /
L
t
c
L
c
c

Chap 1 - 52 Chap 1 - 52
1.7 The MM experiment (V)
Because we dont know the direction of the ether
velocity, Michelson and Morley did the
measurement twice, the second time after
rotating the apparatus by 90.
The delay reverses, and any fringe shift seen in this
second experiment will be opposite that of the first.
Upon rotating the apparatus by 90, the optical path lengths are
interchanged producing the opposite change in time. Thus the time
difference between path differences is given by:
v
ether
r
v
ether
r
v
ether
r
v
ether
r
v
ether
r
By assuming v << c:
( )
2
3
v
2 2 t t L
c

||
v
( )
2 2
2 2
2 1 1
2 2
1 v /
1 v /
L
t t
c c
c

||
v
v
Chap 1 - 53 Chap 1 - 53
MM Experimental Prediction:
The phase shift is w times this relative delay:
The Earths orbital speed is: v = 3 10
4
m/s
and the interferometer size is: L= 1.2 m
So the time difference becomes: 8 10
17
s
which, for visible light, is a phase shift of: 0.2 rad = 0.03 periods
Although the time difference was a very small number, it was
well within the experimental range of measurement for visible light
in the Michelson interferometer, especially with a folded path.
or:
2
3
v
2 L
c

2
2
v
4
L
c

( )
2
3
v
2 2 t t L
c

||
v
Chap 1 - 54 Chap 1 - 54
Typical interferometer fringe pattern expected
when the system is rotated by 90
Interference fringe schematic showing (a) fringes before rotation and
(b) expected fringe shift after a rotation of the interferometer by 90.
Chap 1 - 55 Chap 1 - 55
MM experiment results
MM expected a fringe shift of about 0.4 in their apparatus when it
was rotated through 90 and their believed that they could detect
a shift as small as 0.01 of a fringe.
But no displacement of the fringes was observed.
They repeated the experiment at different points on the earths
surface and at different seasons of the year without detecting any
measurable shift in fringes.
This negative result suggests that it is impossible to measure the
speed of the earth relative to the ether.
Thus, ether seems not to exist!
All attempts to make ether as a
fixed frame of reference failed.
Their apparatus
Chap 1 - 56 Chap 1 - 56
Explanations for MMs null result (I)
The negative result of the MM experiment can be explained by
the following three explanations:
(a) Ether drag hypothesis.
(b) Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction.
(c) Principle of constancy of the speed of light.
1. Ether drag hypothesis:
This hypothesis suggested that the Earth dragged the ether along as it rotates
on its axis and revolves about the sun.
This was contradicted by stellar aberration wherein telescopes had to be
tilted to observe starlight due to the Earths motion. If ether were dragged
along, this tilting would not occur.
Chap 1 - 57 Chap 1 - 57
The shift in the observed
position of the stars
caused by the ether wind.
Chap 1 - 58 Chap 1 - 58
Explanations for MMs null result (II)
2. Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction:
Proposed independently by Lorentz
and FitzGerald.
It was suggested that there was
contraction of bodies along the
direction of their motion through the
ether.
George F.
FitzGerald
(1851-1901)
Hendrik A. Lorentz
(1853-1928)
2 2
1 v / c
velocity of frame velocity of light
v
If a body is moving with a speed v parallel to its length, then
the new length will be contracted by a factor of:
Consequently, there will be no time difference expected.
But there was no insight as to why such a contraction should
occur.
Chap 1 - 59 Chap 1 - 59
3. Principle of constancy of the speed of light:
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Explanations for MMs null result (III)
Proposed independently by Albert
Einstein.
He concluded that the velocity of light in
space is a universal constant.
Hence, the speed of light is c rather than
|(c + v)| in any frame.
Consequently, ether hypothesis is not
true and can be disposed.
Chap 1 - 60 Chap 1 - 60
Two postulates of special theory of relativity (STP):
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
1.8 Einsteins principle of relativity
(1) The principle of relativity:
All the laws of physics are the same in all
inertial frames of reference.
There is no way to detect absolute motion, and
no preferred inertial frame of reference exists.
(2) The constancy of the speed of light:
The speed of light in free space is constant.
It is independent of the relative motion of
the source and the observer.
The STP eliminates the Galilean-Newtonian concept of
absolute space and time, and considers both as being
relative to the observer.
Chap 1 - 61 Chap 1 - 61
1.9 The Lorentz transformations (I)
The constancy of the speed of light is not compatible
with Galilean transformations.
Hence, a new transformation equations is introduced.
This new transformation equations is known as
Lorentz transformations (LT).
It was discovered by Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928,
Dutch physicist).
It is consistent with the new concept of the
invariance of light velocity in free space.
Although the LT was discovered by Lorentz, but its real
significance in physics theory transcending
electromagnetism was first recognized by Einstein.
Chap 1 - 62 Chap 1 - 62
1.8 The Lorentz transformations (II)
Consider two observers O and O in two systems S and S.
S at rest and S is moving with a constant velocity v relative to
system S along the positive X axis.
Let the origins of the two frames coincide at t = 0.
Suppose a light pulse is emitted when t = 0.
The light signal travels as a spherical wave at a constant speed c in
both frames.
Chap 1 - 63 Chap 1 - 63
1.8 The Lorentz transformations (III)
Since there is no motion in the Y and Z directions, y = y = 0, and z
= z = 0, Eqs. (1) and (2) become:
2 2 2 2 2
t c z y x = + +
2 2 2 2 2
t c z y x = + +
After a time t (t), the origin of the wave centred at O (O) has a
radius r = ct (r = ct) , where r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
(r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
).
Spherical wave-front in S: (1)
(2)
Spherical wave-front in S:
Note that this cannot occur in Galilean transformations,
because by substituting x = x + vt, there are a couple of extra
terms (2xvt + v
2
t
2
) in the primed frame.
0
2 2 2
= t c x
0
2 2 2
= t c x
Subsequently:
2 2 2 2 2 2
t c x t c x = (3)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
) 2 ( t c x t c t v xvt x t c x + + =
Chap 1 - 64 Chap 1 - 64
1.8 The Lorentz transformations (IV)
Clearly, a different transformation is required if the postulates of
STP are to be satisfied.
i.e., the spherical wave-fronts in both frames are conserved.
A reasonable guess about the dependence of x on x and t is:
) ( vt x k x =
(4)
Here k is a dimensionless factor that does not depend on x or t but
is some function of v/c.
Eq. (4) reduces to Galilean transformation (i.e., v/c 0, and k = 1)
for low speed (v << c).
Similarly, let assume that:
) ( bx t a t =
(5)
where a and b are constants.
By substituting Eqs. (4) and (5) into Eq. (3), and then solving the
equations, the LT equations will be obtained (do it as an exercise). (do it as an exercise).
Chap 1 - 65 Chap 1 - 65
1.8 The Lorentz transformations (V)
The solutions for constants k, a and b are:
( )
2
2 2
1
1
c v b
c v
a k
=
=

= =
(7)
(6)
The constant k is known as the Lorentz factor, :
The complete LT from S to S are:
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
c v
c vx t
t
z z
y y
c v
vt x
x

=
=
=

=
Chap 1 - 66 Chap 1 - 66
The inverse LT from S to S
Step 1: Replace -v with +v.
Step 2: Replace primed quantities with unprimed
and unprimed with primed.
(8)
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
c v
c x v t
t
z z
y y
c v
vt x
x

+
=
=
=

+
=
Chap 1 - 67 Chap 1 - 67
LT vs GT
In the LT, t depends on both t and x. Like wise, t depends on
both t and x.
In GT, t = t .
Space and time now becomes state-of-motion dependent (via )
the length and time interval measured become dependent of the state of
motion (in terms of ) in contrast to Newtons classical viewpoint
LT reduces to GT when v << c, i.e., LT GT in the limit v << c.
Space and time are now linked, and the frame velocity cannot exceed c.
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
c v
c x v t
t
z z
y y
c v
vt x
x

+
=
=
=

+
=
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
c v
c vx t
t
z z
y y
c v
vt x
x

=
=
=


=
LT from S to S LT from S to S
Length
contraction
Simultaneity
problems
Time
dilation
Chap 1 - 68 Chap 1 - 68
Properties of
Recall that = v / c < 1 for all observers.
equals 1 only when v =0.
In general:
Graph of vs. :
(note v < c)
Chap 1 - 69 Chap 1 - 69
When v << c,
Then Eq. (7) becomes:
Which are the Galilean transformations.
Example 1.3:
Show that for values of v << c, Lorentz transformations
[Eq. (7)] reduce to the Galilean transformations.
( )
1
1
1
2 2
=

c v
Solution:
t = t z = z y = y x = x-vt t = t z = z y = y x = x-vt
; 0
c
v
Chap 1 - 70 Chap 1 - 70
1.10 The combination of velocities (I)
The Galilean addition law for velocities is a consequence of the
absolute properties of length and time in Newtonian Physics.
The relativistic combination law for velocities is a consequence of
the relativistic properties of length and time contained in the LT
equations.
By definition, v
x
= dx/dt, and v
x
= dx/dt
The velocity in the S frame can be obtained by taking the
differentials of the LT equations:
( )

=
=
dx
c
v
dt t d
vdt dx x d
2

(17)
Chap 1 - 71 Chap 1 - 71
1.10 The combination of velocities (II)
Thus,
x
x
x
v
c
v
v v
v
dt dx
c
v
v dt dx
t d
x d

2
2
1
1
The components of the velocity perpendicular to the motion of the
reference frame (y- and z-components) are given by:

=
x
z
z
x
y
y
v
c
v
v
v
v
c
v
v
v
2
2
1
1

(18)
(19)
(20)
Chap 1 - 72 Chap 1 - 72
1.10 The combination of velocities (III)
The difference lies in the denominator, which has a drastic
effect if the speeds are large.
Suppose that v is the velocity of a light signal (c) along the x-axis
in the reference S. Then, v
x
= c, and Eq. (18) gives:
c
c
c
v
v c
v
x
=

=
2
1
v v v
x x
=
For Galilean addition law:
Thus, the addition of any velocity to the velocity of light c merely
reproduces the velocity of light.
Hence, the velocity of light is the maximum attainable velocity.
(21)
Chap 1 - 73 Chap 1 - 73
1.10 The combination of velocities (IV)
The inverse combination laws of velocities:
( )
( )

+

=

+

=

+
+
=
x
z
x
z
z
x
y
x
y
y
x
x
x
v
c
v
c v v
v
c
v
v
v
v
c
v
c v v
v
c
v
v
v
v
c
v
v v
v
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

(22)
(23)
(24)
Chap 1 - 74 Chap 1 - 74
Comparing the LT of velocity with that of GT
2
'
'
'
1
x
x
x
u v dx
u
u v
dt
c

= =

Galilean transformation of velocity:

'
x x
u u v =
LT reduces to GT in the limit:
Lorentz transformation of velocity:
2
x
u v c <<
Chap 1 - 75 Chap 1 - 75
If applied to light, GT of velocity contradicts the
STR Postulate
Consider a photon (a massless particle and its velocity = c )
observed from different frames.
When observed in O frame, this particle move at speed u
x
= c.
When observed in O frame, the photon move at a lower speed of
u
x
= u
x
v = c v. (According to Galilean velocity addition law:
u
x
= u
x
v).
This is a contradiction to the constancy of light speed in STR
O
+v
O
u
x
= c(as seen by
O); u u
xx
= = c c v v (as
seen by O)
photon
I see the photon is moving
with a velocity u
x
= c
I see the photon is
moving with a
velocity u u
xx
= = c c v v, ,
this couldn this couldn t be t be
right right
Chap 1 - 76 Chap 1 - 76
LT is consistent with the constancy of speed
of light
In either O or O frame, the speed of light seen must be the same, c.
LT is consistent with this requirement.
Say object M is moving with speed of light as seen by O, i.e. u
x
= c
According to LT, the speed of M as seen by O is
That is, in either frame, both observers agree that the speed of light
they measure is the same, c = 3 10
8
m s
-1
( )
2 2
'
1
1 1 1
x
x
x
u v c v c u c v
u c
u v cv v
c v
c c c c

= = = = =

Chap 1 - 77
Example: Involved light
A boxcar moves right at a very high speed, V. A green flash
of light moves from left to right, and a blue flash from right
to left.
v
Qs:
1) According to an observer in the boxcar, which flash
will reach him/her first?
2)According to an observer on the ground, which flash
will reach the observer in the boxcar first??
Chap 1 - 78 Chap 1 - 78
Example 1.7:
A spaceship moving away from the Earth at a speed of
0.80c fires a missile parallel to its direction of motion
(Figure 2.0). The missile moves at a speed of 0.60c
relative to the ship. What is the speed of the missile as
measured by an observer on the Earth?
FIGURE 2.0. A spaceship moves away from Earth at a speed of 0.80c. An
observer O' on the spaceship fires a missile and measures its speed to be 0.60c
relative to the ship.
Chap 1 - 79 Chap 1 - 79
Example Extra example:
1) The Lab Frame (or stationary frame) is:
(observer on Earth, spaceship, or missile).
2) The Rocket Frame (or moving frame) is:
(observer on Earth, spaceship, or missile)..
3) The speed of the missile as measured by an observer on the Earthis:
.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V).
4) The speed of the spaceship namely, the 0.80c is:.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
5) The speed of the missile namely, the 0.60c is :.. (v
x
, v
x
, or V)
Chap 1 - 80 Chap 1 - 80
Solution:
Here O' is on the ship and O is on Earth; O' moves with a speed of
u = 0.80c relative to O. The missile moves at speed v' = 0.60c
relative to O', and we seek its speed v relative to O.
From the Lorentz transformation of velocity,
According to classical kinematics (the Galilean addition law for
velocities ), an observer on the Earth would see the missile moving
at 0.60c + 0.80c =1.40c, thereby exceeding the maximum relative
speed of c permitted by relativity.
( )( ) [ ]
c
c
c c c
c c
v
c
v
u v
v
x
95 . 0
48 . 1
40 . 1
80 . 0 60 . 0 1
80 . 0 60 . 0
1
2
2
= =
+
+
=

+
+
=
Chap 1 - 81 Chap 1 - 81
Example E6: Advanced question
Two rockets are leaving their space station along perpendicular paths,
as measured by an observer on the space station. Rocket 1 moves at
0.6c and rocket 2 moves at 0.8c, both measured relative to the space
station. What is the velocity of rocket 2 as observed by rocket 1?
Solution:
Let observer O is the space station
and observer O is rocket 1.
Since rocket 1 and rocket 2 are
leaving their space station along
perpendicular paths, we take these
to be the X and Y direction of the
reference frame of O, respectively.
Thus O observes rocket 2 to have velocity components v
x
= 0, and
v
y
= 0.8c, as shown in Fig. (a).
Chap 1 - 82 Chap 1 - 82
Solution (cont.):
( ) ( )
c
c
c
c c c
u
c
v
c v u
u
c
c
c
c
u
c
v
v u
u
x
y
y
x
x
x
64 . 0
0
6 . 0
1
6 . 0 1 8 . 0
1
1
6 . 0
0
6 . 0
1
6 . 0 0
1
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
=

=
=

=
Consequently,
u
x
= 0, u
y
= 0.8c, v = 0.6c, u
x
= ?, u
y
= ?
From the Lorentz transformation of velocity,
Thus, according to O , the situation looks like Fig. (b).
Finally, the speed of rocket 2 according to O is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) c c c u u u
y x
88 . 0 64 . 0 6 . 0
2 2 2 2
= + = + =
Chap 1 - 83 Chap 1 - 83
Consequences of the LT
According to LT, the space and time are state-of-
motion dependent (via ).
The relativistics factor/indicator.
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
c v
c x v t
t
z z
y y
c v
vt x
x

+
=
=
=

+
=
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
1
c v
c vx t
t
z z
y y
c v
vt x
x

=
=
=


=
LT from S to S LT from S to S
Length
contraction
Simultaneity
problems
Time
dilation
Chap 1 - 84 Chap 1 - 84
Consequences of the LT (continue)
(a) Length Contraction (b) Time Dilation
(c) Simultaneity
Faster means shorter Moving clocks run slow
The simultaneity is relative
Chap 1 - 85 Chap 1 - 85
Consequences of the LT
(a) Length Contraction:
Faster means shorter.
(b)Time Dilation:
Moving clocks run slow.
A moving clock ticks more slowly than a clock at rest.
(c) Simultaneity
The simultaneity is relative.
The simultaneity of two events depends on the reference
frame.
The most interesting consequences of the LT:
Chap 1 - 86 Chap 1 - 86
1.10 Length contraction (I)
Consider two inertial frames S and S with their X-axes coinciding
at time t = 0.
S is moving with a uniform velocity v along the positive X
direction with respect to S.
Assume that a rod (AB) is at rest relative to S .
Chap 1 - 87 Chap 1 - 87
1.10 Length contraction (II)
The lengths of the rod measured at any instant of time in frames S
and S are:
Frame S : L
0
= x
2
x
1
(proper length) (9)
Frame S : L = x
2
x
1
(improper length) (10)
Based on the LT, the length of the rod measured in frame S can be
deduced as followed:
L
0
= x
2
- x
1
= [(x
2
- x
1
)] or (11)
Consequently, the length of the rod measured in frame S is:
L = (1/) L
0
(12)
According to the observer in S, the length of the rod (in S ) has
contracted by the factor of .
( )
2 2
0
1 c v
L
L L

= =
is > 1
Chap 1 - 88 Chap 1 - 88
Chap 1 - 89 Chap 1 - 89
1.10 Length contraction (III)
Notes:
The proper length of an object is the length determined by an
observer at rest with respect to the object.
The shortening or contraction in the length of an object along
its direction of motion is known as the Lorentz Fitzgerald
contraction.
There is no contraction in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion.
The contraction becomes appreciable only when v c.
The contraction is reciprocal, i.e., if two identical rods are at rest
one in S and the other in S, each of the observers finds that the
other is shorter than the rod of his own system.
Chap 1 - 90 Chap 1 - 90
1.10 Length contraction (IV)
A body which appears to be spherical to an observer at rest relative
to it, will appear to be an oblate spheroid to a moving observer.
Similarly, a square and a circle in one appear to the observer in the
other to be a rectangle and an ellipse respectively.
In conclusion:
Length contraction only happens along the direction of motion.
Chap 1 - 91 Chap 1 - 91
1.9 Length contraction (V)
The contraction is reciprocal, i.e., if two identical rods are at rest
one in S and the other in S, each of the observers finds that the
other is shorter than the rod of his own system.
(b) From the rocket's
frame of reference,
the Earth appears
contracted.
(a) The Earth
views the passing
contracted rocket.
Final remark:
Length contraction suggests that objects in motion are
measured to have a shorter length than they do at rest.
Chap 1 - 92 Chap 1 - 92
Example E1:
A rod 1 m long is moving along its length with a velocity 0.6c.
Calculate its length as it appears to an observer (a) on the earth and (b)
moving with the rod itself.
Solution:
Here, 1 m is the proper length (L
0
) of the rod in its moving frame
of reference.
(a) Let L be the length of the rod as it appears to an observer in the stationary
reference frame of the earth.
Here, L
0
= 1 m, v = 0.60c; L = ?
Hence, the observer on the earth will estimate the length of the rod to be
0.8 m.
(b) For an observer moving with the rod itself, the length of the rod is 1 m.
( )
( )
m 8 . 0
6 . 0
1 1 1 1
2
2
2
2
0 0
=

= =
c
c
c
v
L L L
Chap 1 - 93 Chap 1 - 93
Example 1.4 : Advanced Qs.
A spaceship in the form of a triangle flies by an observer at 0.95c.
When the ship is measured by an observer at rest with respect to the
ship (see fig (a)), the distance x and y are found to be 50.0 m and 25.0
m, respectively. What is the shape of the ship as seen by an observer
who sees the ship in motion along the direction shown in fig (b)?
Chap 1 - 94 Chap 1 - 94
Solution:
The observer sees the horizontal length of the ship to
be contracted to a length of
L = L
p
/ = 50 m(1 0.950
2
) = 15.6 m
The 25 m vertical height is unchanged because it is
perpendicular to the direction of relative motion
between the observer and the spaceship.
Chap 1 - 95 Chap 1 - 95
1.11 The time dilation (I)
A gun is placed at the position (x, y, z) in S.
Suppose it fires two shots at times t
1
and t
2
measured with respect to S .
In S the clock is at rest relative to the observer and the moving clock is always
at x = 0.
The time interval measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer is called the
proper time interval (t ).
Hence, t = t
2
- t
1
is the time interval between the two shots for the observer
in S.
Since the gun is fixed in S, it has a velocity v with respect to S in the direction of
the positive X-axis.
Let t = t
2
- t
1
represent the time interval between the two shots as measured by
an observer in S. (t = improper time)
From the inverse LT:
Hence,
( )
( )
2 2
2
2
2
1 c v
c v x t
t

+
=
( )
2 2
1 2
1 2
1 c v
t t
t t

=
( )
t
c v
t
t =

=
1
2 2

or
(13)
( )
2 2
1
1
c v
=
( )
( )

1
2 2
2
1
1
c v
c v x t
t

+
= and
Chap 1 - 96 Chap 1 - 96
1.11 The time dilation (II)
Since the is > 1, then t > t moving clocks run slow.
Thus, the time interval, between two events occurring at a given point in the
frame S appears to be longer to the observer in the frame S;
Recheck the definition:
t = time interval measured by the observer at rest relative with respect to clock in
S (stationary clock)
t = time interval measured by the observer moving with respect to clock in S
(moving clock)
This effect is called time dilation.
The time dilation is reciprocal:
observers in S see time travel faster than for those in S. And vice versa!
Proper Time (or proper time interval):
The time measured by a clock at rest relative to the observer.
Or time measured with a clock that stays at one place in its reference frame.
Example:
If you observe your wristwatch while you are walking around, you are
measuring???
proper time intervals
Chap 1 - 97 Chap 1 - 97
However, even to get Bob's time to flow at half the rate of Alice's, he must move
at around 86% the speed of light. So it is not an issue for life on earth. However,
time dilation has actually been observed, as we'll next encounter.
Chap 1 - 98 Chap 1 - 98
According to an accurate clock on a fast-moving train, a person (a)
begins dinner at 7:00 and (b) finishes at 7:15. At the beginning of
the meal, two observers on Earth set their watches to correspond
with the clock on the train. These observers measure the eating
time as 20 minutes.
Chap 1 - 99 Chap 1 - 99
Time Dilation
(a) A mirror is fixed to a moving vehicle, and a light pulse is sent out by observer
O at rest in the vehicle. (b) Relative to a stationary observer O standing
alongside the vehicle, the mirror and O move with a speed v. (c) The right
triangle for calculating the relationship between t and t
p
.
Chap 1 - 100 Chap 1 - 100
Observing Muons: Read Yourself
(a) A muon created in the upper atmosphere and moving at 0.99c relative Earth would
ordinarily travel only 660 m, on the average, before decaying after 2.2x10
-6
s. (b) Because of
time dilation, an Earth observer measures a longer muon lifetime, so the muons travel an
average of 4.8x10
3
m before decaying. From the muons point of view, by contrast, their
lifetime is only 2.2x10
-6
s on the average, but the distance between them and the Earth is
contracted, again making it possible for more of them to reach the surface before decaying.
Chap 1 - 101 Chap 1 - 101
Example 1.5:
A clock in a space ship emits signals at intervals of 1
second as observed by an astronaut in the space ship. If
the space ship travels with a speed of 3 10
7
ms
-1
, what
is the interval between successive signals as seen by an
observer at the control centre on the ground?
Here,
t
0
= 1 s; v = 3 10
7
ms
-1
; and c = 3 10
8
ms
-1
; t = ?
( )
( )
( )
s 005 . 1
10 3
10 3
1
1
1
2
8
2
7
2 2
0
=

=
c v
t
t
Solution:
Chap 1 - 102 Chap 1 - 102
Example E4:
Suppose that a space ship (S) moves past the earth (S) at speed 0.999
c. Clocks on the earth and on the ship are synchronized at that instant,
i.e., t = 0, t = 0. The space ship continues on to a star 100 ly away.
Clocks at the star are synchronized with those on earth.
(a) According to an observer on earth, how far did the ship travel and
how long did it take?
(b) According to an observer on the ship, how far did he travel and
how long did it take?
Note:
1 ly = 1 light year = the distance light travels in vacuum in 1 year.
1 ly = 9.46 10
15
m
Chap 1 - 103 Chap 1 - 103
Solution:
Consider the arrival of the ship at the star to be an event with
coordinates:
(x, t) in frame S and (x, t) in frame S
(a) According to an observer on earth,
x = 100 ly, t = x/v = (100 ly)/(0.999 c) = 100.10 years
(b) According to an observer on the ship,
x = 0. Because he is still at his origin when he arrives at the star.
Or x = (x vt) = 0 where = 22.37
t = t / = (100.1 y)/(22.37) = 4.47 years
Or
( )
( )
years 47 . 4
100 999 . 0
10 . 100 37 . 22
2 2
=

=
c
ly x c
y
c
vx
t- t
Chap 1 - 104 Chap 1 - 104
Example R1:
A -meson with an average lifetime of 2 x 10
-6
s is created in the upper atmosphere at
an elevation of 6000 m. When it is created it has a velocity of 0.998c in a direction
toward the earth. What is the average distance that it will travel before decaying, as
determined by an observer on the earth?
Solution:
(Classically, this distance is
d = vt
0
= (0.9983 10
8
) (210
-6
) = 599 m
so that -mesons would not, on the average, reach the earth.)
As determined by an observer on the earth, the lifetime is increased because of
time dilation:
The average distance moved by the particle before disintegrating is given by:
d = vt
earth
= (0.9983 10
8
) (31.610
-6
) = 9470 m
( )
s 6 . 1 3 s 10 6 . 31
10 998 . 0 1
10 2
1
6
2
8
6
2
2
0
0
= =


=

= =

c
v
t
t t
earth
Chap 1 - 105 Chap 1 - 105
Example R1 cont:
Now, consider an observer at rest with respect to the -meson. How far
will he measure the earth to approach him before the -meson
disintegrates? Compare this distance with the distance he measures
from the point of creation of the -meson to the earth.
Solution:
As determined by an observer at rest with respect to the -meson, the distance
traveled by the earth is:
d = vt
0
= (0.9983 10
8
) (210
-6
) = 599 m
The initial distance, L, to the earth, however, is shortened because of the Lorentz
contraction:
Thus, an observer on the -meson determines that, on the average, it will reach
the earth, in agreement with the previous result.
( ) m 379 10 998 . 0 1 ) m 599 ( 1
1 2
8
2
2
0 0
= = = =
c
v
L L L

Chap 1 - 106 Chap 1 - 106

Twin Paradox: Read yourself
Chap 1 - 107 Chap 1 - 107
Twin Paradox: read yourself
The Set-up
Twins Mary and Frank at age 30 decide on two career paths: Mary
decides to become an astronaut and to leave on a trip 8 lightyears (ly)
from the Earth at a great speed and to return; Frank decides to reside on
the Earth.
The Problem
Upon Marys return, Frank reasons that her clocks measuring her age
must run slow. As such, she will return younger. However, Mary
claims that it is Frank who is moving and consequently his clocks must
run slow.
The Paradox
Who is younger upon Marys return?
Chap 1 - 108 Chap 1 - 108
The Resolution
1) Franks clock is in an inertial systemduring the entire
trip; however, Marys clock is not. As long as Mary is
traveling at constant speed away from Frank, both of
them can argue that the other twin is aging less rapidly.
2) When Mary slows down to turn around, she leaves her
original inertial system and eventually returns in a
completely different inertial system.
3) Marys claim is no longer valid, because she does not
remain in the same inertial system. There is also no
doubt as to who is in the inertial system. Frank feels no
acceleration during Marys entire trip, but Mary does.
Chap 1 - 109 Chap 1 - 109
Example E6: Time dilation at 100 km/h.
A car traveling with constant velocity of 100 km/h
covers a certain distance in 10.00 s according to the
drivers watch. What does an observer at rest on
Earth measure for the time interval?
Chap 1 - 110 Chap 1 - 110
Chap 1 - 111 Chap 1 - 111
1.11 Lorentz Factor
Lorentz factor:
Note that as v << c, 1; as v c,
Appears frequently in SR as a measure of relativistic
effect:
1 means little SR effect;
>> 1 is the ultra-relativistic regime where SR is most
pronounce.
2
1
1
1
v
c
=

Chap 1 - 112 Chap 1 - 112
What happens at high and low speed???
At low speed (v << c):
, 1, and t.
Not much different, and we cant feel their difference in
practice
At high speed (v c):
Proper time interval () becomes much SMALLER than
improper time interval (t) in comparison, i.e.
= t/ << t.
, t = 2
1
1
1
v
c
=

Chap 1 - 113 Chap 1 - 113
Space travel with time-dilation
To an observer on the Earth frame, the person in a
rocket frame traveling near the light speed appears to
be in a slow motion mode. This is because, according
to the Earth observer, the rate of time flow in the
rocket frame appear to be slower as compared to the
Earths frame rate of time flow.
A journey that takes, say, 10 years to complete,
according to a traveler on board (this is his proper
time), looks like as if they take 10 yr according to
Earth observers.
Chap 1 - 114 Chap 1 - 114
Space travel with time-dilation - Example
A spaceship traveling at speed v = 0.995c is sent to
planet 100 light-year away from Earth
How long will it takes, according to a Earths
observer?
t = 100 ly/0.995c = 100.05yr
But, due to time-dilation effect, according to the
traveler on board, the time taken is only
= t/ = t(1-0.995
2
) = 9.992 yr, not 100.05 yr
as the Earthly think
So it is still possible to travel a very far distance
within ones lifetime ( 50 yr) as long as (or
equivalently, v) is large enough
Chap 1 - 115 Chap 1 - 115 Chap 1 - 116 Chap 1 - 116
Chap 1 - 117 Chap 1 - 117
Example R2:
An atomic clock is placed in a jet airplane. The clock
measures a time interval of 3600 s when the jet
moves with a speed of 400 m/s. How much longer or
shorter a time interval does an identical clock held by
an observer on the ground measure? (Hint: For v/c
<< 1, 1 + v
2
/2c
2
.)
Chap 1 - 118 Chap 1 - 118
Natures Speed Limit
Imagine one in the lab measures the speed of a rocket v to be
larger than c.
As a consequence, according to
The proper time interval measurement in the rocket frame
would be proportional to an imaginary number, i =(-1)
This is unphysical (and impossible) as no real time can be
proportional to an imaginary number
Conclusion:
no object can be accelerated to a speed greater than the speed of light in
vacuum, c
Or more generally, no information can propagate faster than the light
speed in vacuum, c
Such limit is the consequence required by the logical consistency of SR
2
1
v
t
c

=


Chap 1 - 119 Chap 1 - 119
Simultaneity
The simultaneity is relative.
The simultaneity of two events depends on the
reference frame.
Chap 1 - 120 Chap 1 - 120
Disagreement on simultaneity
Two events that are simultaneous in one
frame are not necessarily simultaneous in a
second frame in uniform relative motion.
The two lightning strikes
simultaneously
No, I dont agree. These two lightning
does not strike simultaneously
Chap 1 - 121 Chap 1 - 121
1.12 The relativity of simultaneity (I)
Consider two events the explosion of a pair of time bombs that
occur at the same time to an observer O in a reference frame S.
Let the two events occur at different locations x
1
and x
2
.
Consider another observer O in S moving with a uniform relative
speed v with respect to S in the positive X-direction.
To O , the explosion at x
1
and t
0
occurs at the time:
( )
( )

1
2 2
2
1 0
1
c v
c v x t
t

=
( )
( )

1
2 2
2
2 0
2
c v
c v x t
t

=
(14)
and the explosion at x
2
and t
0
occurs at the time:
(15)
Chap 1 - 122 Chap 1 - 122
1.12 The relativity of simultaneity (II)
The time interval between the two events as observed by the
observer O is:
( )( )
( )

1
2 2
2
2 1
1 2
c v
c v x x
t t t

= =
This is not zero.
This indicates that two events at x
1
and x
2
, which are simultaneous
to the observer in S, do not appear so to the observer in S.
Therefore, the concept of simultaneity has only a relative and not
an absolute meaning.
(16)
Chap 1 - 123 Chap 1 - 123
Example E6:
At 6.00pm, the street lights in New York and Boston are switched on
simultaneously in the reference frame of the Earth. What is the time
difference as reckoned in the reference frame of a spaceship traveling
in the direction New York Boston at a speed of 0.9c? The distance
between New York and Boston is 290 km.
Solution:
With the X-axis along the direction New York Boston, the
displacement is 290 km.
Consequently, x
1
x
2
= 290 km; v = 0.9c; t = ?
By using the time interval formula [Eq. (16)],
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
s 10 996 . 1
9 . 0
1
9 . 0
10 290
1
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2 2 1

=
c
c
c
c
c
v
c
v
x x
t
Chap 1 - 124 Chap 1 - 124
Example 1.6: Principle of Relativity Applied
Divide the following items into two lists, On one list, labeled SAME,
place items that name properties and laws that are always the same in
every frame. On the second list, labeled MAY BE DIFFERENT.
place items that name properties that can be different in different
frames:
a. the time between two given events
b. the distance between two given events
c. the numerical value of Plancks constant h
d. the numerical value of the speed of light c
e. the numerical value of the charge e on the electron
f. the mass of an electron (measured at rest)
g. the elapsed time on the wristwatch of a person moving between two given
events
h. the order of elements in the periodic table
i. Newtons First Law of Motion (A particle initially at rest remains at rest, and
)
j. Maxwells equations that describe electromagnetic fields in a vacuum
Chap 1 - 125 Chap 1 - 125
Solution
THE SAME IN ALL FRAMES
c. numerical value of h
d. numerical value of c
e. numerical value of e
f. mass of electron (at rest)
g. wristwatch time between two
event (this is the proper time
interval between two event)
h. order of elements in the
periodic table
i. Newtons First Law of Motion
j. Maxwells equations
MAY BE DIFFERENT IN
DIFFERENT FRAMES
a. time between two given
events
b. distance between two give
events
Chap 1 - 126 Chap 1 - 126