Geotech Book

Anal ysi s of Geot ec hni c al
Pr obl ems w i t h Abaqus

Anal ysis of Geotechnical Problems with Abaqus
2
Dassaul t Systmes, 2008
Over vi ew
Day 1
Lecture 1 Introduction
Lecture 2 Physical Testing
Lecture 3 Constitutive Models: Part 1
Lecture 4 Constitutive Models: Part 2
Workshop 1 Material Models for Geotechnical Applications
3
Over vi ew
Day 2
Lecture 5 Analysis of Porous Media
Workshop 2 Pore Fluid Flow Analysis: Consolidation
Lecture 6 Modeling Aspects
Workshop 3 Pore Fluid Flow Analysis: Wicking
4
Over vi ew
Additional Material
Appendix 1 Stress Equilibrium and Fluid Continuity Equations
Appendix 2 Bibliography of Geotechnical Example Problems
5
Legal Not i c es
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terms of such license.
This documentation and the software described in this documentation are subject to change
without prior notice.
Dassault Systmes and its subsidiaries shall not be responsible for the consequences of any
errors or omissions that may appear in this documentation.
No part of this documentation may be reproduced or distributed in any form without prior written
permission of Dassault Systmes or its subsidiary.
Dassault Systmes, 2008.
Printed in the United States of America
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Systmes or its subsidiaries in the US and/or other countries.
Other company, product, and service names may be trademarks or service marks of their
respective owners. For additional information concerning trademarks, copyrights, and licenses,
see the Legal Notices in the Abaqus Version 6.8 Release Notes and the notices at:
http://www.simulia.com/products/products_legal.html.
6
Revi si on St at us
Updated for 6.8 8/08 Workshop 2
Updated for 6.8 8/08 Appendix 2
Updated for 6.8 8/08 Appendix 1
Updated for 6.8 8/08 Lecture 6
Dassault Systmes, 2008
I nt r oduc t i on
Lec t ur e 1
L1.2
Over vi ew
Introduction
Overview of Geotechnical Applications
Classical and Modern Design Approaches
Some Cases for Numerical (FE) Analysis
Experimental Testing and Numerical Analysis
Requirements for Realistic Constitutive Theories
I nt r oduc t i on
L1.4
I nt r oduc t i on
In this lecture we present an overview of geotechnical applications and
discuss the philosophy on which the usage of numerical (finite element)
analysis for geotechnical problems is based.
Lecture 2 deals with experimental testing and how it relates to the
calibration of constitutive models for geotechnical materials.
The different Abaqus constitutive models applicable to geotechnical
materials are presented in Lectures 3 and 4.
Their usage, calibration, implementation, and limitations are
discussed.
In Lecture 5 we outline the treatment of porous media in Abaqus and
discuss the coupling between fluid flow and stress/deformation.
Several modeling issues relating to geotechnical situations are
discussed in Lecture 6.
Over vi ew of Geot ec hni c al Appl i c at i ons
L1.6
Some typical geotechnical applications
L1.7
Main characteristics of soil materials
Soil is composed of solid grains and
voids; the voids may be fully or partially
filled with pore fluid.
When the soil is loaded, the pressure
in the pore fluid gets modified. The
pore fluid then flows and the soil
deforms with time.
The deformations and pore fluid flow
will be governed by the mechanical
and permeability properties of the soil,
the mechanical and pore pressure
boundary conditions, contact
conditions, presence of reinforcements,
etc.
L1.8
The following need to be considered before modeling geotechnical
problems:
Select appropriate material model according to the
physical material behavior.
Which material model will
be appropriate for
representing the physical
material behavi or?
In some cases detailed modeling of contact conditions
is not necessary.
Is contact modeling
important for the particular
application?
In the coupled setting the pore fluid flow affects the
deformations and the deformations affect the pore fluid
flow
In an uncoupled setting the pore fluid flow does not
affect the deformations, and the problem can then be
modeled as a deformation problem or just a pore fluid
flow problem.
Is coupled pore fluid
diffusion stress anal ysis
necessary?
L1.9
The following need to be considered before modeling geotechnical
problems:
For ascertaining equilibrium at time=0,
one needs to begin with a Geostatic
step, wherein known initial conditions,
boundary conditions, and external
loads are applied.
How detailed is the
information one has about
the initial conditions in the
model?
Use model change, if necessary, in
setting up the anal ysis steps. Using
model change one can acti vate or
deacti vate elements and contact pairs
and can model construction and
excavation.
Is modeling of excavation
and construction important?
Use embedded elements, if necessary,
to model reinforcements. For example,
for modeling of ties, soil nails, etc.
Does the application contain
reinforcement?
L1.10
Dams
For the modeling of dams one needs to take into account:
Fully and partially saturated flow
Appropriate material models for the dam material
Mechanical behavior
Pore fluid flow behavior
Saturation values inside a dam
L1.11
The following features also need to be taken into account for the
modeling of dams:
Sequential constructionmodel change
Seepage analysistransient consolidation
Earthquake loadingdynamics
L1.12
Modeling of jointed rocks
Response depends on joint
orientations and asperities of
adjacent surfaces
J oints can open and close, which
can produce induce anisotropy at
macro scale
Need to take into account these
features in a continuum setting
http://www.outreach.canterbury.ac.nz/resources
/geology/glossary/joints.jpg
inclined
joint set
vertical joint set
L1.13
Modeling of pile foundations
Contact modeling is important
Modeling of friction between the
pile and the soil
Cohesive elements with damage
characteristics
Soil plasticity
Coupled consolidation analysis
for modeling short and long term
behavior
Distribution of pore pressure
immediately after a pile is
driven
L1.14
Stability analysis using
Abaqus/Explicit
Slope failure analysis
Unreinforced and reinforced slopes
Soil plasticity
Material failure
Embedded elements
Stability analysis of unreinforced and reinforced
slope at working load levels using
Abaqus/Standard
L1.15
Retaining walls
Contact
Soil plasticity models
Coupled consolidation
Embedded elements
Landfills
Quasi-static analysis
Creep modeling
Geomembranes and geo-synthetics
Embedded elements
Contact
http://www.versa-loc.biz/versatech/images/wallcomp_soils.jpg
http://www.keepingavclean.com/images/landfill105.jpg
L1.16
Mining and tunneling
Excavations and construction
Liners and ties
Material needs to be added or
removed
Contact conditions need to be
taken into account
Transient material
degradation needs to be
represented in the model
Bench
Top
heading
Invert and
Concrete
floor
Shotcrete liners
layer 1
layer 2
layer 3
layer 4
G
r
a
v
i
t
y
G
r
a
v
i
t
y
L1.17
Nuclear waste disposal
Sequentially coupled thermo-hydromechanical (THM) analysis
Ground water seepage modeling
Cross fluid flow, heat flow, and mechanical contact interactions between
soil and non-soil regions
Examine worst-case scenarios, provide data on environmental impact
Heater (diameter 0.9)
Bentoniteblocks
Steel liner
Granite
Heaters
Bentonite
barrier
Concrete
plug
Servicezone, control and
dataacquisitionsystem
4.54
1.00
4.54 4.34
17.4 2.7
70.4 (Dimensions in meters)
2
.2
8
Principal accesstunnel toKWO
Granite
Courtesy: SIMULIA/Scandinavia
Independent thermal
expansion properties for:
Soil matrix
Pore fluid
Void ratio-dependent
permeability
L1.18
Abaqus provides the following features for geotechnical applications:
Full coupling between stress and pore fluid diffusion
Anisotropic and void ratio-dependent permeability, velocity-dependent
permeability
Wide range of soil plasticity models including dilation and compaction
available in Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit
J ointed material model for modeling jointed rocks
Saturated and unsaturated media and automatic computation of phreatic
surface and capillary zone
L1.19
Abaqus features for geotechnical applications (contd.):
Contact between permeable/permeable and permeable/impermeable
regions
Stress equilibrium as well as fluid continuity maintained
Embedded elements for modeling reinforcement
Elements can be added or deleted for modeling construction and
excavation
Thermal expansion for pore fluid and solid matrix
Independent bulk moduli for soil grains, pore fluid, and elastic properties
for soil matrix
Moisture and gel swelling
Cl assi c al and Moder n
Desi gn Appr oac hes
L1.21
Cl assi c al and Moder n Desi gn Appr oac hes
In the classical approach two basic types of calculations are done:
failure estimates and deformation estimates.
Failure estimates are based on rigid perfectly plastic stress-strain
assumptions:
Examples:
L1.22
Examples (cont.):
The result is a factor of safety, which is evaluated based on experience
(design code).
Bearing capacity of a foundation
Retaining wall stability
L1.23
Deformation estimates assume linear elastic behavior with average
elastic properties:
Foundation settlement example:
settlement
p is bearing pressure
b is width of foundation
E, v are average elastic properties
f is shape factor (based on small scale tests)
2
1 v
w pb f
E

=

,
L1.24
In the modern approach failure and deformation characteristics are
obtained from the same analysis. The analysis requires:
a complete constitutive model, which can include the loading and
unloading behavior, and
the numerical solution of a boundary value problem.
L1.25
Numerical (finite element) analysis can handle arbitrary geometries.
When finite elements are used, we have the option of allowing different
shear strains along the failure surface, and thus the stress state along
the failure surface can change from point to point.
Some Cases f or Numer i c al
(FE) Anal ysi s
L1.27
Some Cases f or Numer i c al (FE) Anal ysi s
Slope stability and deformation:
Classical limit failure calculations can predict ultimate stability of a
slope.
Numerical finite element analysis is necessary for the calculation of
deformations and detailed soil behavior.
L1.28
Construction of an earth dam and subsequent filling of reservoir:
Detailed soil behavior plays an important role.
Local soil failure may trigger overall collapse or hamper
functionality.
The event sequence - construction, filling of reservoir, and long-term
consolidation - must be considered using numerical modeling.
L1.29
Tunneling:
The initial state of stress of the soil or rock mass is important.
Stability depends on:
Initial state of stress
Sequence of excavation
Stabilizing aids such as liners and rock bolts
Ex per i ment al Test i ng and
Numer i c al Anal ysi s
L1.31
Ex per i ment al Test i ng and Numer i c al Anal ysi s
Laboratory testing
Constitutive model
Calibration
Finite element model
Small or large scale testing
Comparison of model
predictions with test results
Design prototype
L1.32
Experimental testing and constitutive model calibration:
Laboratory tests should represent the load or deformation conditions
of the physical problem.
Choose a constitutive model that represents the major characteristics;
minor features may be ignored.
Obtain test measurements suitable for the specific constitutive model.
Calibrate the model parameters using measured values of repeatable
test results.
L1.33
Finite Element Analysis:
Numerical model should capture the important features of the
physical problem without irrelevant detail.
Use of an appropriate constitutive model is critical, although
simplifications are often justifiable.
Provides a tool to aid design, supplementing engineering judgment
and experience.
Requi r ement s f or Real i st i c
Const i t ut i ve Theor i es
L1.35
Requi r ement s f or Real i st i c Const i t ut i ve Theor i es
Realistic constitutive models should be:
able to represent the macro behavior as dictated by
micromechanics
suitable for numerical implementation
able to represent material behavior in any relevant spatial situation:
one-dimensional
plane strain
axisymmetric
three-dimensional
able to reasonably extrapolate to conditions that cannot be
reproduced with laboratory testing equipment
Physi c al Test i ng
Lec t ur e 2
L2.2
Over vi ew
Physical Testing
Basic Experimental Observations
Testing Requirements and Calibration of Constitutive Models
L2.4
Geotechnical materials:
are generally voided and sensitive to volume changes.
Volume changes are closely tied to the magnitude of the hydrostatic
pressure stress:
Hence, it is important to test the materials over the range of
hydrostatic pressure of interest.
Standard tests:
Hydrostatic (or isotropic) compression tests
Oedometer (or uniaxial strain) tests
Triaxial compression and extension tests
Uniaxial compression tests (a special case of triaxial compression)
Shear tests
L2.5
A practical constitutive model should require for calibration only the
information generated by these standard tests.
Assumptions need to be made regarding tensile and true triaxial
behavior as direct tensile tests and true triaxial tests are difficult to
perform.
The diversity of geotechnical materials means that a wide range of
behaviors is possible.
What follows are some very general observations for frictional
materials.
Basi c Ex per i ment al Obser vat i ons
L2.7
Hydrostatic or isotropic compression test:
L2.8
Oedometer or uniaxial strain test:
L2.9
Triaxial compression tests:
L2.10
The critical state concept:
Casagrande defined critical stateas the state (for monotonic loading)
at which continued shear deformation can occur without further change
in effective stress and volume (void ratio) of the material.
Void ratio e
L2.11
Cyclic tests:
Isotropic compression or uniaxial strain (oedometer) tests
Triaxial or uniaxial compression tests provide the deviatoric behavior
L2.12
Truly triaxial (cubical) tests:
L2.13
Essential aspects of behavior of voided frictional materials:
+ Nonlinear stress-strain behavior
+ Irreversible deformations
+ Influence of hydrostatic pressure stress on strength
+ Influence of hydrostatic pressure on stress-strain behavior
+ Influence of intermediate principal stress on strength
+ Shear stressing-dilatancy coupling
L2.14
Essential aspects of behavior of voided frictional materials (contd.):
+ Influence of hydrostatic pressure stress on volume changes
+ Hardening/softening related to volume changes
+ Stress path dependency
+ Effects of small stress reversals
Effects of large stress reversals (hysteresis)
Degradation of elastic stiffness after large stress reversals
+ Included in Abaqus
Not included in Abaqus
Test i ng Requi r ement s and Cal i br at i on
of Const i t ut i ve Model s
L2.16
Basic requirements for laboratory testing of geotechnical materials:
The specimens must be tested under the assumption that they
represent an average material behavior:
In the ground there will be some variation within the same soil
or rock mass, and the spatial scale of such variations may be
large compared to laboratory test specimens.
The tests must simulate the in situ conditions as closely as possible:
drainage conditions
density of the material
range of stresses
For deep mining cases these may be difficult to obtain.
All stresses and strains must be measured throughout the stress-
strain response:
to allow complete characterization of the constitutive behavior.
Test i ng Requi r ement s and Cal i br at i on of
Const i t ut i ve Model s
L2.17
Laboratory testing should be guided by a previously proposed
constitutive model:
The understanding of this model is necessary for the correct
interpretation of laboratory tests.
The model parameters should be physical and measurable in
practicable experiments.
L2.18
Laboratory tests for calibrating relevant
components of constitutive models:
Isotropic compression test and uniaxial
strain (oedometer) test:
One test is required to calibrate
hydrostatic behavior.
One unloading is necessary to calibrate
the elastic part of this behavior.
Triaxial compression tests:
Two (preferably more) tests are required
to calibrate the shear behavior and its
hydrostatic pressure dependence.
One unloading in each test is necessary
to calibrate the elastic part of this
behavior.
Isotropic compression
Triaxial compression
L2.19
Triaxial extension tests:
The triaxial extension test is performed in a triaxial machine.
In the presence of confining lateral pressures the vertical stress is
gradually decreased till failure.
Two (preferably more) such tests are required to calibrate the
intermediate principal stress dependence of the shear
behavior.
Direct tension test:
The direct tension test or the uniaxial tension test is performed
by applying uniaxial strain along a particular direction.
One test is required to calibrate the tensile behavior of
cohesive materials like rocks or soils with cohesion.
L2.20
Truly triaxial or cubical tests:
Many tests are required to
calibrate the behavior of the
material when subjected to
different stresses in all
directions.
L2.21
Shear box tests and indirect tension (Brazilian) test:
These are useful in calibrating the cohesive properties of
materials.
Shear box test Indirect tension test
Multiple unloading-reloading cycles in any of above tests:
These are useful for calibrating the effects of large stress
reversals such as hysteresis and elastic degradation.
Const i t ut i ve Model s: Par t 1
Lec t ur e 3
L3.2
Over vi ew
Stress Invariants and Spaces
Overview of Constitutive Models
Elasticity
Plastic Behavior of Soils
Mohr-Coulomb Model
Extended Drucker-Prager Models
St r ess I nvar i ant s and Spac es
L3.4
Stress in three dimensions: three direct and three shear components.
Symmetry of stress tensor:
Abaqus convention: tensile stress is positive.
12 21 13 31 23 32
= = = , , .
L3.5
Principal stresses: stresses normal to planes in which shear stresses are
zero.
L3.6
In two dimensions (Mohrs circle):
2
2 11 22 11 22
1,2 12
12
11 22
2 2
2
tan2

+
= +

=

L3.7
Stress decomposition: deviatoric plus hydrostatic:
Abaqus invariants:
p = S I.
( )
1
3
1
trace( )
3
3
:
2
9
:
2
p
q
r
=
=

=

S S
S S S
pressure stress, ,
Mises equivalent stress, ,
third invariant, .

L3.8
For all models except the Mohr-Coulomb, also define the deviatoric
stress measure:
so that t =q/K in triaxial tension (r =q) and t =q in triaxial compression
(r = q). If K =1, t =q. K is typically between 0.8and 1.0.
t = constant is a rounded surface in the deviatoric plane.
3
1 1
1 1
2
q r
t
K K q

= +

,
L3.9
Useful planes:
L3.10
Meridional plane:
L3.11
Deviatoric (or ) plane:
Over vi ew of Const i t ut i ve Model s
L3.13
Elasticity models:
Linear, isotropic
Porous, isotropic (nonlinear)
Damaged, orthotropic (nonlinear; used in concrete, jointed material)
Plasticity models:
Open surface, pressure independent (Mises)
Open surface, pressure dependent (Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb)
Closed surface (Cam-clay, Drucker-Prager with Cap)
Multisurface (jointed material)
Nested surfaces (bounding surface*)
L3.14
Other inelastic models:
Continuum damage theories*
Endochronic theories*
None of the available models (with the possible exception of the jointed
material model) is capable of accurately handling large stress reversals such
as those occurring during cyclic loading or severe dynamic events.
*Not available in Abaqus for geotechnical materials
El ast i c i t y
L3.16
El ast i c i t y
Linear isotropic elasticity: Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio
Input file usage:
*ELASTIC
E,
L3.17
El ast i c i t y
Porous elasticity:
Nonlinear, isotropic
Pressure stress varies as an exponential function of volumetric strain:
or
where J
el
1is the nominal volumetric elastic strain.
J = dV/dV is the ratio of current volume to reference volume.
=ln(J
el
) and J
el
=exp ( ).
is the logarithmic measure of volumetric elastic strain.
is the elastic tensile stress limit, can be zero or non zero.
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
1
exp 1 exp
el el el
t t vol
e
p p p p
+
= + +

( )
0
0
ln 1
1
el
el t
el
t
p p
J
e p p

+
=

+ +

,
el
vol
el
vol
el
vol
el
t
p
L3.18
El ast i c i t y
Deviatoric behavior:
Constant shear modulus
(deviatoric elastic stiffness independent of pressure stress)
Constant Poissons ratio
(deviatoric stiffness dependent on the pressure stress)
where the instantaneous shear modulus, , is
are material parameters, p
0
is the
initial value of hydrostatic pressure stress, and e
0
is the initial void ratio.
2
el
G = S e ,
2
el
d Gd = S e ,
( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
0
3 1 2 1
exp
2 1
el el
t vol
v e
G p p
v

+
= +
+
.
G
el
t
p G v , , ,
L3.19
El ast i c i t y
has an arbitrary origin, defined so that
el
vol
0
0
el
vol
p p = = at .
Porous elasticity
L3.20
El ast i c i t y
Usage
*POROUS ELASTIC,
SHEAR=POISSON
, , p
t
el
*POROUS ELASTIC, SHEAR=G
, G, p
t
el
L3.21
El ast i c i t y
INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=RATIO is
required to define the initial void ratio
(porosity) of the material when porous
elasticity is used.
User subroutine VOIDRI can be used
to specify complex initial void ratio
distributions.
Pl ast i c Behavi or of Soi l s
L3.23
Plasticity models are characterized by the following:
Yield surface
It is a surface defining the yield criterion for the plasticity model.
Flow rule
The condition determining the plastic strain after yielding.
Plastic flow can be associated or nonassociated.
Associated flow means that the plastic strain direction is along the
direction of yielding, or normal to the yield surface.
Nonassociated flow means that the plastic strain direction is not along
the direction of yielding.
L3.24
Dilation
Dilation during plastic flow means that the material changes its volume
while undergoing yielding.
Yielding without dilation
(ductile metals)
Yielding with dilation
(soils)
Volume
increases
L3.25
Yielding in soils is associated with internal friction between soil grains.
Internal friction between soil grains results from interference at the grain
level.
Dilation angle = arctan(v/u).
The plastic flow will be associative when = .
Dilation angle
Friction angle
Volume
increases
v
u
Direction of yielding
L3.26
Yielding in ductile metals is generally not accompanied by volume
change.
The yielding is due to dislocation.
The flow is associative as there is no internal friction and the material does
not dilate during yielding.
Both and are zero.
Yield stress does not depend on pressure.
Pressure
Shear
stress
Yield surface
L3.27
Yielding in soils is generally accompanied by volume change.
Existence of internal friction (nonzero )
Existence of cohesion
similar to resistance against dislocation in ductile metals
The material may dilate during yielding in shear.
The flow can be associative ( = ), or nonassociative.
Yield stress depends on pressure.
Pressure
Shear
stress
Yield surface
Mohr -Coul omb Model
L3.29
The characteristics of the Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model in Abaqus:
The model is intended for granular materials like soils under monotonic
loading.
It does not consider rate dependence.
The linear isotropic elastic response is followed by non-recoverable
response idealized as being plastic.
The yield behavior depends on the hydrostatic pressure:
The material becomes stronger as the confining pressure increases.
The yield behavior may be influenced by the magnitude of the
intermediate principal stress.
L3.30
The model includes isotropic hardening or softening.
The inelastic behavior is generally accompanied by volume change.
The flow rule may include:
inelastic dilation as well as
inelastic shearing
The plastic flow potential is smooth and nonassociated.
Material properties can be temperature dependent.
L3.31
Description of the Mohr-Coulomb Model:
The model requires linear isotropic elasticity.
The Mohr-Coulomb yield function is given by:
where
R
mc
(,) is a measure of the shape of the yield surface in the deviatoric
plane,
is the slope of the Mohr-Coulomb yield surface in the R
mc
q p stress
plane, which is commonly referred to as the friction angle of the material,
tan 0
mc
F R q p c = = ,
1 1
sin cos tan
3 3 3 3cos
mc
R

= + + +

,
0 90 < ;
L3.32
c is the cohesion of the material; and
is the deviatoric polar angle defined as
The Mohr-Coulomb model assumes that the hardening is defined in
terms of the materials cohesion, c.
The cohesion can be defined as a function of plastic strain, temperature,
or field variables.
The hardening is isotropic.
3
3
cos(3 )
r
q
= .
L3.33
(a) (b)
Yield surface in the meridionial plane (a) and the deviatoric plane (b)
L3.34
The flow potential, G, is chosen as a hyperbolic function in the
meridional stress plane and the smooth elliptic function proposed by
Mentrey and Willam (1995) in the deviatoric stress plane:
The initial cohesion of the material, ; the dilation angle,
; and the meridional eccentricity, , control the shape of G in the
meridional plane.
( ) ( )
2 2
0
| tan tan
mw
G c R q p = + .
( ) 0
| 0
pl
c c = =
L3.35
defines the rate at which G approaches the asymptote.
The flow potential tends to a straight line in the meridional stress
plane as the meridional eccentricity tends to zero.
Mohr-Coulomb flow potential in the meridional plane
L3.36
R
mw
(, e,) controls the shape of G in the deviatoric plane:
The deviatoric eccentricity, e, describes the out-of-roundedness of the
deviatoric section in terms of the ratio between the shear stress along the
extension meridian ( = 0) and the shear stress along the compression
meridian ( = / 3).
The default value of the deviatoric eccentricity is calculated as
and allows the Abaqus Mohr-Coulomb model to match the
behavior of the classical Mohr-Coulomb model in triaxial compression and
tension.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
4 1 cos 2 1
,
3
2 1 cos 2 1 4 1 cos 5 4
mw mc
e e
R R
e e e e e

+

=

+ +
3 sin
3 sin
e

=
+
L3.37
The deviatoric eccentricity may have the following range: e 1.0.
The plastic flow in the deviatoric plane is always nonassociated.
L3.38
Usage and calibration
Linear, isotropic elasticity must be used.
The MOHR COULOMB option is used
to define , , e, and .
The ECCENTRICITY parameter is used to
define . The default value is 0.1.
The DEVIATORIC ECCENTRICITY parameter
can be used to define e. The deviatoric eccentricity may have the
following range:
If e is defined directly, Abaqus matches the classical Mohr-Coulomb
model only in triaxial compression.
The friction angle, , and the dilation angle, , can be functions of
temperature and field variables.
1
1.0
2
e < .

L3.39
The *MOHR-COULOMB option must always
be accompanied by the *MOHR-COULOMB
HARDENING material option:
It defines the evolution of the cohesion, c:
It can be made temperature and/or
field dependent.
*EXPANSION can be used to introduce
thermal volume change effects.
L3.40
The plastic flow in the deviatoric plane is
always nonassociated;
Needs the unsymmetric solver
(STEP, UNSYMM=YES).
L3.41
Calibration of the Mohr-Coulomb model:
Use the critical stress states from several different triaxial tests.
The critical stress states are plotted in the meridional plane to
provide an estimate of:
friction angle, , and
cohesion, c.
The dilation angle, , is chosen so that the volume change during
the plastic deformation matches that seen experimentally.
Hardening data is obtained from one of the triaxial tests.
c
Pressure
mc
R q
p
L3.42
The Abaqus Mohr-Coulomb model uses a smooth plastic flow potential:
It does not always provide the same plastic behavior as the
classical (associated) Mohr-Coulomb model, which has a faceted
flow potential.
With the default value of deviatoric eccentricity, e, Abaqus does
match classical Mohr-Coulomb behavior under triaxial extension or
compression.
Benchmark Problem 1.14.5, Finite deformation of an elastic-plastic
granular material, shows how to match the Abaqus Mohr-Coulomb
model to the classical Mohr-Coulomb model for plane strain
deformation.
L3.43
Example: Limit Load Analysis of a Strip Foundation
This example involves the limit load analysis of a strip foundation
(Benchmark Problem 1.14.4).
A rigid footing 10 feet wide on a granular soil material of 12 feet depth
is loaded and the average pressure vs. displacement of the footing is
computed.
The model is assumed to be in a plane strain condition.
CPE8R finite elements and CINPE5R infinite elements are used.
The footing is driven by prescribed displacement.
Symmetry plane
Right half of footi ng
Soil
L3.44
Boundary conditions:
Symmetry boundary conditions along the symmetry plane
Fixed at the bottom
Rough friction assumed between the footing and the soil
Soil nodes lying on the footing are constrained to move vertically in
unison and with zero horizontal displacements using linear constraint
equations.
Mohr-Coulomb model:
Elastic modulus 30,000 psi and Poissons ratio 0.3
Friction angle 20
o
Cohesion 10 psi
Dilation angles used:
0
o
(nondilatant flow)
20
o
(dilatant flow)
L3.45
The Mohr-Coulomb material data is specified as
follows:
*MATERIAL,NAME=A1
*ELASTIC
30000.,0.3
*MOHR COULOMB
20.,0.
*MOHR COULOMB HARDENING
10.,
A prescribed displacement of 5 inches is applied and
the reaction is computed.
Elastic modulus and Poissons ratio
Friction angle and dilation angle
Cohesion
L3.46
Results
Terzaghi (175 psi)
Prandtl (143 psi)
Mohr Coulomb
with no dilation
Mohr Coulomb
with dilation
L3.47
Results
The Abaqus results lie close to the Terzaghi solution for strip
foundations on granular soils.
The solutions by the Prandtl theory and the Terzaghi theory are from:
Chen, W. F., Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1975.
The Prandtl solution considers the stresses due to the weight of the soil
as small compared to the soil strength.
This theory was often used for predicting the behavior of metals
indented by rigid materials.
The Terzaghi solution takes into account the soil and overburden weight
and also the material cohesion.
Ex t ended Dr uc k er -Pr ager Model s
L3.49
The characteristics of the Extended Drucker-Prager models:
These models are intended for monotonic loading.
For example, the limit load analysis of a soil foundation.
These models are the simplest available models for simulating frictional
materials.
The elastic response in these models is followed by a non-recoverable
response, which is idealized as being plastic.
The material in these models is initially isotropic.
The yield behavior of these models depends on the hydrostatic
pressure.
The material becomes stronger as the confining pressure increases.
L3.50
The characteristics of the Extended Drucker-Prager models (contd.):
These models differ in the manner in which the hydrostatic pressure
dependence is introduced.
These models include isotropic hardening or softening.
The inelastic behavior in these models is generally accompanied by
volume change:
The flow rule may include inelastic dilation as well as inelastic
shearing.
These models can incorporate strain-rate dependent material properties.
The material properties in these models can be made temperature
dependent.
Either linear elasticity or nonlinear porous elasticity can be used with
these models.
L3.51
Three Extended Drucker-Prager models based on the yield surface
shape in the meridional plane are available in Abaqus:
Linear
Hyperbolic
Exponent
The particular form of the material model can be chosen based on:
the kind of material being modeled
the available experimental data for calibration of the model
parameters
the range of pressure stress values that the material is likely to see
L3.52
The Linear Drucker-Prager model
The yield surface of the linear model is written as
p is the equivalent pressure stress
t is the deviatoric stress measure
is the friction angle
d is cohesion and is related to the hardening input data
The model allows for separate dilatation and friction angles
tan 0 F t p d = = .
L3.53
The model provides a non-circular yield surface in the deviatoric plane:
It allows for the matching of different yield values in tension and
compression.
It provides flexibility in fitting experimental results.
However, the surface is too smooth to be a close approximation to
the Mohr-Coulomb surface.
K is the ratio of the yield
stress in triaxial tension to
the yield stress in triaxial
compression.
L3.54
We assume a (possibly) nonassociated flow rule, where the
direction of the inelastic deformation vector is normal to a linear
plastic potential, G:
where ,
c is a constant that depends on the type of hardening data,
in uniaxial compression,
in uniaxial tension, and
in pure shear.
is the dilation angle in the pt plane. This flow rule definition
precludes dilation angles ,
which is not likely to be a limitation for real materials.
,
pl
pl
d G
d
c
tan G t p =
11
pl pl
d d =
11
pl pl
d d =
3
pl
pl
d
d

=
( ) 71.5 tan 3 > >
L3.55
The flow is associated in the deviatoric plane but nonassociated in
the pt plane if .
For = 0, the material is nondilatational.
If = , the model is fully associated.
L3.56
Hyperbolic model
The hyperbolic yield criterion is a continuous combination of the maximum
tensile stress condition of Rankine (tensile cut-off) and the linear Drucker-
Prager condition at high confining stress. It is written as
where d
'
is the hardening parameter that is related to the hardening input
data as
if hardening is defined by uniaxial compression,
c
;
if hardening is defined by uniaxial tension,
t
;
if hardening is defined by shear (cohesion), d.
2 2
0
tan 0 F l q p d = + = ,
2 2
0
tan
3
c
c
d l

= +
2 2
0
tan
3
t
t
d l

= + +
2 2
0
d l d = +
L3.57
determines how quickly the hyperbola approaches its
asymptote (see sketch).
is the initial hydrostatic tension strength of the material, is the initial
value of d
'
, and is the friction angle measured at high confining pressure.
The model treats and l
0
as constants during hardening.
0
0 0
tan
t
l d p =
0
t
p
0
d
L3.58
The yield surface is a von Mises circle in the deviatoric stress plane.
(The K parameter is not available for this model.)
L3.59
Exponent model
The general exponent form provides the most general yield criterion
available in this class of models. The yield function is written as
where a and b are material parameters independent of plastic deformation
and p
t
is the hardening parameter that represents the hydrostatic tension
strength of the material and is related to the input data as
if hardening is defined by uniaxial compression,
c
;
if hardening is defined by uniaxial tension,
t
; and
if hardening is defined by shear (cohesion), d.
0
b
t
F aq p p = = ,
3
b c
t c
p a

=
3
b t
t t
p a

= +
b
t
p ad =
L3.60
The yield surface is a von Mises circle in the deviatoric stress plane.
(The parameter K is not available for this model.)
The material parameters a, b, and p
t
:
Can be specified directly, or
Abaqus will determine them from specified triaxial test data using a
least squares fit.
L3.61
Flow in the hyperbolic and exponent models
Flow potential governing the plastic flow in the hyperbolic and general
exponent models:
where,
is the dilation angle in the meridional plane at high confining pressure,
is the initial yield stress,
is the eccentricity defining the rate at which the function approaches its
asymptote
The flow potential tends to a straight line as the eccentricity tends to
zero.
( )
2
2
0
tan tan G q p = + ,
0

L3.62
The function approaches the linear Drucker-Prager flow potential
asymptotically at high confining pressure and intersects the hydrostatic
pressure axis at 90.
The potential is continuous and smooth.
It ensures that the flow direction is always defined uniquely.
The potential is the von Mises circle in the deviatoric stress plane.
L3.63
Associated flow is obtained in the hyperbolic model if = and
In the general exponent model the flow is always nonassociated in the
meridional plane.
The default flow potential eccentricity is = 0.1.
It provides an almost constant dilatational angle over a wide range
of confining pressure stress values.
Increasing the value of provides more roundedness to the flow
potential.
The dilation angle increases smoothly as the confining pressure
decreases.
< 0.1may lead to convergence problems if the material is subjected to
low confining pressures because of the very sharp curvature of the flow
potential near its intersection with the p-axis.
0
0
tan
l

= .
L3.64
Usage
These models are invoked by the
DRUCKER PRAGER material option.
The SHEAR CRITERION parameter
is set to LINEAR, HYPERBOLIC, or
EXPONENT to define the yield
surface shape.
The DRUCKER PRAGER HARDENING
option should also be used.
This option defines the evolution of
the yield stress in uniaxial
compression
(TYPE=COMPRESSION), in uniaxial
tension (TYPE=TENSION), or in
pure shear (TYPE=SHEAR).
L3.65
The yield function can be made
rate dependent by using the
RATE DEPENDENT option or by
specifying the yield stress as a
function of the plastic strain rate.
Rate dependency is rarely
used for geotechnical
materials.
It may however be important
for polymers.
L3.66
The elasticity is defined by:
linear elasticity, or
porous elasticity.
All material parameters in these
models can be made temperature or
field dependent.
Thermal expansion can be used to
introduce thermal volume change
effects.
INITIAL CONDITIONS,
TYPE=RATIO is required to define
the initial void ratio of the material if
porous elasticity is used.
L3.67
Analyses using a nonassociated flow version of the model may require
the use of the unsymmetric solver because of the resulting unsymmetric
plasticity equations.
If the default symmetric solver is used when the flow is
nonassociated, Abaqus may not find a converged solution.
L3.68
Matching experimental data
The simplest modified Drucker-Prager model requires at least two
experiments for calibration.
Simplest model: linear, rate independent, temperature independent,
and yielding independent of the third stress invariant.
Most common experiments performed:
uniaxial compression (for cohesive materials)
triaxial compression or tension tests
shear tests for cohesive materials
The uniaxial compression test involves compressing the sample
between two rigid platens.
Record the load and displacement in the direction of loading
Record the lateral displacements for measuring volume changes
Triaxial test data are required for a more accurate calibration.
L3.69
A triaxial machine enables application of a confining pressure and a
differential stress.
Several tests covering the range of confining pressures of interest
are usually performed.
The stress and strain in the direction of loading are recorded,
together with the lateral strain, to enable calibration of volume
changes.
L3.70
In a triaxial compression test the specimen is confined by pressure and
an additional compression stress is superposed in one direction.
Thus, the principal stresses are all negative, with 0
1
=
2

3
.
The stress invariant values in triaxial compression are
The triaxial results can, thus, be plotted in the qp plane.
( )
1 3 1 3
1
2
3
p q r q t q = + = = = , , , .
Triaxial compression and tension tests
L3.71
The stress state corresponding to some user-chosen critical level provides
one data point for calibrating the yield surface material parameters.
Choose the stress at the onset of inelastic behavior or the ultimate
yield stress.
Additional data points are obtained from triaxial tests at different levels of
confinement.
These data points define the shape and position of the yield surface in
the meridional plane.
L3.72
Defining the shape and position of the yield surface is adequate to
define the model if it is to be used as a failure surface.
To incorporate isotropic hardening, one of the stress-strains curves from
the triaxial tests can be used to define the hardening behavior.
The curve that represents hardening most accurately over a wide
range of loading conditions should be chosen.
Unloading measurements in these tests are useful to calibrate the
elasticity, particularly in cases where the initial elastic region is not well
defined.
L3.73
Linear Drucker-Prager model
Fitting the best straight line through the results provides the friction angle .
L3.74
Triaxial tension test data are also needed to define K:
Confine the specimen by pressure and then reduce the pressure in
one direction.
In this case the principal stresses are 0
1
2
=
3
.
The stress invariants are now
K can be found by plotting q versus p.
K is the ratio of the values of q for triaxial tension and
compression at the same value of p.
The dilation angle is obtained from shear tests, and it must be chosen
such that a reasonable match of the volume changes during yielding is
obtained.
Generally, 0 .
( )
1 3 1 3
1
2
3
q
p q r q t
K
= + = = = , , , .
L3.75
Hyperbolic model
Use the triaxial compression results at high confining pressures to obtain
and d
'
for the hyperbolic model.
Hydrostatic tension, p
t
, is also needed to complete the calibration.
tan d
t
p
p
d
( )
2 2
0 0
tan tan 0
t
F d p q p d

= + = Hyperbolic :
L3.76
Exponent model
Abaqus provides a capability to determine the material parameters a, b,
and p
t
required for the exponent model from triaxial data:
A best fit of the triaxial test data at different levels of confining
stress is performed.
L3.77
The data points obtained from
triaxial tests are specified using the
TRIAXIAL TEST DATA option.
The TEST DATA parameter is
required on the DRUCKER
PRAGER option to use this feature.
The TRIAXIAL TEST DATA option
must be used with the DRUCKER
PRAGER option.
This capability allows for all three
parameters, a, b, and p
t
, to be
calibrated, or, if some of the
parameters are known, to calibrate
only the unknown parameters.
L3.78
This is a continuation of the limit load analysis of a strip foundation
example previously analyzed with the Mohr-Coulomb material model.
Review of the model:
is loaded and the average pressure vs. displacement of the footing is
computed.
The model is assumed to be in a plane strain condition, and uses
CPE8R and CINPE5R elements.
The footing is driven by prescribed displacement.
Symmetry plane
Soil
L3.79
Extended Drucker-Prager model:
Elastic modulus 30,000 psi and Poissons ratio 0.3
Friction angle 30.64
o
for dilatant flow and 30.16 for nondilatant flow
Stress ratio 1.0
Yield stress 20.2 psi for dilatant flow and 19.8 psi for nondilatant flow
Dilation angles used: 0
o
(nondilatant flow) and 30.16
o
(dilatant flow)
These material parameters have been selected such that they match with
the Mohr-Coulomb material data under plane strain conditions.
See Matching Mohr-Coulomb parameters to the Drucker-Prager
model, Section 18.3.1 of the Abaqus Analysis Users Manual.
L3.80
The Drucker-Prager material data is specified as
follows:
*MATERIAL,NAME= A1
*ELASTIC
30000.,0.3
*DRUCKER PRAGER,SHEAR CRITERION=LINEAR
30.64,1.0,0.
*DRUCKER PRAGER HARDENING
20.2,0.
A prescribed displacement of 5 inches is applied
and the reaction is computed.
Friction angle, stress ratio, and dilation angle
Yield stress and plastic strain
L3.81
Results
Terzaghi (175 psi)
Prandtl (143 psi)
Mohr Coulomb
with no dilation
Mohr Coulomb
with dilation
Drucker Prager
with dilation
Drucker Prager
with no dilation
L3.82
Results
It is observed that the Drucker-Prager results for the dilatant and
nondilatant cases are close to the respective Mohr-Coulomb solutions.
The nondilatant Drucker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb models lead to a
softer response and a lower limit load than the corresponding dilatant
versions.
Presence of dilation results in stiffening of a volumetrically
compressed material.
The limit load values obtained for the nondilatant Drucker-Prager and
Mohr-Coulomb models lie between the Prandtl and Terzaghi solutions.
Const i t ut i ve Model s: Par t 2
Lec t ur e 4
L4.2
Over vi ew
Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap Model
Critical State (Clay) Plasticity Model
Jointed Material Model
Soil Plasticity Models - Summary
Comments on the Numerical Implementation
Modi f i ed Dr uc k er -Pr ager /Cap Model
L4.4
The characteristics of the Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model:
This model is intended to simulate the constitutive response of
cohesive geological materials.
It adds a capyield surface to the linear Drucker-Prager model
to bound the model in hydrostatic compression, and
to help control volume dilatancy when the material yields in
shear.
The elastic response is followed by a non-recoverable response
idealized as being plastic.
The material is initially isotropic.
L4.5
The yield behavior depends on the hydrostatic pressure.
There are two distinct regions of behavior.
On the failure surface the material is perfectly plastic.
On the cap yield surface it hardens and also stiffens.
The hardening/softening behavior is a function of the
volumetric plastic strain.
L4.6
The inelastic behavior is generally accompanied by volume
changes.
On the failure surface the material dilates.
On the cap surface it compacts.
At the intersection of these surfaces, the material can yield
indefinitely at constant shear stress without changing volume.
Under large stress reversals the model provides reasonable
material response on the cap region;
however, on the failure surface region the model is acceptable
only for essentially monotonic loading.
The material properties can be temperature dependent.
L4.7
Description
The model can use linear elasticity or nonlinear porous elasticity.
The model uses two main yield surface segments.
a linearly pressure-dependent Drucker-Prager shear failure surface
a compression cap yield surface
The Drucker-Prager failure surface itself is perfectly plastic (no
hardening), but plastic flow on this surface produces inelastic volume
increase, which causes the cap to soften.
The Drucker-Prager failure surface is
is the angle of friction; d is the cohesion of the material.
t is the measure of the deviatoric stress, and it allows matching of
different stress values in tension and compression in the deviatoric
plane.
tan 0
s
F t p d = = .
L4.8
L4.9
The cap yield surface is
where
R is a material parameter that controls the shape of the cap,
is a small number, and
is an evolution parameter that represents the volumetric
plastic strain driven hardening/softening.
( )
( )
( )
2
2
tan 0
1 cos
c a a
Rt
F p p R d p

= + + =

+

,
( )
pl
a vol
p
L4.10
The cap yield surface
is elliptical with constant eccentricity in the meridional ( pt ) plane.
includes dependence on the third stress invariant in the deviatoric
plane.
hardens or softens as a function of the volumetric plastic strain.
Volumetric plastic compaction (when yielding on the cap)
causes hardening.
Volumetric plastic dilation (when yielding on the shear failure
surface) causes softening.
L4.11
The hardening/softening law is a user-defined piecewise linear function
relating the hydrostatic compression yield stress, p
b
, and the
corresponding volumetric plastic strain,
( )
0
pl pl
b b vol vol
p p = + .
L4.12
The volumetric plastic strain axis in the hardening curve has an arbitrary
origin.
is the position on this axis corresponding to the initial state of
the material when the analysis begins, thus defining the position of
the cap (p
b
) at the start of the analysis.
The evolution parameter p
a
is then given as
The parameter is a small number (typically 0.01 to 0.05) used to define
a transition yield surface
so that the model provides a smooth intersection between the cap and the
failure surfaces.
0
pl
vol
( ) 1 tan
b
a
p Rd
p
R
=
+
.
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
1 tan tan 0
cos
t a a a
F p p t d p d p

= + + + =

,
L4.13
A larger value of can be used to construct more complex (curved)
failure surfaces.
A large value of can provide a softening surface with a better fit of
experimentally observed shear failure.
If = 0then there is no transition surface and no true softening behavior
(i.e., softening while yielding on the same surface) in the model.
L4.14
The plastic flow is defined by a flow potential that is
associated in the deviatoric plane,
associated in the cap region in the meridional plane, and
nonassociated in the failure surface and transition regions in the
meridional plane.
The flow potential surface used in the meridional plane is made up
of an elliptical portion in the cap region that is identical to the cap
yield surface:
( )
( )
2
2
.
1 cos
c a
Rt
G p p

= +

+

L4.15
In the failure and transition regions another elliptical portion provides the
nonassociated flow component in the model:
The two elliptical portions form a continuous and smooth potential
surface.
( )
( )
2
2
tan
1 cos
s a
t
G p p

= +

+

.
L4.16
On the failure and transition regions:
The volumetric plastic strain rate is proportional to
The flow is purely deviatoric at the intersection of the Drucker-
Prager cone with the cap (i.e., the critical state condition).
The deviatoric plastic strain rate is proportional to t .
The flow is purely volumetric at the apex of the Drucker-Prager
cone.
Along the Drucker-Prager failure surface between these two
extremes, the ratio between the volumetric and deviatoric plastic
strain rates varies linearly.
( ) . tan
a
p p
L4.17
If the initial stress is given such that the stress point lies outside the
initially defined cap or transition yield surfaces, then
Abaqus will try to adjust the initial position of the cap to make the
stress point lie on the yield surface and a warning will be issued.
If the stress point lies outside the Drucker-Prager failure surface, then
an error message will be issued and the analysis will be terminated.
L4.18
Usage
The Modified Cap model is invoked with the CAP PLASTICITY
material option.
It also allows for the yield and flow rule parameters to be made
dependent on temperature and predefined field variables.
L4.19
The CAP PLASTICITY option must always be accompanied by the CAP
HARDENING material option.
It defines the evolution of the yield stress in hydrostatic compression.
It can be temperature and field dependent.
The range of values for which pressure yield stress, p
b
, is defined
should be sufficient to include all values of effective pressure stress
that the material will be subjected to during the analysis.
L4.20
The elastic behavior is defined with linear elasticity or with porous
elasticity.
The elasticity parameters can be temperature and field dependent.
Initial void ratio (porosity) is required if nonlinear elasticity is used.
User subroutine VOIDRI can be used to specify complex initial void
ratio distributions.
Thermal expansion can be used to introduce thermal volume change
effects.
L4.21
The nonassociated flow present in the failure surface of the model produces
an unsymmetric material stiffness matrix.
The unsymmetric solver should be used if there is significant plastic
flow due to shearing.
When Abaqus uses a symmetric solver with unsymmetric
equations, the rate of convergence may be slow.
If the region of the model in which nonassociated flow occurs is
confined, it may be possible to use the default symmetric solver and
still get an acceptable rate of convergence.
L4.22
Calibration
At least three experiments are required to calibrate the simplest version
of the Cap model:
A hydrostatic compression test
A uniaxial strain (oedometer) test is also acceptable.
Two uniaxial and/or triaxial compression tests
Use more than two tests for a more accurate calibration.
The hydrostatic compression test is performed by pressurizing the
sample equally in all directions.
The applied pressure and volume change are recorded.
It provides the evolution of the hydrostatic compression yield stress,
, required for the cap hardening option. ( )
pl
b vol
p
L4.23
The uniaxial compression test involves compressing the sample
between two rigid platens.
Record the load and displacement in the direction of loading.
The lateral displacements should also be recorded so that
correct volume changes can be calibrated.
Triaxial compression experiments are performed using a standard
triaxial machine where a fixed confining pressure is maintained
while a differential stress is applied.
Perform several tests covering the range of confining
pressures of interest.
Record the stress and strain in the direction of loading,
together with the lateral strain, so that correct volume
changes can be calibrated.
elasticity, particularly in cases where the initial elastic region is not
well defined.
L4.24
To obtain the friction angle, , and cohesion, d, which define the shear
failure dependence on hydrostatic pressure,
Plot the failure stresses of any two uniaxial and/or triaxial compression
experiments in the pressure stress (p) versus shear stress (q) space.
The slope of the straight line passing through the two points gives
the angle , and the intersection with the q-axis gives d.
L4.25
K controls the yield dependence on the third stress invariant, and its calibration
needs experimental results from a true triaxial (cubical) test.
True triaxial tests are difficult to conduct.
Assume a value of K (the value of K is generally between 0.8 and 1.0) or
ignore this effect.
R represents the curvature of the cap part of the yield surface.
It can be calibrated from a number of triaxial tests at high confining
pressures (in the cap region).
R must be between 0 and 1.
X
Y
X
R
Y
=
L4.26
This is a continuation of the limit load analysis of a strip foundation
example previously analyzed using the Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-
Prager models.
Review of the model:
is loaded by a prescribed displacement of 5 inches and the average
pressure vs. displacement of the footing is computed.
The model is assumed to be in a plane strain condition and is
discretized by CPE8R and CINPE5R elements.
Symmetry plane
Soil
L4.27
Cap hardening is used for the Modified Drucker-
Prager/Cap model.
Adds a cap yield surface to the modified
Drucker-Prager model.
The cap bounds the yield surface in
hydrostatic compression, thus providing an
inelastic hardening mechanism to represent
plastic compaction.
The cap also helps control volume dilatancy
when the material yields in shear by providing
softening as a function of the inelastic volume
increase created as the material yields on the
Drucker-Prager shear failure and transition
yield surfaces.
The model uses associated flow in the cap region
and nonassociated flow in the shear failure and
transition regions.
L4.28
The Drucker-Prager material data is specified as follows:
*MATERIAL,NAME= A1
*ELASTIC
30000.,0.3
*CAP PLASTICITY
16.212,30.64,0.1,.00041,.01,1.0
*CAP HARDENING
2.15,0.
20.96,.0005
46.6,.001
79.67,.0015
126.28,.002
205.95,.0025
311.27,.0028
655.6,.00299
Cohesion,
Friction angle,
Cap eccentricity,
Initial volumetric plastic strain,
Transition surface radius parameter,
Stress ratio
Table of pressure yield stress and
volumetric inelastic strain
L4.29
The Drucker-Prager material data is specified in Abaqus/CAE as follows:
Cohesion,
Friction angle,
Cap eccentricity,
Initial volumetric plastic strain,
Transition surface radius parameter,
Stress ratio
Table of pressure yield stress and
volumetric inelastic strain
L4.30
Results
Terzaghi (175 psi)
Prandtl (143 psi)
Mohr Coulomb
with no dilation
Mohr Coulomb
with dilation
Drucker Prager
with dilation
Drucker Prager
with no dilation
Drucker- Prager/Cap
L4.31
Results
It is observed that the Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model provides a
response that is comparable to the corresponding Drucker-Prager
nondilatant response.
This response is due to the addition of the cap and the nonassociated
flow in the failure region, which combine to reduce dilation in the model
and therefore approximate the Drucker-Prager nondilatant flow.
The results with the Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model are also close
to the results obtained from the nondilatant Mohr-Coulomb model.
The Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model as well as the nondilatant Drucker-
Prager and Mohr-Coulomb models lead to a softer response and a lower
limit load than the corresponding dilatant versions.
The limit load values obtained for the Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model
and the nondilatant Drucker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb models lie between
the Prandtl and Terzaghi solutions.
Cr i t i c al St at e (Cl ay) Pl ast i c i t y Model
L4.33
The characteristics of the Critical State (Clay) Plasticity model:
This model is intended to simulate the constitutive behavior of
cohesionless materials.
It is an extended version of the classical critical state theories originally
developed at Cambridge from 19601970.
The material is initially isotropic.
The yield behavior depends on the hydrostatic pressure.
The critical state line separates two distinct regions of behavior.
On the dryside of critical state the material softens.
On the wetside it hardens (and also stiffens).
The hardening/softening behavior is a function of the volumetric
plastic strain.
L4.34
The inelastic behavior is generally accompanied by volume changes.
On the dryside the material dilates.
On the wetside it compacts.
On the critical state line the material can yield indefinitely at
constant shear stress without changing volume.
The model assumes that the material is cohesionless.
Under large stress reversals the model provides a reasonable material
response on the wet(cap) side of the critical state.
On the dryside the model is acceptable only for essentially
monotonic loading.
L4.35
Response on the dryside of critical state
L4.36
Response on the wetside of critical state
L4.37
Description of the Critical State (Clay) Plasticity Model:
Either linear elasticity or nonlinear porous elasticity can be used with the
Clay model.
The Clay yield surface is elliptical in the meridional plane and also
includes dependence on the third stress invariant.
for p > a (the wetside of critical state),
for p a (the dryside of critical state),
( )
2 2
2
1
, , 1 1 0
p t
f p q r
a Ma

= + =

( )
2 2
, , 1 1 0
p t
f p q r
a Ma

= + =

L4.38
L4.39
is a constant used for modifying the yield surface shape on the
wetside of the critical state.
=1on the dryside of the critical state.
<1in most cases on the wetside.
The measure of deviatoric stress, t, allows matching of different
stress values in tension and compression in the deviatoric plane.
L4.40
M is the slope of the critical state line in the pt plane (the ratio of t to p
at critical state).
Clay yield and critical state surfaces in principal stress space
L4.41
Associated flow is used with the Clay model.
The size of the yield surface is defined by a.
The evolution of a characterizes the hardening or softening of the
material.
Two approaches can be used to define the evolution of
The first approach:
For some materials, over the range of confining pressures, ( p ) ,
of interest, it is observed that during plastic deformation,
where is the logarithmic hardening constant and e is the void ratio.
( )
pl
vol
a .
( ) ln , de d p =
L4.42
Integrating this equation we obtain,
where e
0
is the initial void ratio, is the porous elasticity volumetric
constant (the logarithmic bulk modulus), and a
0
defines the position of
a at the start of the analysisthe initial overconsolidation of the
material.
The value of a
0
can be given directly or may be computed as
where p
0
is the initial value of the pressure stress and e
1
is the
intercept of the virgin consolidation line with the void ratio axis in a
plot of void ratio versus pressure stress.
1 0 0
0
ln 1
exp
2
e e p
a

=

,
( )
0 0
1
exp 1
pl
pl
J
a a e
J

= +

,
L4.43
L4.44
The second approach to define the evolution of
The evolution of the yield surface can be defined as a piecewise
linear function relating yield stress in hydrostatic compression, p
c
,
and volumetric plastic strain, :
pl
vol
( ) 1
c
p
a
=
+
.
( )
pl
c c vol
p p = .
( )
:
pl
vol
a
The evolution parameter
is then given by:
L4.45
The volumetric plastic strain axis has an arbitrary origin.
is the position on this axis corresponding to the initial state of
the material.
It defines the initial hydrostatic pressure, .
It defines the initial yield surface size, a
0
.
Data must be provided over a wide enough range of values of p
c
to
cover all situations that will arise in the application.
0
pl
vol
0
c
p
L4.46
Abaqus checks that the yield surface is not violated by:
the user-specified material constants, and
the initial effective stress conditions defined at each point in the
material.
At any material point where the yield function is violated:
a warning message is issued, and
a
0
is adjusted so that the yield function is satisfied exactly.
Thus, the initial stress state lies on the yield surface.
L4.47
L4.48
Usage
The Clay model is invoked with the
CLAY PLASTICITY option.
It defines the yield.
It defines the hardening if
logarithmic hardening is chosen.
The CLAY HARDENING
option can be used to define
piecewise linear hardening.
These parameters can be
entered as temperature or field
dependent.
L4.49
The elasticity is defined as:
linear elastic or
porous elastic.
If clay plasticity with
logarithmic hardening is used,
then porous elasticity must be
used.
In the porous elasticity case
zero tensile strength
is normally used since the
material is assumed to be
cohesionless.
( )
0
el
t
p =
L4.50
*EXPANSION can be used to
effects.
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=RATIO
is required to define the initial void
ratio of the material.
User subroutine VOIDRI can be
used to specify complex initial
void ratio distributions.
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,
TYPE=STRESS is required to define
the initial effective stress state in the
material.
User subroutine SIGINI can be
stress distributions.
L4.51
Calibration
At least two experiments are required to calibrate the simplest version of
the Clay model:
a hydrostatic compression test
A uniaxial strain (oedometer) test is also acceptable.
and a triaxial compression test
More than one triaxial test is useful for a more accurate
calibration.
The hydrostatic compression test is performed by pressurizing the
sample equally in all directions.
The applied pressure and the volume change are recorded.
L4.52
Triaxial compression experiments are performed using a standard
triaxial machine.
A fixed confining pressure is maintained while a differential stress is
applied.
Several tests covering the range of confining pressures of interest
are usually performed.
Again, the stress and strain in the direction of loading are recorded
together with the lateral strain so that correct volume changes can
be calibrated.
L4.53
elasticity:
in cases where the initial elastic region is not well defined, and
to help determine whether a constant shear modulus or a
constant Poissons ratio should be used for porous elasticity,
and to determine their values.
L4.54
The onset of yielding in the hydrostatic compression test provides the
initial position of the yield surface, a
0
.
The logarithmic bulk moduli, and , are determined from the
hydrostatic compression experimental data by plotting the logarithm of
pressure versus void ratio.
The void ratio, e, is related to the measured volume change as
The slope of the line obtained for the elastic regime is , and the
slope in the inelastic range is .
For a valid model >.
( )
( )
( )
0
1
exp
1
vol
e
J
e
+
= =
+
.
L4.55
The triaxial compression tests allow
the calibration of parameters M and .
M is the ratio of the shear stress,
q, to the pressure stress, p, at
critical state.
It can be obtained from the
stress values when the
material has become
perfectly plastic (critical
state).
(0 < <1) represents the
curvature of the cap part of the
yield surface.
It can be calibrated from a
number of triaxial tests at high
confining pressures (on the
wetside of critical state).
Critical state line q=Mp
L4.56
Calibration of K, which controls the yield dependence on the third stress
invariant, needs experimental results from a true triaxial (cubical) test.
These results are generally not available.
Assume a value of K (the value of K is generally between 0.8 and
1.0) or ignore this effect.
J oi nt ed Mat er i al Model
L4.58
The J ointed Material model is intended to provide a simple, continuum
model for materials containing a high density of parallel joint surfaces in
different orientations.
The spacing of the joints of a particular orientation is assumed to be
sufficiently close compared to the characteristic dimensions of the
model.
The joints can be smeared into a continuum of slip systems.
This model can be applied to the modeling of geotechnical problems
where the medium of interest is composed of significantly faulted rock.
L4.59
The basic characteristics of the J ointed Material model are:
The model provides for up to three joint systems.
The joint systems may exhibit frictional sliding and may also
open and close.
The material response is orthotropic when any joint system is
open.
The model includes a bulk failure mechanism based on a Drucker-
Prager model.
The inelastic sliding mechanisms on the joints and bulk material
may be purely frictional or include dilation.
The model provides a reasonable material response under large
stress reversals (including joint opening/closing and cyclic shear).
L4.60
1
3
2
L4.61
Description
Consider a joint a oriented by the normal to the joint surface n
a
.
t
a
, =1, 2, are two unit, orthogonal vectors in the joint surface.
The local stresses are the pressure stress and the shear
stresses across the joint:
We define the shear stress magnitude as
The local strains are the normal strain across the joint
and the engineering shear strain in the -direction in the joint
surface
a a a
a a a
p

=
=
n n
n t
,
.
a a a
= .
an a a
= n n
a a a a a
= + n t t n .
1
3
2
L4.62
We use a linear strain rate decomposition:
If several systems are active (we designate an active system by i, where
i =b indicates the bulk material system and i =a is a joint system a):
When all joints at a point are closed, the elastic behavior of the material
is isotropic and linear.
We use a stress-based joint opening criterion, whereas joint closing is
monitored based on strain.
J oint system a opens when the estimated pressure stress across
the joint (normal to the joint surface) is no longer positive:
el pl
d d d = + .
pl pl
i
i
d d =
.
0
a
p .
L4.63
In this case the material has no elastic stiffness with respect to direct strain
across the joint system.
It may or may not have stiffness with respect to shearing associated with this
direction.
Thus, open joints create anisotropic elastic response at a point.
The joint system remains open so long as
where is the component of direct elastic strain across the joint and
is the component of direct elastic strain across the joint calculated in plane
stress as
where E is the Youngs modulus of the material, v is the Poissons ratio, and
are the direct stresses in the plane of the joint.
( )
el el
an an ps
,
el
an
( )
el
an ps
( )
( )
1 2
el
a a an ps
v
E
= + ,
a a a
t t

=
L4.64
The failure surface for sliding on joint a is
where is the friction angle and d
a
is the cohesion for system a.
f
a
<0implies joint a does not slip.
f
a
=0implies joint a slips:
The inelastic strain on the system is
where is the magnitude of the inelastic strain rate.
Also:
a
is the dilation angle for this joint system.
a
=0 provides pure shear flow on the joint.
a
>0causes dilation of the joint as it slips.
tan 0,
a a a a a
f p d = =
( ) sin cos
pl pl a
a a a a a a a a a a
a
d d

= + +

n n n t t n ,
pl
a
d
L4.65
The sliding of the different joint systems at a point is independent.
Sliding on one system does not change the failure criterion or the
dilation angle for any other joint system at the same point.
J oint system model:
L4.66
In addition to the joint systems, the model includes a bulk material failure
mechanism based on the linear Drucker-Prager failure criterion:
where
b
is the friction angle for the bulk material,
and d
b
is the cohesion for the bulk material.
If this failure criterion is reached, the bulk inelastic flow is defined by:
where
b
is the dilation angle for the bulk material.
This bulk failure system is independent of the joint systems (bulk
inelastic flow does not change the behavior of any joint system).
tan 0,
b b
q p d =
1
,
1
1 tan
3
tan
pl pl b
b b
b
b b
g
d d
g q p

= ,
L4.67
Bulk material model:
L4.68
Usage
The J ointed Material model is invoked with the J OINTED MATERIAL
material option.
The yield and flow parameters can be temperature and field
dependent.
This option must be repeated for each existing system (bulk
material and up to three joints); it may appear four times.
Use the J OINT DIRECTION parameter for referring to the orientation
definition corresponding to the joint.
The ORIENTATION option must then be used to define the joint
orientation in the original configuration.
Stress and strain components will still be output in global directions
unless the ORIENTATION option is also used on the section
definition option associated with the material definition.
When defining the bulk material, omit the J OINT DIRECTION
parameter.
L4.69
The J OINTED MATERIAL option may appear a fifth time with the
SHEAR RETENTION parameter to define a nonzero shear modulus for
open joints.
The elasticity must be defined with the ELASTIC, TYPE=ISOTROPIC
material option since we assume that the material is linear elastic and
isotropic when all joints are closed.
The material cannot be elastically incompressible (Poissons ratio
must be less than 0.5).
EXPANSION can be used to introduce thermal volume change effects.
Analyses using a nonassociated flow version of the model may require
the use of the unsymmetric solver because of the resulting nonsymmetry
of the plasticity equations.
The J ointed Material model is not supported by Abaqus/CAE.
Use the Keywords Editor to add the jointed material options to an
isotropic elastic model.
L4.70
Calibration
At least two experiments are required to calibrate the behavior of each of
the existing inelastic mechanisms.
For the bulk material calibration the following experiments can be used:
Uniaxial compression test (for cohesive materials), and,
Triaxial compression tests.
The uniaxial compression test involves compressing the sample between
two rigid platens.
The load and displacement in the direction of loading are recorded.
The lateral displacements are also recorded so that correct volume
changes can be calibrated.
The triaxial compression tests involve the use of a standard triaxial
machine where a fixed confining pressure is maintained while a differential
stress is applied.
Stress and strain in the direction of loading are recorded, together with
the lateral strain, so that correct volume changes can be calibrated.
L4.71
For the joint systems the most common experiments are shear tests.
A normal pressure is applied across the joint and then the joint is
sheared.
Several tests covering the range of pressures of interest are performed.
Stresses and strains in the normal and shear directions are recorded.
Unloading measurements in all of the above tests are useful.
These help in the calibration of elasticity, particularly in cases where the
initial elastic region is not well-defined.
L4.72
The angle of friction, , and the cohesion, d, defining the failure stress
dependence on pressure are calculated by plotting the failure stresses of any
two experiments in the pressure stress versus shear stress space.
The slope of the straight line passing through the two points gives ,
and the intersection with the shear stress axis gives d.
L4.73
If more than two experiments are available, a best fit straight line over
the range of interest of pressure stress must be used to calculate the
slope of the failure surface.
The dilation angle, , (0 < < ), measured from a shear test, must
be chosen such that a reasonable match of the volume changes during
yielding is obtained.
The volume changes are calculated from the strains in all directions.
The calibration of the temperature-dependent model requires repetition
of the experiments at different temperatures over the range of interest.
L4.74
Example: Jointed rock slope stability
We examine the stability of the excavation of part of a jointed rock mass,
leaving a sloped embankment (Example Problem 1.1.6).
This example illustrates the use of the jointed material model.
This problem has been studied previously by the following:
Barton (1971) and Hoek (1970), who used limit equilibrium methods
and
Zienkiewicz and Pande (1977), who used a finite element model.
L4.75
As in most geotechnical problems, the analysis begins from a nonzero
state of stress.
The active loadingin this case consists of removal of material to
represent the excavation.
We examine the effect of joint cohesion on slope collapse through a
sequence of solutions with different values of joint cohesion, with all
other parameters kept fixed.
Excavation of part of a jointed rock mass
L4.76
The rock mass contains two sets of planes of weakness: one vertical set
of joints and one set of inclined joints.
J OI NT1
J OI NT2
Excavation geometry
Model analyzed with cohesion (d) values
up to 120 kPa
Model analyzed with both nonassociated flow
(shown) and associated flow ( = =45).
L4.77
Deformed shape: d=30, nonassociated flow
Deformation scale factor =3,000
A
B
L4.78
The variation of horizontal displacements as cohesion is reduced suggest
that the slope collapses if the cohesion is less than 24 kPa for the case of
associated flow or less than 26 kPa for the case of non-dilatant flow.
Horizontal displacement
L4.79
The cohesion values for collapse of the slope (24 kPa for associated
flow or 26 kPa for non-dilatant flow) compare well with the value
calculated by Barton (26 kPa)
Barton used a planar failure assumption in his limit equilibrium
calculations.
Barton's calculations also include tension cracking(akin to joint
opening with no tension strength) as we do.
Hoek calculated a cohesion value of 24 kPa for collapse of the slope.
Although he also makes the planar failure assumption, he does not
include tension cracking.
This may be why Hoeks calculated value is lower than Barton's.
Zienkiewicz and Pande calculated the cohesion value necessary for
collapse as 23 kPa for associated flow and 25 kPa for non-dilatant flow.
They assumed the joints have a tension strength of 1/10 of the
cohesion.
L4.80
plastic strain (d=30, nonassociated flow)
J oint set 1 (vertical joints)
J oint set 2 (inclined joints)
Soi l Pl ast i c i t y Model s - Summar y
L4.82
Soi l Pl ast i c i t y Model s - Summar y
Soil plasticity models in Abaqus
No Yes
Based on the critical state
concept, suitable for sands or
materials without cohesion
Critical state (clay)
plasticity model
No Yes
Three independent material
behaviors along the planes of
joints plus one bulk material
behavior
J ointed material
model
Yes Yes
Closed surface model with a cap,
exhibits hardening due to
pressure
Modified Drucker-
Prager/Cap model
Yes Yes
Open surface model, suitable for
sand as well as clays
Extended Drucker-
Prager models
No Yes
Open surface model, suitable for
sand as well as clays
Mohr Coulomb
Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard Features Model
Comment s on t he Numer i c al
I mpl ement at i on
L4.84
Comment s on t he Numer i c al I mpl ement at i on
For all the material models presented in this set of notes, the constitutive
behavior is given in rate form.
The inelastic strain is defined only as a strain rate.
This strain rate must be integrated over each finite time increment.
We use backward Euler integration:
where t is the time increment and t is the time at the beginning of the
increment.
The backward Euler method is chosen because it is unconditionally
stable. In addition, it provides acceptable accuracy, especially when the
strain increment is large compared to the strain to cause yield.
The backward Euler method is more traditionally called radial
returnbecause of its simple geometric interpretation for the basic
case of a Mises yield and associated flow model.
pl
pl
t t
d
t
dt
+
= ,
L4.85
In some simple cases, such as a perfectly plastic Drucker-Prager model,
the backward difference equations can be solved in closed form.
However, in most cases, Newtons method is used for the numerical
solution of the integrated plasticity equations.
For some material models additional logic is used to handle all the
possible combinations of behavior available within the model.
This is required for models that involve opening/closing conditions,
such as the J ointed Material model.
This is required for models that involve more than one yield surface,
such as the Modified Drucker-Prager/Cap model.
L4.86
Occasionally Abaqus fails to find a solution to the integrated constitutive
equations.
It then gives a warning message: PLASTICITY ALGORITHM FAILS
TO CONVERGE AT n INTEGRATION POINTS.
If automatic time incrementation has been chosen (which is always
recommended), Abaqus tries again with a smaller time increment and
the problem is, thereby, resolved.
If necessary, detailed information about where the algorithms are
failing can be obtained by setting PRINT, PLASTICITY=YES.
L4.87
Abaqus provides consistent material J acobians (tangent stiffnesses) for
the global equilibrium iterations so that quadratic convergence can be
achieved.
Anal ysi s of Por ous Medi a
Lec t ur e 5
L5.2
Over vi ew
Basic Assumptions and Effecti ve Stress
Stress Equilibrium and Flow Continuity
Types of Analyses and Usage
Saturated Example Problems
Partially Saturated Example Problems
L5.3
Over vi ew
Abaqus has capabilities for modeling single phase flow through porous
media.
The following cases can be analyzed:
Fully saturated flow (encountered in many geotechnical applications)
Partially saturated flow (encountered in irrigation problems and
hydrology problems)
A combination of the above two (calculation of phreatic surfaces)
Fluid gravity effects may or may not be considered.
Total pore pressure analysis includes fluid weight.
This analysis is required when the loading provided by fluid
gravity is large.
It is also required when the wickingphenomenon (transient
capillary suction of liquid into a dry body) is of interest.
Excess pore pressure analysis disregards fluid weight.
L5.4
Over vi ew
Two other effects, gel swelling and moisture swelling, may be included in
partially saturated cases.
These swelling effects are usually associated with moisture
absorption into polymeric systems (such as paper towels) rather
than with geotechnical systems and are hence not discussed in
these notes.
Basi c Assumpt i ons and
Ef f ec t i ve St r ess
L5.6
Basi c Assumpt i ons and Ef f ec t i ve St r ess
We model a deforming porous medium using the conventional approach.
The medium is considered to be a multi-phase material.
An effective stress principle is used to describe the material behavior.
An elementary volume, dV, is made up of a volume of grains of solid
material, dV
g
, and a volume of voids, dV
v
, which is either fully or partly
saturated with a volume of wetting fluid, dV
w
.
L5.7
The porosity of the medium, n, is defined as the ratio of the volume of
voids to the total volume:
Abaqus generally uses void ratio, , instead of porosity.
Conversion relationships are
v
dV
n
dV
= .
( )
v g
e dV dV =
1
1
1 1 1
n e
e n n
n e e
= = =
+ +
, , .
L5.8
Saturation, s, is defined as the ratio of wetting fluid volume to void
volume:
For a fully saturated mediums =1, while for a completely dry medium
s =0.
w
v
dV
s
dV
= .
L5.9
The total stress acting at a point, , is assumed to be made up of:
An average pressure stress in the wetting fluid, u
w
, called the pore
pressuretimes a factor, , that depends on the saturation
An effective stressin the material skeleton, :
In general, = (s) can be
measured experimentally.
Typical experimental data
are shown at right.
.
w
u = + I
L5.10
Since such data are difficult to obtain, Abaqus assumes =s.
We assume the following:
The constitutive response of the porous medium consists of simple
bulk elasticity relationships for the fluid and for the solid grains.
A constitutive theory for the material skeleton is chosen wherein
is defined as a function of the strain history and temperature of the
material.
(strain history, temperature, state variables).
w
su = + I.
=
L5.11
Any of the constitutive models in Abaqus can be used to model the
material skeleton of voided materials.
The strain rate decomposition is then given by
where are the volume strain rates in the solid grains and fluid
and are the elastic and plastic strain rates in the material
skeleton.
( )
vol vol el pl
g w
d d d d d = + + + I ,
vol vol
g w
d d ,
el pl
d d ,
St r ess Equi l i br i um and Fl ow Cont i nui t y
L5.13
Stress equilibrium for the solid phase of the material is expressed by
writing the principle of virtual work for the volume under consideration in
its current configuration at time t:
where
is the virtual rate of deformation,
is the true (Cauchy) effective stress,
v is a virtual velocity field,
t are surface tractions per unit area,
f are body forces (excluding fluid weight) per unit volume,
w
is the density of the fluid, and
g is the gravitational acceleration (assumed constant and in a fixed
direction).
( ) :
w w
V S V V
u dV dS dV sn dV = + +

I t v f v g v ,
( )
def
sym = v x

L5.14
This equation is then discretized using a Lagrangian formulation for the
solid phase, with displacements as the nodal variables.
The porous medium is thus modeled by attaching the finite element
mesh to the solid phase.
Fluid may flow through this mesh.
L5.15
A continuity equation is therefore required for the fluid, equating the rate
of increase in fluid volume stored at a point to the rate of volume of fluid
flowing into the point within the time increment:
where
v
w
is the average velocity of the fluid relative to the solid phase (the
seepage velocity) and
n is the outward normal to S.
This equation has been normalized by , the reference density of the
fluid.
The continuity equation is integrated in time using the backward Euler
approximation and discretized with finite elements using pore pressure
as the variable.
0 0
w w
w
w w
V S
d
sn dV sn dS
dt

=

n v ,
0
w

L5.16
The pore fluid flow behavior is assumed to be governed either by
Darcy's law or by Forchheimer's law.
Darcy's law is generally applicable to low fluid flow velocities.
Forchheimer's law is used for higher flow velocities.
Darcy's law may be thought of as a linearized version of
Forchheimer's law.
L5.17
Forchheimer's law describes pore fluid flow as:
where
g is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration,
is the permeability of the medium (possibly anisotropic) with
units of length/time, and
is a velocity coefficient. (Some texts use a different definition
of permeability. This is discussed later.)
( )
1
1
w
w w
w w w
u
sng
+
v k g
x
v v
,
( )
, s e k
( ) e
L5.18
Darcy's law is obtained by setting =0.
We see that, as the fluid velocity tends to zero, Forchheimer's law
approaches Darcys law.
The permeability depends on the saturation of the fluid and on the
porosity of the medium. We assume these dependencies are separable,
so that
where
k
s
(s) gives the saturation dependency, with k
s
(1) =1.0, and k(e) is
the fully saturated permeability.
For isotropic materials k = kI.
s
k = k k,
L5.19
Experimental observation often suggests that, in steady flow through a
partially saturated medium, the permeability varies with s
3
.
We, therefore, take k
s
=s
3
by default.
Different forms of behavior for k
s
(s) can be defined by using the
PERMEABILITY option.
L5.20
Because u
w
measures pressure in the wetting fluid, the medium is fully
saturated for u
w
>0.
Negative values of u
w
represent capillary effects in the medium.
For u
w
<0it is known that, at a given value of capillary pressure, u
w
,
the saturation lies within certain limits.
L5.21
These limits are defined by using the SORPTION option.
Typical forms are shown below:
L5.22
We write these limits as , where
s
a
(u
w
) is the limit at which absorption will occur (so that ), and
s
e
(u
w
) is the limit at which exsorption will occur; thus,
We assume that these relationships are uniquely invertible and can also
be written as
during absorption, and
during exsorption.
We also assume that some wetting fluid will always be present in the
medium: s >0.
The transition between absorption and exsorption, and vice-versa, takes
place along scanninglines, which are approximated by a single value of
du
w
/ds at all saturation levels.
a e
s s s
0 s >
0 s < .
( )
a
w
u s
( )
e
w
u s
L5.23
Saturation is treated as a state variable that may have to change in
certain situations.
Such a situation arises when the wetting liquid pressure is outside
the range for which its value is admissible according to the actual
data.
L5.24
Note on permeability units:
In Abaqus we define permeability in the flow constitutive equation
as , with units of length/time.
In this equation

w
is the mass density of the fluid,
s is the saturation,
n is the porosity,
is the velocity coefficient, and
g is the gravitational acceleration.
It is then clear that both sides of the equation have units of length/time.
( )
1
1
w
w w
w w w
u
sng
+
v k g
x
v v
k
L5.25
However, one other definition of permeability (K) is often used:
where is the fluid viscosity in poise units (mass/time-length).
In this context, permeability K has length squared units (or Darcy) and
what we refer to in Abaqus as permeability, , is called the hydraulic
conductivity.
w
g
= K k,
k
L5.26
In the coupled problem the stress equilibrium and fluid continuity
equations must be solved simultaneously.
In the general nonlinear case we use a Newton scheme to solve the
equations.
The Newton equations for various cases of the formulation (transient or
steady-state flow, etc.) are described in Appendix A.
Types of Anal yses and Usage
L5.28
The analysis of flow through porous media in
Abaqus is available for plane strain,
axisymmetric, and three-dimensional problems.
Special coupled displacement/pore pressure
elements must be used.
These elements have a linear distribution
of pore pressure.
These elements use either a first-order or a
second-order distribution of displacement.
The coupled stress/flow problems are solved by
Abaqus using the SOILS procedure:
By default, Abaqus will solve the steady-
state problem (SOILS, STEADY STATE).
The transient problem is invoked with
SOILS, CONSOLIDATION.
L5.29
The steady-state problem assumes that the time scale is long enough to
ensure that there is no transient effect in the pore fluid diffusion part of
the problem.
The time scale chosen is then only relevant to any possible rate
effects in the constitutive model used for the material skeleton.
Mechanical loads and boundary conditions can be changed gradually
over a step to accommodate nonlinearities in the response.
L5.30
Uncoupled (purely diffusion) pore pressure elements are not available in
Abaqus.
Such elements are useful in cases where only the pore fluid flow
part of the problem is of interest.
In Abaqus we can use coupled elements and constrain all the
displacement degrees of freedom.
Coupled deformation/pore pressure infinite elements are not available in
Abaqus.
Dynamic coupled stress/fluid flow analysis cannot be performed since
we assume no inertia in the existing coupled analysis capability.
The inertia is important in cases such as the behavior of a dam
subjected to earthquake loading.
Liquefaction effects may arise in dynamic situations.
L5.31
Three-way coupled stress/fluid flow/temperature analysis cannot be
performed.
This could be important in applications such as those encountered
in nuclear waste disposal and oil reservoir simulation.
The capability for fluid flow through porous media assumes single-phase
fluid flow.
Multi-phase fluid flow is important in cases such as oil reservoir
simulation.
The vapor phase is ignored in the partially saturated flow formulation.
There are situations for which this assumption is not adequate.
L5.32
The transient problem includes the time integration of the diffusion
effects; therefore, the choice of time increment is important.
The integration procedure used in Abaqus introduces a relationship
between the minimum usable time increment and the element size.
This minimum is a requirement only for second-order elements, but it is
recommended for all diffusion elements.
L5.33
A simple guideline that can be used for fully saturated flow is:
where:
t is the time increment,
E is the Young's modulus of the material skeleton,
k is the permeability of the saturated medium (in units of length/time),
K
g
is the bulk modulus of the solid grains, and
l is a typical element dimension.
( )
2
2
1
6
w
g
g E
t l
Ek K

>

,
L5.34
A simple guideline that can be used for
partially saturated flow is
where
n
0
is the initial porosity of the material,
k
s
is the permeability-saturation
relationship, and
ds/du
w
is the rate of change of saturation
with respect to pore pressure as
defined in the SORPTION material
option.
( )
0
2
6
w
s w
gn ds
t l
k k du
> ,
L5.35
Spurious oscillations may appear in the solution if time increments
smaller than this value are used.
If the problem requires analysis with smaller time increments than
the above relationship allows, a finer mesh is required.
Generally there is no upper limit on the time increment size except
accuracy, since the integration procedure is unconditionally stable
unless nonlinearities cause numerical problems.
L5.36
The accuracy of the time integration is
controlled by the tolerance UTOL
(maximum allowable change in pore
pressure during the increment).
UTOL is also used to drive the
automatic incrementation procedure
for *SOILS, CONSOLIDATION
analysis.
Transient analysis may be terminated by
completing a specified time period;
or it may be continued until steady-
state conditions are reached, steady
state being defined by all fluid
pressures changing at less than a
user-defined rate.
UTOL
L5.37
The porous medium coupled analysis
capability can provide solutions either in
terms of total or of excesspore fluid
pressure.
The difference between total and
excess pressure is relevant only for
cases in which gravitational loading is
important.
Total pressure solutions are
provided when the GRAV
distributed load type is used to
define the gravity load on the
model.
In total pore pressure problems
the *DENSITY material option
must be used to specify the
density of the dry material only.
L5.38
The gravity contribution from
the pore fluid is defined
through the SPECIFIC
(weight) parameter on the
PERMEABILITY option,
together with the direction of
the gravity vector specified in
the DLOAD option with load
type GRAV.
Excess pressure solutions are
provided in all other cases (for
example, when gravity loading is
defined with a body force i.e.,
DLOAD types BX, BY, or BZ).
L5.39
The PERMEABILITY option is
used to specify the permeability of
the saturated medium, which can
be isotropic or anisotropic and a
function of the void ratio.
The PERMEABILITY option can
be repeated with TYPE=VELOCITY
to invoke Forchheimer's flow law
instead of the default Darcy's law.
In partially saturated cases the
PERMEABILITY option can also
be repeated with
TYPE=SATURATION to specify the
dependence of permeability on
saturation, k
s
(s).
By default, k
s
=s
3
.
L5.40
In partially saturated cases the *SORPTION
option is used to specify the dependence of
negative (partially saturated) pore pressure on
saturation.
When it is used with TYPE=ABSORPTION
(default), it defines the absorption curve.
When it is used with TYPE=EXSORPTION, it
defines the exsorption curve (by default, the
exsorption curve is the same as absorption).
Analytical (logarithmic) or tabular input data
are permitted for these options.
In partially saturated cases the *SORPTION,
TYPE=SCANNING option is used to define the
scanning slope between absorption and
exsorption.
Abaqus will generate this slope automatically
if the user does not specify it.
L5.41
The *POROUS BULK MODULI
material option can be used to
specify the bulk modulus of the
solid grains and fluid if the user
wants to include the
compressibility of these
components of the porous
medium.
*EXPANSION can be used to
effects for the solid grains and the
pore fluid.
L5.42
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=RATIO
is required to define the initial void
ratio (porosity) of the medium.
User subroutine VOIDRI can be
void ratio distributions.
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,
TYPE=STRESS can be used to define
the initial effective stress state in the
material.
User subroutine SIGINI can be
effective stress distributions.
L5.43
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=PORE
PRESSURE can be used to define the initial
pore fluid pressure in the medium.
The initial pore pressures can be defined
as a linear function of elevation in the
model or as a constant value.
Abaqus assumes that the vertical
(elevation) direction is the
3-direction in three-dimensional models
and is the 2-direction in
two-dimensional (or axisymmetric)
models.
User subroutine UPOREP is also available
for complicated cases.
The specification of initial conditions in coupled
stress partially saturated flow problems with
gravity is not always trivial.
L5.44
The DFLOW option allows the outward normal flow velocity, v
n
, to be
prescribed across a surface.
Complex dependencies of v
n
on time and position can be coded in
user subroutine DFLOW.
The FLOW option defines the outward flow velocity as
where k
s
and are known values.
Again, complex conditions can be coded in user subroutine FLOW.
The DFLOW and FLOW options are not supported by Abaqus/CAE.
Use the Keywords Editor to include these options.
( ) n s w w
v k u u
= ,
w
u

L5.45
If large-deformation analysis is required because of the presence of
large strains, the NLGEOM parameter can be included on the STEP
option.
L5.46
The unsymmetric solver is used
automatically if the user requests steady-
state analysis or any kind of partially
saturated flow analysis.
Abaqus automatically uses the
unsymmetric solver when fluid
gravity effects are included in a
step.
For other simulations such as those
involving nonlinear geometric
effects, nonlinear permeability, or
nonassociated plastic flow,
using the unsymmetric solver
(STEP, UNSYMM=YES) may
improve the rate of
convergence.
L5.47
Two other saturation-dependent effects
can be included in partially saturated flow
analysis.
The MOISTURE SWELLING material
option can be used to define
saturation driven volumetric swelling
(or shrinkage as negative swelling) of
the solid skeleton:
In this option, the reversible
swelling strain is defined as a
function of saturation.
Anisotropic swelling can be
specified by using the RATIOS
option,
( )
( ) ( )
1
3
ms ms ms I
ii ii
r s s = .
L5.48
The GEL material option can be
used to define the growth of gel
particles that swell and trap fluid.
The growth of the gel particles
depends on:
the saturation of the wetting
fluid,
the size of the gel particles,
and
their number per unit of volume
of porous material.
Sat ur at ed Ex ampl e Pr obl ems
L5.50
Example: Finite-strain consolidation of a two-dimensional solid
This example involves the large-scale consolidation of a two-dimensional
solid (Benchmark Problem 1.14.3).
The modeled strip of soil is fully saturated and the analysis is
transient.
Model of soil strip
Mesh:
35, quadratic, reduced integration, plane
strain elements with pore pressure (CPE8RP)
Free drainage across top surface
Other surfaces impermeable and smooth
Loading:
Pressure =3.4457 MPa
The loaded portion of the strip is 1/5 of the
width
H
B
H
L5.51
Nonlinearities caused by the large geometry changes are considered, as
well as the effects of the change in the void ratio on the permeability of the
material.
*MATERIAL, NAME=Soil
*ELASTIC
1000.
*PERMEABILITY
2.E-6, 1.
2.E-5, 1.5
L5.52
The load is applied in two equal time increments during the first transient
soils consolidation step, and it is kept constant thereafter.
Practical consolidation analyses require solutions across several orders
of magnitude of time, and the automatic time incrementation scheme is
designed to generate cost-effective solutions for such cases.
The algorithm is based on the user-supplied tolerance on the pore
pressure change permitted in any increment, UTOL.
Abaqus uses this value in the following manner:
If the maximum change in pore pressure at any node is greater
than UTOL, the increment is repeated with a proportionally
reduced time increment.
If the maximum change in pore pressure at any node is
consistently less than UTOL, the time increment size is
proportionally increased.
L5.53
In this analysis the maximum pore pressure change per increment
(UTOL) is set to 15 psi.
This is about 3% of the maximum pore pressure in the model
following application of the load.
With this value the first time increment is 7.2 seconds and the final
time increment is 5,437 seconds.
This is quite typical of diffusion processes: at early times the
time rates of pore pressure are significant and at later times
these time rates are very low.
The analysis is performed both with and without finite-strain effects.
The soil permeability varies with void ratio in the model that includes
finite-strain effects.
Permeability is constant in the small-strain analysis.
L5.54
Results of the finite-strain analysis:
Final deformed shape Pore pressure histories
A
B
Point A
Point B
L5.55
The finite-strain and small-strain
analyses predict large differences in the
final consolidation:
The small-strain result shows about
40% more deformation than the
finite-strain case.
This is consistent with results from
the one-dimensional Terzaghi
consolidation solutions.
Clearly, in cases where settlement
magnitudes are significant, finite-strain
effects are important.
Deformation histories
Small strain
Finite strain
L5.56
Example: Steady-state analysis of a dam
This problem involves the analysis of a concrete dam on a rock
foundation.
The problem description provided by Dr. G. Pande of Swansea
University formed the basis of the analysis.
Concrete dam on rock foundation
Mesh:
110, quadratic, reduced integration,
plane strain elements with pore
pressure (CPE8RP)
Exterior edges initially impervious
Symmetry at the foundation sides
and bottom
30 m
30 m
30 m 30 m 21 m
Foundation
Dam
L5.57
We assume the rock behaves as a Drucker-Prager material with
nonassociated flow and orthotropic permeability.
*MATERIAL, NAME=ROCK
*DENSITY
2400.
*ELASTIC
30000.E6, .2
*DRUCKER PRAGER
40., 1., 20.
.139E6
*PERMEABILITY, SPECIFIC=9810., TYPE=ORTHO
.0002, .00001, .0002
Drucker-Prager constants:
Cohesion, d =0.1 MPa
Friction angle, =40
Dilation angle, = 20
Vertical permeability, k
v
=0.00001m/sec
L5.58
The dam is composed of concrete. The concrete model cracks in tension
at a stress of 0.15 MPa. This is a very low tensile strength, perhaps less
than one-tenth of the real tensile strength of the material.
*MATERIAL, NAME=CONCRETE
*DENSITY
2400.
*ELASTIC
20000.E6, .25
*PERMEABILITY, SPECIFIC=9810.
.00001
*CONCRETE
10.E6
20.E6, .001
*FAILURE RATIOS
1.16, .0075
*TENSION STIFFENING
1., 0.
0., .5E-3
*SHEAR RETENTION
1., 1000.
Isotropic permeability
k =0.00001m/sec
L5.59
The analysis is done in three stages.
The first step establishes geostatic equilibrium where the geostatic stresses
balance the gravity loads in the rock.
This state of stress corresponds to the undeformed configuration of the rock
mass.
This type of analysis step is discussed in Lecture 6.
The vertical stress in the rock
foundation is zero at the surface and
increases linearly to approximately
0.7 MPa at the impervious bottom
boundary.
The horizontal stresses are 0.6
times the vertical stress.
The excess pore pressure in the
rock is zero.
Vertical stress
g
L5.60
The second step of the analysis
includes the following additional
loads:
Gravity loads due to the
concrete dam construction
Pressure loads on the upstream
side of the dam and foundation
representing the filling of the
reservoir.
In this step we assume that no pore
pressures develop, because we are
concerned with short-term behavior
and the modeled materials have very
low permeabilities.
g
g
Deformation scale
factor: 1.3E+4
Short-term deformed shape
L5.61
In the final stage of analysis we perform a steady-state pore fluid
diffusion/stress analysis to calculate the state of the structure 25 years
after filling the reservoir.
Applied pore pressure boundary conditions represent the upstreamand
downstream conditions for the seepage part of the problem.
We also include a phreatic surface in the concrete dam wall.
The position of this zero pore pressure surface is assumed, the
analysis is performed, and the validity of the assumption is checked.
An iterative procedure can then be used to correct the location
of the phreatic surface at steady state.
Although not done in this case, Abaqus is capable of calculating the
phreatic surface automatically.
L5.62
Results
Pore pressure boundary conditions
and long-term pore pressure contours
Zero excess
pore pressure
Nonzero excess pore
pressures corresponding to
the hydrostatic pressure
caused by the head of
water in the full reservoir
Zero flux boundary
phreatic surface
L5.63
Results (cont'd)
It is observed from the pore
fluid effective velocity
(FLVEL) plot that the pore
water flows from the
upstream to the downstream
of the dam.
The magnitude of FLVEL is
greatest just under the
concrete dam because the
pressure gradient is greatest
in this region of the bedrock.
Pore fluid effective velocity vector plot
Par t i al l y Sat ur at ed Ex ampl e Pr obl ems
L5.65
Example: Demand Wettability of a porous medium (uncoupled)
This example illustrates the Abaqus capability to solve uncoupled partially
saturated porous fluid flow problems (Benchmark Problem 1.8.1).
We consider a constrained demand wettabilitytest.
The demand wettability test is a common way of measuring the
absorption properties of porous materials.
In such a test fluid is made available to the material at a certain
location and the material is allowed to absorb as much fluid as it can.
We consider a square specimen of material and
allow it to absorb fluid at its center.
A quarter mesh of reduced-integration
elements (CPE8RP) is used.
In order to perform the uncoupled fluid flow
analysis, all displacement degrees of
freedom are fixed.
Square specimen
point of
absorption
L5.66
We investigate two material models.
One material contains a large number of gel particles that entrap fluid
and, as a result, enhance the fluid retention capability of the material:
The other material does not contain gel.
We also study the cyclic wetting behavior in the case of the sample
containing gel particles.
*MATERIAL,NAME=CORE
*PERMEABILITY,SPECIFIC=10000.
3.7E-4,
*POROUS BULK MODULI
,100000000.
*ELASTIC
100000.0, 0.0
*GEL
0.0005, 0.0015, 1.E8, 500.
*SORPTION
...
Gel
definition
L5.67
Both material models have the following absorption and exsorption
behavior:
Absorption/exsportion curves
*SORPTION
-100000.,.04
-10000.,.05
-4500.,.1
-3500.,.18
-2000.,.45
-1000.,.91
0.,1.
*SORPTION,
TYPE=EXSORPTION
-100000.,.09
-10000.,.1
-8000.,.11
-6000.,.18
-4500.,.33
-3000.,.79
-2000.,.91
0.,1.
L5.68
A
Pore pressure at 18.88 seconds
The loadingconsists of prescribing a zero
pore pressure (corresponding to full saturation)
at the center of the sample (point A).
This pore pressure is held fixed for 600
seconds to model the fluid acquisition
process.
The analysis is performed with the transient
soils consolidation procedure using automatic
time incrementation.
The tolerance on the pore pressure
change permitted (UTOL), is set to a large
value since we expect the nonlinearity of
the material to restrict the size of the time
increments during the transient stages of
the analysis.
L5.69
Since the volume occupied by the sample is fixed (all displacements
have been constrained) the volume of fluid absorbed is the same in the
cases of the sample with and without gel particles.
Fluid volume absorbed vs. time for samples with and without gel
L5.70
A
B
C
D
E
F
Pore pressure history
for samples with and without gel
Saturation history
for samples with and without gel
L5.71
The difference between the samples with and without the gel appears in
the proportions of the volume of the sample that will be occupied by free
fluid and fluid trapped in the gel particles.
Void ratio history
Gel volume ratio history
for sample with gel
L5.72
Volume of different phases (with gel)
Volume of different phases (without gel)
L5.73
The cyclic wetting analysis of the sample with gel particles contains three
steps.
The initial wetting occurs during the first 600 seconds.
This is the same as the original analysis.
Zero pore pressure is prescribed at the center
of the sample, point A.
Draining occurs for the next 600 seconds
The draining is modeled by prescribing a pore pressure of
10000 at point A.
This pore pressure corresponds to a saturation of 10%, which is the
least saturation the sample can have once it has been wetted.
Finally, the rewetting process occurs over a time period of 800 seconds.
Once again zero pressure is prescribed at point A, corresponding to
full saturation at the center of the sample.
A
B
C
D
E
F
L5.74
As expected, pore pressure and saturation increase and decrease as
the volume of fluid in the sample increases and decreases,
Pore pressure history Fluid volume absorbed vs. time
L5.75
In the rewetting stage, full saturation is achieved more quicklythan in the
first wetting stage since the sample starts off with a higher saturation
and has less capacity to absorb fluid.
Saturation history in cyclic wettability test
L5.76
During the draining stage the gel particles stop growing when the
saturation of the surrounding free fluid falls below the value required to
keep the gel growing.
At the same time the void ratio to remains constant.
Gel volume ratio history Void ratio history
L5.77
As in any transient problem the
element size and the time
increment size are related, to the
extent that time increments
smaller than a certain size give no
useful information.
In this example the minimum time
increment size is about 0.1
seconds, so an initial time
increment of 1 second was used.
If time increments smaller than the
critical value are used, spurious
oscillations may appear in the
solution.
Pore pressure history when initial time
increment is 0.09 seconds
L5.78
Example: Calculation of phreatic surface in an earth dam (steady-state)
In this example fluid fluid flow occurs in a gravity field and only part of the
porous medium is fully saturated, so the location of the phreatic surface is a
part of the analysis solution.
Such problems are common in hydrology.
In this example the location of the phreatic surface in an earth dam is
identified (Example Problem 9.1.2).
Another example is the well draw-down problem, where the phreatic
surface of an aquifer must be located, based on pumping rates at
particular well locations.
The basic approach takes advantage of the Abaqus capability to perform
partially and fully saturated analysis:
The phreatic surface is located at the boundary of the fully saturated
part of the model.
This approach has the advantage that the capillary zone, just above the
phreatic surface, is also identified.
L5.79
In a typical dam phreatic surface problem the upstream face of the dam
(surface S
1
) is exposed to water in the reservoir behind the dam.
Since Abaqus uses a total pore pressure formulation, the pore
pressure on this face must be prescribed to be
Likewise, on the downstream face of the dam (surface S
2
),
( )
1 w w
u H z g = .
( )
2 w w
u H z g = .
Typical dam phreatic surface problem
Impermeable material
L5.80
The bottom of the dam (surface S
3
) is assumed to rest on an
impermeable foundation.
This is the natural boundary condition in the pore fluid flow
formulation, so no further specification is needed on this surface.
Typical dam phreatic surface problem
L5.81
The phreatic surface in the dam, S
4
, is found as the locus of points at
which the pore fluid pressure, u
w
, is zero.
Above this surface the pore fluid pressure is negative, representing
capillary tension causing the fluid to rise against the gravitational
force and thus creating a capillary zone.
The saturation associated with particular values of capillary
pressure is given by the absorption/exsorption curves.
Typical earth dam
L5.82
A special boundary condition is needed if the phreatic surface reaches
an open, freely draining surface, as indicated on surface S
5
.
In such a case the pore fluid can drain freely down the face of the
dam, so u
w
=0 at all points on this surface below its intersection
with the phreatic surface.
Above this point u
w
<0, with its particular value depending on the
solution.
Typical earth dam
L5.83
The particular earth dam considered here is filled to two-thirds of its
height, and only a part of its base is impermeable.
We consider fluid flow only: deformation is ignored.
An analytical solution is available for comparison (Harr, 1962).
Earth dam and analytical phreatic surface
H
1
=
L5.84
This example is specifically chosen to illustrate the use of the Abaqus
drainage-only flow boundary condition.
On drainage-only edges the pore fluid pressure, u
w
, is constrained by a
penalty method to be less than or equal to zero, thus enforcing the
proper drainage-only behavior.
Finite element mesh
Drainage-only
flow boundary
Impervious
( )
1 w w
u H z g =
L5.85
The weight of the water is applied with a gravity load.
A steady-state soils analysis is performed in five increments to allow
Abaqus to resolve the high degree of nonlinearity.
Examining the steady-state contours of pore pressure, we see that the
upper-right part of the dam shows negative pore pressures, indicating
that it is partially saturated or dry.
Steady-state pore pressure
L5.86
By reducing the number of pore pressure contours to two, one positive
and the other negative, the phreatic surface is shown clearly.
This surface compares well with the analytical phreatic surface
calculated by Harr (1962).
Phreatic surface
L5.87
The contours of saturation show a fully saturated region under the
phreatic surface and decreasing saturation in and above the phreatic
zone.
Saturation
Model i ng Aspec t s
Lec t ur e 6
L6.2
Over vi ew
Element Technology
Geostatic States of Stress
Infinite Domains
Pore Fluid Surface Interactions
Element Addition and Removal
Material Wear/Ablation through Adapti ve Meshing
Hydraulic Fracture
Reinforced Soil Slopes
Other Applications
El ement Tec hnol ogy
L6.4
The Abaqus geotechnical constitutive models are available for plane
strain, generalized plane strain, axisymmetric, axisymmetric-asymmetric,
and three dimensional problems.
All Drucker-Prager models are also available in plane stress, except for
the linear Drucker-Prager model with creep.
The analysis of flow through porous media in Abaqus is available for
plane strain, axisymmetric, axisymmetric-asymmetric, and three-
dimensional problems.
Special coupled displacement/pore pressure elements
must be used:
These elements have a linear distribution of pore
pressure and either a linear or quadratic
distribution of displacement.
The modified tetrahedral element C3D10MP(H) is
particularly well suited for meshing general, complex
structures in three dimensions.
The element works well in contact interactions.
L6.5
Cylindrical (CCL...) elements are available for
modeling structures that are initially circular but
are subjected to general, nonaxisymmetric
loading.
An example is the analysis of a pile foundation
where the pile is subjected to axial, horizontal,
and moment loading.
These elements permit a coarse yet accurate
discretization of a structure.
They can be used in contact calculations using
the standard surface-based contact modeling
approach.
They provide an attractive alternative to
axisymmetric-asymmetric (CAXA...) family of
elements.
These elements are not available for the
analysis of flow through porous media.
These elements are not currently supported by
Abaqus/CAE.
Concrete Slump Test
Benchmark 1.1.10
Geost at i c St at es of St r ess
L6.7
In most geotechnical problems a nonzero state of stress exists in the
medium.
This typically consists of a vertical stress increasing linearly with depth,
equilibrated by the weight of the material, and horizontal stresses caused by
tectonic effects.
The active loading is applied on this initial stress state.
Active loading could be the load on a foundation or the removal of material
during an excavation.
Except for purely linear analyses, the response of the system will be
different for different initial stress states.
This illustrates a point of nonlinear analysis:
The response of a system to external loading depends on the state of
the system when that loading sequence begins (and, by extension, to
the sequence of loading).
The linear analysis concept of superposing load cases does not apply.
L6.8
Abaqus provides the geostatic procedure to allow the
user to establish the initial stress state.
The user will normally specify the initial effective
stresses as model data and, in the first step of
analysis, apply the body (gravity) loads
corresponding to the weight of the material.
The *INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=STRESS,
GEOSTATIC option allows for the definition of the
initial stresses due to the geostatic loading.
This option is not currently supported by
Abaqus/CAE.
Use the Keywords Editor to include it in your
model.
The *GEOSTATIC procedure option is used for this
first analysis step in which the geostatic loading is
applied.
L6.9
Ideally, the geostatic loads and initial stresses should exactly equilibrate
and produce zero deformations.
However, in complex problems it may be difficult to specify initial
stresses and loads that exactly equilibrate.
The geostatic procedure is used to reestablish initial equilibrium if the
loads and initial stresses specified are not in equilibrium.
It will produce deformations while doing this.
If the deformations produced are significant compared to the
deformations caused by subsequent loading, the definition of the
initial state should be reexamined.
L6.10
In a coupled deformation/flow analysis, the geostatic procedure is
equivalent to the steady-state soils analysis procedure.
In these problems it is important to establish initial stress equilibrium as well
as steady-state flow conditions.
In fully or partially saturated flow problems, the initial void ratio, as well as
the initial pore pressure and the initial effective stress, must be defined.
The initial conditions discussion that follows is based on the total pore
pressure formulation.
The magnitude and direction of the
gravitational loading are defined by
using the GRAV DLOAD option.
In the following discussion the z-axis
points vertically upward.
L6.11
Assume that, in the geostatic state, the pore fluid is in hydrostatic
equilibrium so that
where
w
is the specific weight of the pore fluid.
If we also take
w
to be independent of z (which is usually the case,
since the fluid is almost incompressible), this equation can be integrated:
where is the height of the phreatic surface, at which u =0and above
which u <0and the pore fluid is only partially saturated.
w
w
du
dz
= ,
( )
0
w w
u z z = ,
0
w
z
L6.12
We usually assume that there are no significant shear stresses
xz
,
yz
.
Then vertical equilibrium gives
where is the dry density of the porous solid material, g is the gravitational
acceleration, n
0
is the initial porosity, and s is the saturation (0.0 s 1.0).
The INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=STRESS, GEOSTATIC option defines
the initial value of the effective stress, , as
Combining this definition with the equilibrium statement in the z-direction and
hydrostatic equilibrium in the pore fluid gives
using the assumption that
w
is independent of z.
0 zz
w
d
g sn
dz
= + ,
su = + I.
( ) ( )
0 0
1
zz
w w
d ds
g s n z z
dz dz

=

,
L6.13
In many cases s is constant.
For example, in fully saturated flow s =1.0 everywhere.
If we further assume that the initial porosity, n
0
, and the dry density of the
porous medium, , are also constant, the previous equation is readily
integrated to give
where z
0
is the position of the surface of the medium.
In more complicated cases where s, n
0
, and/or vary with height, the
equation must be integrated in the vertical direction to define the initial
values of
( ) ( )( )
0 0 0
1
zz w w
g z z s n z z = ,
( )
zz
z .
L6.14
In partially saturated cases the initial pore pressure and saturation
values must lie on or between the absorption and exsorption curves.
In many geotechnical applications there is also horizontal stress.
If the pore fluid is under hydrostatic equilibrium and ,
equilibrium in the horizontal directions requires that the horizontal
components of effective stress do not vary with horizontal position:
i.e., only, where is any horizontal component of effective
stress.
0
xz yz
= =
( )
h
z
h

L6.15
The horizontal stress is typically assumed to be a fraction of the vertical
stress:
Those fractions are defined in the x- and y-directions with the
INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=STRESS, GEOSTATIC option.
If the horizontal stress is nonzero, the boundary conditions on any
nonhorizontal edges of the finite element model must be fixed in the
horizontal direction or infinite elements must be used so that
horizontal equilibrium is maintained.
L6.16
Partially Saturated Example: Desaturation of Soil Column
(Transient)
This example demonstrates the Abaqus capability to solve
coupled fluid flow problems in partially saturated porous
media where the effects of gravity are important
(Benchmark Problem 1.8.4).
We compare Abaqus results with the experimental work of
Liakopoulos (1965).
The Liakopoulos experiment consists of the drainage
of water from a vertical column of sand.
A column is filled with sand and instrumented to
measure the moisture pressure through its height.
Soil column mesh
L6.17
Prior to the start of the experiment the column of sand is saturated:
Water is added continually at the top and allowed to drain freely at
the bottom.
The flow is regulated until zero pore pressure readings are obtained
throughout the column.
At this point flow is stopped and the experiment starts:
The top of the column is made impermeable and the water is
allowed to drain out of the column under gravity.
Pore pressures are measured.
We investigate two cases:
1. An uncoupled flow problem, in which the column is not allowed to
deform.
2. A coupled problem, in which vertical deformation of the sand is
considered.
L6.18
The sand column material definition:
ELASTIC
1.3E3, 0.
*DENSITY
1.5,
*POROUS BULK MODULI
, 2.E6
*PERMEABILITY,
SPECIFIC=10.
4.5E-6,
*PERMEABILITY,
TYPE=SATURATION
0.666666,.85
1.,1.
*SORPTION
-100.,.8
-10.,.85
...
*SORPTION,TYPE=EXSORPTION
-100.,.8
-10.,.85
...
Absorption/exsorption curve
-
-
-
L6.19
The soil column is meshed with pore pressure
plane strain elements (CPE8RP).
These elements are included in a rigid body for
the rigid column analysis.
Initial conditions are used to define the initial fully
saturated state, the initial pore pressure of zero,
and the initial void ratio of 0.4235.
The deformable model has an additional initial
condition to define the initial geostatic stress state.
Initial vertical stress
(deformable model)
L6.20
Gravity loading is applied to the column at the start of the analysis history.
In the case of the deforming column, an initial geostatic analysis step is
performed to establish the initial equilibrium state.
The initial conditions exactly balance the weight of the fluid and dry
material so that no deformation takes place.
Zero pore pressure boundary conditions enforce the initial steady state
of fluid flow.
*STEP,INC=1
*GEOSTATIC
1.E-6,1.E-6
*DLOAD
All_Elements,GRAV,10.,0.,-1.,0.
*BOUNDARY
POR_Corner_Nodes,8,,0.
L6.21
Deformable
Rigid
The fluid is allowed to drain through the
bottom of the columnby prescribing
zero pore pressures at these nodes
during a soils consolidation step.
The fluid will drain until the pressure
gradient is equal to the weight of the
fluid, at which time equilibrium is
established.
The transient analysis is performed
using automatic time
incrementation.
The pore pressure tolerance that
controls the automatic
incrementation (UTOL) is set to a
large value since we expect the
nonlinearity of the material to
restrict the time increment size.
Final pore pressure
Rigid Deformable
L6.22
Deformable column Rigid column
Pore pressure profiles
Numerical vs. experimental results
L6.23
The pore pressure results of the coupled analysis are closer to the
experiment than those of the uncoupled analysis.
The uncoupled analysis overestimates the pore pressures in the
early stages of the transient.
This suggests that the coupled analysis is a better approximation of
reality (as expected).
At steady state, the pore pressure gradient equals the fluid weight
density (as required by Darcy's law).
L6.24
As the transient analysis progresses, the material deformation slows and
therefore the rigid column assumption becomes closer to reality.
As steady state is approached, both numerical solutions are in good
agreement with the experiment.
A
B
C
D
E
F
A
B
C
D
E
F
Displacement histories (deformable column)
L6.25
The time histories of the volume of fluid lost through the bottom of the
column are shown for both the deformable and rigid columns.
As expected, more fluid is lost in the deforming column case.
Fluid volume lost (deformable and rigid columns)
I nf i ni t e Domai ns
L6.27
Infinite elements (CIN) are used in conjunction with the standard
elements in problems invol ving infinite or very large domains.
A family of axisymmetric, planar, and three-dimensional infinite elements
is available.
Axisymmetric
solid infinite elements
Plane stress and plane strain
solid infinite elements
L6.28
Three-dimensional solid infinite elements
L6.29
Standard finite elements are used to model the region of interest, with
the infinite elements modeling the far-field region.
The solution in the far field is assumed to be linear, so only linear
behavior is provided in the infinite elements.
L6.30
It is important to make an appropriate
choice of the position of the nodes in
the infinite direction with respect to the
origin ( pole ) of the far-field solution.
For example, the solution for a point
load applied to the boundary of a half-
space has its pole at the point of
application of the load.
The second node along each infinite
element edge pointing in the infinite
direction must be positioned so that it
is twice as far from the pole as the
node on the same edge at the
boundary between the finite and the
infinite elements.
Pole
L6.31
Be careful when specifying the second nodes in the infinite direction so
that the element edges in the infinite direction do not cross over.
Infinite elements are not currently supported by Abaqus/CAE.
If you want to assign these element types to a model, you must use
a text editor to add them to the input file generated in the J ob
module.
L6.32
The NCOPY, POLE option provides a convenient way of defining the
second nodes in the infinite direction.
NCOPY, POLE option
Pole
node
old set new set
L6.33
The static behavior of the infinite elements is based on modeling the basic
solution variable, u (in stress analysis u is a displacement component),
with respect to spatial distance r measured from a pole of the solution
so that: as , and as
The interpolation provides terms of order and The far-field
behavior of many common cases, such as a point load on a half-space, is
thereby included.
0 u r u 0. r
1r
2
1 r .
Pole
0 u
r
u
0 r
r
L6.34
In plane stress and plane strain problems in which the loading is not self-
equilibrating, the far-field displacement solution is typically of the form
This implies the displacement approaches infinity as
Infinite elements can still be used for such cases, provided the displacement
results are treated as having an arbitrary reference value.
Thus, strain, stress, and relative displacements within the finite element
part of the model will converge to unique values as the model is refined.
The total displacements will depend on the size of the region modeled
with finite elements.
If the loading is self-equilibrating, the total displacements will converge on a
unique solution.
( ) ln u r = .
r .
L6.35
In direct integration dynamic response analysis and in direct-solution
steady-state harmonic response analysis, infinite elements provide
quiet boundaries to the finite element model.
This means that they maintain the static force that was present at the
start of the dynamic response analysis on the finite/infinite boundary.
As a consequence the far-field nodes in the infinite elements will not
displace during the dynamic response (there is no dynamic
response within the infinite elements).
Since infinite elements hold the static stress on the boundary
constant but do not provide any stiffness, some rigid body motion of
the region modeled will generally occur.
This effect is usually small.
The infinite elements will provide additional normal and shear tractions
on the boundary, proportional to the normal and shear components of
the velocity of the boundary.
L6.36
Damping is applied at the boundary between finite and infinite elements
to eliminate the reflection of wave energy back into the finite element
mesh when plane waves cross the plane boundary:
Infinite elements do not provide any contribution to eigenmode-based
analysis procedures.
Infinite elements Finite elements
Plane waves do not
reflect at the boundary
L6.37
For dynamic analyses the mesh should be defined such that transmission
of energy from the finite elements to the infinite elements is optimized.
Infinite elements are based on eliminating energy transmission for
plane waves crossing a parallel plane boundary.
Therefore, the ability of the elements to transmit energy out of the
finite element mesh without trapping or reflecting it is optimized by
making the finite/infinite boundary:
as close as possible to being orthogonal to the direction from
which the waves will impinge on this boundary
and far enough from the detailed part of the mesh to be
considered relatively plane.
Close to a free surface where Rayleigh waves may be important,
infinite elements are most effective if they are orthogonal to the free
surface.
Similarly, close to a material interface where Love waves may be
important, infinite elements are most effective if they are orthogonal to
the interface surface.
L6.38
Example: Wave propagation in an infinite medium.
This example shows the effectiveness of the infinite element quiet boundary
formulation in a wave propagation problem (Benchmark Problem2.2.1).
The analysis is of a infinite half-space subjected to vertical pulse distributed
load.
Elastic material
without damping:
E =73 GPa
v = 0.33
= 2842 kg/m
3
Load
Amplitude
L6.39
The results using three different plane strain meshes will be compared:
The finite element meshes are assumed to have free boundaries at the
far field and will reflect the propagating waves.
Results obtained using the small mesh without the infinite element quiet
boundaries are given to show how the solution is affected by the reflection
of the propagating waves.
small finite element mesh
including infinite element
quiet boundaries
extended finite element mesh
small finite
element mesh
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
6 mm
2 mm
2 mm 2 mm
L6.40
Based on the material properties, the speed of propagation of push
waves in the material is approximately 6169 m/s and the speed of
propagation of shear waves is approximately 3107 m/s.
The predominant push waves should reach the boundary of the small
mesh in 0.324 s and reach the boundary of the extended mesh in
0.97 s. The analyses are run for 1.5 s, so the waves are allowed to
reflect into the meshes.
The following results show that:
Initially, all three meshes give very similar results.
The small finite element mesh response is very different as soon as
the waves have had time to reflect.
L6.41
Vertical displacement (m) at points A, B, and C.
A
B
C
Point A Point B Point C
Small mesh
Quiet
Boundary
Extended
Mesh
Small mesh
Quiet
Boundary
Extended
Mesh
Small mesh
Quiet
Boundary
Extended
Mesh
L6.42
Velocity at 0.32 s
Abaqus/Standard models
Por e Fl ui d Sur f ac e I nt er ac t i ons
L6.44
The standard contact options offered in Abaqus for stress
analysis can be used for geotechnical applications.
Contact theory and usage are discussed further in the "Contact in
Abaqus/Standard" lecture notes.
During an analysis of porous media, contact interactions may invol ve
fluid flowing across contact surfaces.
Two configurations are possible:
Pore pressure continuum elements on either side of the interface.
In this case pore pressure continuity between material on
opposite sides of an interface must be maintained.
Pore pressure elements on one side and regularelements on the
other.
This models fluid interaction with an impermeable surface.
L6.45
The flow pattern is shown below:
It is assumed that no fluid flow takes place tangential to the contact
surface.
In steady-state analysis this implies that fluid that flows out of one
side flows into the other side.
In transient analysis the flow into the interface is balanced with the
rate of separation of the sides of the interface.
L6.46
Pore pressure is continuous across the interface, whether the element is
open or closed.
The contact condition is based on effective stress.
Hence, contact points may open as the pore pressure increases.
The total stress is constant and the effective stress decreases
due to the pore pressure increase.
In a consolidation analysis, fluid volume between the surfaces is taken
into consideration by balancing the flow from each surface.
The fluid in the interface is assumed to be incompressible.
L6.47
Example: Contact between two permeable rings.
Two axisymmetric,
linear elastic rings with
permeability of
1.0 10
4
m/s are in
contact.
The transient analysis is
performed in two steps:
Step 1: Apply pressure
and pore fluid velocities.
Step 2: Slide the outer
ring in the vertical
direction.
Pore pressure continuity is
maintained across the
contact interface.
Pressure:
100 Pa
Pore pressure at the end of Step 1.
Pore fluid
velocity:
110
4
m/s
Pore fluid
velocity:
110
4
m/s
L6.48
Example: Pile Setup
Pile set-up is the time-dependent increase
in pile pull-out resistance of driven piles.
Occurs as the remolded soil surrounding
the pile consolidates.
Pore pressure in the soil surrounding
the pile gets increased as the pile is
driven.
This pore pressure dissipates with
time and the effective stress
increases.
Increase in the radial effective stress
increases the frictional resistance
against pile pull-out.
Reliable estimates of pile set-up may help
in reducing design pile sections.
L6.49
Pile Set-up analysis:
Pore pressure in the soil surrounding the pile decreases with time.
Pore pressure after 10 seconds Pore pressure after 6.9 days
L6.50
Radial effective stress after 10 seconds Radial effective stress after 6.9 days
Pile Set-up analysis:
Radial effective stress in the soil surrounding the pile increases with
time.
L6.51
Pull-out resistance after 10 seconds Pull-out resistance after 6.9 days
Radial compressive effective
stress increases with time
Frictional pull-out resistance
of pile increases with time
El ement Addi t i on and Removal
L6.53
Many geotechnical applications invol ve a sequence of steps; in each of
these, some material is removed or added.
Examples: excavation, embankment building, and tunneling.
During the analysis some part of the material mass is removed.
Liners or retaining walls may be inserted during the process.
Thus, geotechnical problems offer an interesting perspecti ve on the need
for generality in creating and using a finite element model:
The model itself, and not just its response, changes with time.
Parts of the original model disappear, while other components that were
not originally present are added.
Excavation of a trench with lining.
L6.54
The MODEL CHANGE option allows for the removal and addition of
elements during the analysis history.
This option is not currently supported by Abaqus/CAE.
Use the Keywords Editor to include it in your model.
To ensure that element removal has a smooth effect on the solution,
elements are removed gradually during the removal step.
During the removal step, forces on neighboring elements due to stresses
in the removed elements are ramped down to zero.
Since the influence of the removed elements is not completely absent
until the end of the step, the removal should be done in a step were all
other loads and boundary conditions remain unchanged.
L6.55
Elements can be reacti vated either with or without strain.
Use MODEL CHANGE, ADD=STRAIN FREE to reactivate elements
without strain.
For example, when simulating the addition of a new, strain-free
layer to a strained construction.
Upon reactivation element variables (stress, strain, plastic strain,
etc.) are reset to zero.
Use MODEL CHANGE, ADD=WITH STRAIN to reactivate elements
with strain.
For example, when simulating the refueling of a nuclear reactor,
where the new fuel assembly must conform to the distortion of its
old neighbors.
Upon reactivation the strain is ramped from zero up to the required
value; hence, reactivation with strain should be done in its own step.
L6.56
Loads that are applied in an area where elements are removed or
reacti vated require special consideration.
Any distributed loads, fluxes, flows, and foundations specified for
inactive elements are also inactive. A record of these loads is still kept.
Continuation of loads across steps is not affected by removal.
On reactivation, these loads are still present, unless they are
explicitly removed.
Concentrated loads or fluxes are not inactivated when surrounding
elements are removed.
You must remove any concentrated loads or fluxes that are carried
solely by the elements being removed.
Failure to remove such loads will result in a solver problem (a force
is applied to a degree of freedom with zero stiffness).
L6.57
It may be necessary to reintroduce removed elements with some
change to the nodal degrees of freedom.
Nodal variables (displacement, rotation, pore pressures, temperatures,
etc., depending on the element type) are not changed by the MODEL
CHANGE option.
However, you can reset these variables using a boundary condition
while the elements are inactive.
For example, to reintroduce removed elements with a different
displacement:
1. Reset the nodal displacements of the removed elements with
boundary conditions in an intermediate step.
2. Remove the boundary conditions when the elements are
reactivated.
L6.58
Excavation and Building Analysis Example: Tunneling problem
This analysis models the sequential excavation of a tunnel designed
according to the principles of the New Austrian Tunneling Method
(NATM).
The excavation is done in steps to sequentially remove the top
heading, bench, and invert parts of the tunnel.
Shotcrete is used as the initial liner according to the NATM method.
After excavation, some concrete is cast at the bottom of the tunnel.
This tunneling example was provided by Sauer Corporation.
L6.59
The plane strain model of the tunnel
cross-section to be excavated in
layered rock is shown.
A coarse mesh is used for
illustration purposes:
164 CPE4 rock and concrete
elements
15 B21 lining elements
Geostatic initial stress defined for
each rock layer:
Finite element model
Bench
Top
heading
Invert and
Concrete floor
Shotcrete liners
layer 1
layer 2
layer 3
layer 4
L6.60
The concrete and the shotcrete are modeled as linear elastic.
The rock is modeled with the modified Drucker-Prager model.

*MATERIAL, NAME=MBENCH
*ELASTIC, TYPE=ISOTROPIC
2414., .27, 0.
2414., .27, 1.
965.6, .27, 2.
965.6, .27, 8.
*DRUCKER PRAGER
54.82, 1, 54.82
.464
*DENSITY
.0247
The elastic properties are made
dependent on a predefined field
variable, so that the stiffness can be
degraded during the excavation
process.
Bench material
Elastic dependence on
temperature field
L6.61
Step 1: Remove the lining
elements and the concrete bottom
of the tunnel.
These elements must be
included in the original mesh,
but they are not in place at the
start of the operation.
Apply the gravity loads that
equilibrate the virgin stress state in
the rockthis should cause no
deformation.
Bench
Top
heading
Invert
Concrete floor and liners removed
Gravity
L6.62
Step 2: Degrade the stiffness of
the top heading of the tunnel.
*FIELD
ALNOD, 1.
Bench
Top
heading
degraded
Invert
Gravity
Deformed model shape after Step 2
scale factor 300
L6.63
Step 3: Activate (strain free) the
shotcrete lining elements for
removal of top heading.
Step 4: Excavate top heading of
the tunnel by removing the
corresponding elements.
Bench
Top
heading
lining
Invert
Gravity
Deformed model shape after Step 4
scale factor 300
L6.64
Steps 510: Repeat Steps 2-4 twice for the excavation of the bench and
invert parts of the tunnel and the addition of their respective lining.
Displacement after invert
excavation/lining
Displacement after bench
excavation/lining
Deformed shape
scale factor 300
L6.65
Step 11: Concrete is cast in place at the bottom of the tunnel.
Final displacement after concrete casting
Deformed shape
scale factor 300
Concrete floor
L6.66
Analysis of an earthen dam subjected to rapid drawdown and
earthquake excitation
Length of base =245.2 m
Height of dam =55 m from ground
L6.67
Stages in the construction of the dam:
First stage
Second stage
Third stage
Final stage
L6.68
Pore pressure distribution during the reservoir fill-up stages:
First stage of the fill-up
Second stage of the fill-up
Third stage of the fill-up
After steady-state is reached
L6.69
Pore pressure distribution after rapid drawdown:
L6.70
Response to an earthquake:
Implicit dynamic analysis performed using *DYNAMIC
Inertial effects due to pore fluid modeled using lumped mass user
elements placed at the nodes
Mass values computed using user subroutine UVARM
Potential for liquefaction assessed using
Cyclic stress ratio (CSR) and Cyclic resistance ratio (CRR)
Red contours indicate higher likelihood of liquefaction
Mat er i al Wear /Abl at i on t hr ough
Adapt i ve Meshi ng
L6.72
Mat er i al Wear /Abl at i on t hr ough Adapt i ve Meshi ng
The material wear/ablation feature in
Abaqus enables modeling of material
wear/erosion on the surface of a
body.
Surface erosion is implemented using
the adaptive meshing technique,
enabling wear to extend many
element lengths.
The wear surface defines the external
boundary of an adaptive mesh
domain.
Fluid velocity dependent
wear of a well bore
L6.73
The adaptive meshing is performed as a post-converged-increment
operation.
Lagrangian increment
Output
Converged
Mesh smoothing
Advection
L6.74
Adaptive mesh constraints define wear extent or velocity.
General descriptions of wear criteria possible through the user
subroutine UMESHMOTION.
UMESHMOTION provides access to solution variables:
Nodal
Material
Contact
A surface-normal local coordinate system is also provided.
Total volume lost due to wear/erosion is available through the output
variable, VOLC.
L6.75
Usage
Adaptive mesh options
*Adaptive mesh, elset=
*Adaptive mesh constraint, type=[velocity|displacement], User
*Adaptive mesh controls
L6.76
Usage (cont'd)
Through adaptive mesh constraints
the user describes a spatial mesh
constraint velocity or displacement.
Adaptive mesh constraints are
not supported in Abaqus/CAE,
but can be defined using the
Keywords Editor.
L6.77
Key subroutine arguments:
Local surface directions are provided.
Current mesh motion must be defined in a surface local coordinate
system.
The ratio of the suggested new time increment to the time increment
currently being used can be updated.
User subroutine interface:
subroutine umeshmotion(uref,ulocal,node,nndof,lnodetype,alocal,
* ndim,time,dtime,pnewdt,kstep,kinc,kmeshsweep,jmatyp,jgvblock,lsmooth)
c
include 'aba_param.inc'
c
dimension ulocal(ndim), jelemlist(*)
dimension alocal(ndim,*), time(2)
dimension jmatyp(*), jgvblock(*)
user coding to define ULOCAL
and, optionally, PNEWDT
return
end
L6.78
The following utility routines are also provided for access to local
solution results:
GETVRN, e.g. for local pore pressure
GETVRMAVGATNODE, e.g. for local PEEQ or FLVEL
GETNDTOELMCONN, for access to elements adjacent to nodes
L6.79
Example: Erosion of rock in a wellbore
Abaqus Example Problem 1.1.21: Erosion of material
(sand production) from oil bore hole perforation tunnel
Erosion occurs when oil is extracted under a sufficiently
high pressure gradient.
Steps performed:
Geostatic
Model change removal of well bore
and casing
Apply pore pressure boundary conditions
at the nodes on the bore well surface
Reduce pore pressure to the extraction pore
pressure level and perform a steady state analysis
Consolidation with material erosion for a time period
of four days
Bore hole
Perforation tunnel
L6.80
Results:
It is seen that the largest amount of
material is eroded near the junction of
the bore hole and the perforation
tunnel.
Further away from the bore hole
boundary the amount of erosion
progressively decreases.
This behavior is expected because
there are high strains near the
junction of the bore hole and the
perforation tunnel, and
the erosion criterion is active only
for values of the equivalent
plastic strain above a threshold
value.
Equivalent plastic strain at
the end of four days
L6.81
Results:
Total volume of sand produced (eroded) in cubic inches as a function of
analysis time in days:
Hydr aul i c Fr ac t ur e
L6.83
Hydraulic fractures are created
by pumping fluids into oil wells
at very high pressures.
Surface area exposed to the
hydrocarbon bearing rocks gets
increased.
Conductive pathways get
created for enhanced
hydrocarbon flow to the well
bore.
Oil-well productivity increases.
Production lifetime of reservoirs
gets extended.
Hydraulic fracture in a
hydrocarbon-bearing strata
L6.84
Special-purpose cohesive elements with pore pressure degrees of
freedom:
COH2D4P 6-node two-dimensional pore pressure cohesive element
COHAX4P 6-node axisymmetric pore pressure cohesive element
COH3D6P 9-node three-dimensional pore pressure cohesive element
COH3D8P 12-node three-dimensional pore pressure cohesive element
Fluid pressure on the cohesive element contributes to its mechanical
behavior.
Fluid flow continuity within the fracture gap and through the interface is
maintained.
An additional layer of flow resistance on the cohesive element surface can
be defined.
L6.85
Tangential flow within the fracture
gap can be specified as:
Newtonian flow
Power law model
Normal flow across the fracture
gap can be specified.
It represents resistance due
to caking or fouling effects.
L6.86
Tangential flow is absent by default.
Newtonian tangential flow:
Volume flow rate density vector is expressed as: q = k
t
p,
where k
t
is the tangential permeability and p is the pressure
gradient along the element.
Tangential permeability is given by Reynolds equation: k
t
= d
3
/12,
where is the fluid viscosity and d is the cohesive element opening.
An upper limit on the value of k
t
can also be specified.
L6.87
Power law tangential flow:
Constitutive relation is defined as:
where: is the shear stress,
is the shear strain rate,
K is the fluid consistency, and
is the power law coefficient.
Tangential volume flow rate density is defined as:
where d is the cohesive element opening.
K

=
1 1 2
1
2 1
1 2 2
d
p p
K

=

+

q
L6.88
Normal flow across gap surfaces:
Occurs when fluid leak-off coefficient is defined for the pore fluid.
The coefficient defines a pressure-flow relationship between the
cohesive elements middle nodes and their adjacent surface nodes.
The coefficient can be interpreted as the permeability of a finite
layer of material on the cohesive element surfaces.
Normal flows are defined as q
t
=c
t
(p
i
p
t
) and q
b
=c
b
(p
i
p
b
),
where q
t
and q
b
are the flow rates
into the top and bottom surfaces,
p
b
is the bottom surface pore pressure,
p
i
is the mid-face pore pressure, and
p
t
is the top surface pore pressure.
L6.89
Usage: Keywords interface
Tangential flow:
*GAP FLOW, TYPE=NEWTONIAN
*GAP FLOW, TYPE=POWER LAW
Normal flow:
*FLUID LEAKOFF
*FLUID LEAKOFF, USER
Requires user subroutine UFLUIDLEAKOFF
Initially open elements are defined by:
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=INITIAL GAP
L6.90
Usage: Abaqus/CAE interface
L6.91
Example
Abaqus Example Problem 9.1.5
Model dimensions:
400 m diameter
50 m thickness
Target formation is sandwiched between
two shale layers.
Rock is modeled by C3D8RP elements.
Fracture is modeled by COH3D8P pore
pressure cohesive elements.
Bore hole casing is modeled by M3D4
elements.

L6.92
Constitutive properties:
A linear Drucker-Prager model with hardening is used for the rock.
A quadratic traction-interaction failure criterion is used for modeling
damage initiation in the cohesive elements.
A mixed-mode energy-based damage evolution law is used for
modeling damage propagation.
Gap flow is specified as Newtonian with a viscosity of 1 10
6
kPa s
(1 centipoise), close to that of water.
Fluid leak-off is specified as 5.879 10
10
m
3
/(kPa s) for the early
stages. In the final stage, when the polymer is dissolved, the fluid
leak-off coefficient is increased to 1 10
3
m
3
/(kPa s).
This step-dependent fluid leak-off coefficient is set in user
subroutine UFLUIDLEAKOFF.
L6.93
Initial pore pressure, stress, and void ratio distributions are specified.
The analysis consists of 4 steps:
Geostatic step
Consolidation step wherein fluid is injected into the well under
pressure
The cohesive elements open up due to the fluid pressure and
create hydraulic fractures.
Consolidation step to allow for the built-up pore pressure to
dissipate
The fractures are prevented from closing by additional
boundary conditions in order to simulate effects due to
proppant material.
Consolidation step with a drawdown pressure applied to the well
bore nodes
Simulates production from the well
L6.94
History of the fracture opening
profile
Fracture geometry following the injection
stage (deformations 500x)
Results:
L6.95
Well yield before and after the
hydraulic fracture process
History of the fracture pore
pressure profile
Results (cont'd):
Rei nf or c ed Soi l Sl opes
L6.97
The assessment of the strength of soil slopes
and investigating the means for increasing
their safety against failure are crucial in
construction projects involving large soil
masses.
Slope stability analyses have traditionally
been performed using an analytical limit state
approach.
The soil is assumed to fail along a curved
surface
At each point along this curved surface the
soil is assumed to have fully mobilized its
maximum strength in shear
The likelihood of failure of the slope is
expressed as a factor of safety for that
particular slope
However, any presence of reinforcement or local heterogeneity necessitates
the use of numerical techniques such as FEA.
L6.98
Finite element analysis:
Advantages:
Suitable for inhomogeneous and reinforced soils
Can include a wide range of plasticity material models
Difficulties:
Convergence problems in an implicit code
A limit state is difficult to reach
Outstanding issues:
Strength reduction technique
What indicates failure?
L6.99
Key Abaqus features suitable for modeling reinforced soil slopes:
Supports a variety of constitutive models for soils, including Mohr-Coulomb,
Drucker-Prager, Cam-Clay, and Cap plasticity models
Can model contact and frictional interaction between soil and structures
Embedded elements can be used to model reinforcement structures such as
nails and ties
Ability to model transient distribution of pore fluid pressure in soils in
Abaqus/Standard
Ability to model consolidation, or the deformation in soils associated with the
redistribution of pore water and pressure, in Abaqus/Standard
In Abaqus/Explicit, ability to model the damage and removal of failed elements,
as well as the movement of dislodged regions of soil relative to the intact
regions
L6.100
Soil slope example:
Begin by excavating from a
horizontal ground level
The soil in the colored regions is
removed in sequential stages
Final slope is inclined at 55 degrees
Vertical height of 20 m
At the height of 20m, the inclination
reduces to 10 degrees.
The problem is defined as a two
dimensional plane strain analysis.
Linear Drucker-Prager model
Unreinforced slope is just stable
based on the limit state approach
L6.101
Nail configurations used in the model
L6.102
Configurations after successive excavations
L6.103
Contour Plots of Equivalent Plastic Strain (PEEQ)
L6.104
Using a Python script a local measure of safety was computed
based on how far away the current state of stress is from the yield
stress at the current pressure:
Mises
stress
Pressure
a
b
DP Yield Factor =
a
a +b
L6.105
Contour Plot of PEEQ
Contour Plot of DP Yield Factor
Unreinforced case:
L6.106
Reinforced case 3 nails:
L6.107
Reinforced case 7 nails:
L6.108
Failure modeling using
Abaqus/Explicit
Material damage
Automatic deletion of
damaged elements
New contact surfaces
created along the failure
surface
General contact used to
model the sliding of the
dislodged soil mass
L6.109
This analysis is described in detail in the following Technical Brief:
Analysis of Reinforced and Un-reinforced Soil Slopes using Abaqus
Ot her Appl i c at i ons
L6.111
Ot her Appl i c at i ons
Other applications where Abaqus geotechnical features can be
used:
Powder metallurgy
Porous elasticity
Soil plasticity models with hardening, in addition to the porous
metal plasticity model
Soft tissues and tissue-implant interaction
Fluid flow and resulting modifications in tissue properties
Coupled consolidation and contact analysis
Absorption of fluids by polymeric materials
Moisture swelling and gel swelling
Coupled consolidation analysis
St r ess Equi l i br i um and Fl ui d
Cont i nui t y Equat i ons
Appendi x 1
A1.2
To study the different couplings and nonlinearities of the coupled
problem, we can write the resulting Newton equations at a node as
where d
c
represents the vector of displacement corrections, F
r
are the
force residuals conjugate to the displacements, u
c
is the pore pressure
correction, and V
r
is the residual change in fluid volume over the time
increment conjugate to the pore pressure.
Special cases of the fully and partly saturated problems are presented in
the following sections.
A1.3
Fully saturated fluid flow
K
dd
, K
du
, K
ud
, K
uu
have the following components:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
, ,
: :
: :
: :
,
:
dd s gd
s
V
V
gd
V
du sg
V
u
dV
u dV
f dV
dV
= + +
=
=
=
= +
=
K K d L d K d
K D
L I I
K N g I
K B d K d
B I
A1.4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
2
1
: :
3
, , , ,
:
1
: :
3
:
1 : 1
:
3
1
sg
g
V
T T
ud sg c ec
T
V
T
sg
g
V
c w
V
ec w
g g
V
dV
K
t e t e
dV
dV
K
u u
dV
u d u n
dV
de K JK
n

=
= + + +
=
=

=

=

x
*
K D I
K B d K d L d k d
B I
K I D
L k* g I
x
k I D
k g I
x x
A1.5
where is the strain-displacement matrix, is the constitutive matrix, N
is the interpolator, K
g
and K
w
are the solid grains and fluid bulk moduli.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
0
0
0
2 2
, , ,
1
: :
9
1
1 1
1 : : 1
9
1
uu sg g w e
sg
g
V
g
g
V
w
w w
V
e w
g g
V
K tk e K K K t k e
u du
k dV
K dV
K
n
K dV
J K
n
K dV
J K K
u d u n
k dV
de J K K
n

= + + + +

=

=
=

=

V
d d d d
k
x x
I D I
k I D I
g
x x
D
A1.6
Special cases
To facilitate the understanding of the coupled equations, let us consider
some special cases of the transient problem without fluid gravity effects:
Linear material, small strain, incompressible grains and fluid,
constant permeability:
where K
s
is the usual stress stiffness; B, B
T
are the stress/pore
pressure coupling terms; and t k is the porous medium
permeability term. The resulting system of equations is linear and
symmetric.
A1.7
Nonlinear material, large strain, incompressible grains and fluid, nonlinear
permeability:
where is the stress stiffness term with material and geometric
nonlinearities; L(d, u) is a large volume change term; B (d) , B
T
(d) are the
stress/pore pressure coupling terms with geometric nonlinearity; t L
c
(d, e)
is a large-strain coupling term with nonlinear permeability; and t k (d, e) is
the permeability term with geometric and permeability nonlinearities. The
problem now becomes nonlinear and unsymmetric. The loss of symmetry is
due to the inclusion of finite strains.
( ) ,
s
K d
A1.8
Linear material, small strain, compressible grains and fluid, constant
permeability:
where K
s
T
are the stress/pore pressure
coupling terms; K
sg
, K
T
sg
, K
*
sg
, K
*
g
are grain compressibility terms; K
*
w
is
a fluid compressibility term; and t k is the porous medium permeability
term. The resulting system of equations is linear and symmetric.
A1.9
Nonlinear material, large strain, compressible grains and fluid, nonlinear
permeability:
where are additional nonlinear grain
compressibility terms with large-strain effects. This most general
problem is nonlinear and unsymmetric. The loss of symmetry is now due
to two reasons: finite strains and nonlinear permeability.
( ) ( ) , , , , ,
ec e
t e t k e k d d
A1.10
Consider now the steady-state problem without fluid gravity effects. In
its simplest case (linear material, small strain, incompressible grains and
fluid, constant permeability), it is only one way coupled:
The equations are clearly unsymmetric.
The steady-state problem becomes fully coupled if large strains and/or
nonlinear permeability are considered. However, the equations retain
their unsymmetric characteristic for these cases.
In Abaqus the steady-state equations are always solved directly in the
coupled form for all cases.
A1.11
The porous media coupled analysis capability can provide solutions
either in terms of total or of excess pore pressure. The excess pore
pressure at a point is the pore pressure in excess of the hydrostatic
pressure required to support the weight of pore fluid above the elevation
of the material point.
[Total pore pressure solutions are provided when the GRAV distributed
load type is used to define the gravity load on the model. Excess pore
pressure solutions are provided in all other cases (for example, when
gravity loading is defined with distributed load types BX, BY, or BZ)].
One important aspect arising from the inclusion of pore fluid gravity (in
total pore pressure analyses) is that it generates a Newton method
J acobian term that is always unsymmetric:
( )
1
: : .
gd dd
V
f dV =
K N g I K
A1.12
Partially saturated fluid flow
K
dd
, K
du
, K
ud
, K
uu
have the following components:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
, ,
: :
: :
: :
, , , ,
:
dd s gd
s
V
V
gd
V
du s sg sgs gu
V
u
dV
su dV
sf dV
u u
s dV
= + +
=
=
=
= + + + +
=
K K d L d K d
K D
L I I
K N g I
K B d B d K d K d K d
B I
A1.13
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
:
: :
3
: :
3
:
, , , ,
:
s
V
sg
g
V
sgs
g
V
gu
V
T T
ud sg c ec
T
V
ds
u dV
du
s
dV
K
u ds
dV
K du
ds
f dV
du
t e t e
s dV
=
=
=
=
= + + +
=
B I
K D I
K D I
K N g
K B d K d L d k d
B I
A1.14
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
2
2
: :
3
:
: 1
:
3
1
, , , ,
9
T
sg
g
V
c w
V
ec w
g g
V
uu sg g w s e es
V
sg
g
s
dV
K
u u
s dV
u d u s n
k dV
de K JK
n
K tk e K K K K t k e t k e
u du
k s dV
s
K
K
=

=

=

= + + + + + +

=

=
I D
g
x x
K I D
L k g I
x x
k
I
d d d d d d
k
x x
I : :
V
dV
D I
A1.15
where is the strain-displacement matrix, is the constitutive matrix,
N is the interpolator, K
g
and K
w
are the solid grains and fluid bulk
moduli.
( )
0
0
0
0
2 2
1
1 1
1
1
: : 1
9
1
g
g
V
w
w w
V
s
V
e w
g g
V
es w
s
V
n
K s dV
J K
n
K s dV
J K K
ds n
K dV
du J
u d u s n
k dV
de J K K
n
s ds u u
k dV
k du
=

=

=

* I D I
g
x x
k
k g
x x
D
A1.16
Special cases
To facilitate the understanding of the coupled equations, let us consider
some special cases of the transient problem without fluid gravity effects:
Linear material, small strain, incompressible grains and fluid, constant
permeability:
where K
s
T
are stress/pore pressure
coupling terms; B
s
is a partially saturated coupling term; t k is the
permeability term; and t k
es
, K
s
*
are partially saturated permeability
terms.
The resulting system of equations is unsymmetric.
A1.17
Nonlinear material, large strain, incompressible grains and fluid,
nonlinear permeability:
where is the stress stiffness term with material and geometric
nonlinearities; L(d,u) is a large volume change term; B(d), B
T
(d) are
coupling terms with geometric nonlinearity; B
s
(d,u) is a partially
saturated coupling term with geometric nonlinearity; t L
c
(d, e)
is a large-strain coupling term with nonlinear permeability; t k (d, e)
is the permeability term with geometric and permeability nonlinearities;
and t k
es
(d, e) , K
s
*
(d) are partially saturated permeability terms with
geometric and permeability nonlinearities.
The problem remains unsymmetric.
( ) ,
s
K d
A1.18
Linear material, small strain, compressible grains and fluid, constant
permeability:
where K
s
T
are stress/pore pressure
coupling terms; B
s
is a partially saturated coupling term; K
sg
, K
T
sg
,
K
sgs
, K
*
sg
, K
*
g
are grain compressibility terms; K
*
w
is a fluid
compressibility term; t k is the porous medium permeability term;
and t k
es
, K
s
*
are partially saturated permeability terms.
The resulting system of equations is unsymmetric.
A1.19
Nonlinear material, large strain, compressible grains and fluid, nonlinear
permeability:
where are additional nonlinear grain
compressibility terms with large-strain effects.
This most general problem is unsymmetric.
In conclusion, the transient partially saturated flow problem is always
unsymmetric.
( ) ( ) , , , , ,
ec e
t e t k e k d d
A1.20
Consider now the steady-state problem without fluid gravity effects. In its
simplest case (linear material, small strain, incompressible grains and
fluid, constant permeability) it is only one-way coupled:
The equations are unsymmetric.
The steady-state problem becomes fully coupled if large strains and/or
nonlinear permeability are considered. The equations retain their
unsymmetric characteristic for these cases.
In Abaqus the steady-state equations are always solved directly in the
coupled form for all cases.
A1.21
The porous media coupled analysis capability can provide solutions
either in terms of total or of excess pore pressure.
[Total pore pressure solutions are provided when the GRAV distributed
load type is used to define the gravity load on the model. Excess pore
pressure solutions are provided in all other cases (for example, when
gravity loading is defined with distributed load types BX, BY, or BZ)].
One important aspect arising from the inclusion of pore fluid gravity (in
total pore pressure analyses) is that it generates Newton method
J acobian terms that are always unsymmetric:
1
2
: :
:
gd dd
V
gu du
V
sf dV
ds
f dV
du
=
=
K N g I K
K N g K
in
in
Bi bl i ogr aphy of Geot ec hni c al
Ex ampl e Pr obl ems
Appendi x 2
A2.2
Ref er enc es
The following is a list of Abaqus Example and Benchmark Problems that
show the use of capabilities for geotechnical modeling:
Example problems:
1.1.6: J ointed rock slope stability
1.1.11: Stress-free element reactivation
1.1.22: Erosion of material (sand production) from oil bore hole
perforation tunnel
9.1.1: Plane strain consolidation
9.1.2: Calculation of phreatic surface in an earth dam
9.1.3: Axisymmetric simulation of an oil well
9.1.4 Analysis of a pipeline buried in soil
9.1.5 Hydraulically induced fracture in a well bore
A2.3
Ref er enc es
Benchmark problems:
1.1.10: Concrete slump test
1.8.1: Partially saturated flow in porous media
1.8.2: Demand wettability of a porous medium: coupled analysis
1.8.3: Wicking in a partially saturated porous medium
1.8.4: Desaturation in a column of porous material
1.14.1: The Terzaghi consolidation problem
1.14.2: Consolidation of triaxial test specimen
1.14.3: Finite-strain consolidation of a two-dimensional solid
1.14.4: Limit load calculations with granular materials
1.14.5: Finite deformation of an elastic-plastic granular material
A2.4
Ref er enc es
2.2.1: Wave propagation in an infinite medium
2.2.2: Infinite elements: the Boussinesq and Flamant problems
2.2.3: Infinite elements: circular load on half-space
2.2.4: Spherical cavity in an infinite medium
3.2.4: Triaxial tests on a saturated clay
3.2.5: Uniaxial tests on jointed material

Wor k shop Pr el i mi nar i es
Dassault Systmes, 2008 Preliminaries for Abaqus Workshops
Setting up the workshop directories and files
If you are taking a public seminar, the steps in the following section have already been
done for you: skip to Basic Operating System Commands, (p. WP.2). If everyone in
your group is familiar with the operating system, skip directly to the workshops.
The workshop files are included on the Abaqus release CD. If you have problems finding
the files or setting up the directories, ask your systems manager for help.
Note for systems managers: If you are setting up these directories and files for someone
else, please make sure that there are appropriate privileges on the directories and files so
that the user can write to the files and create new files in the directories.
Workshop file setup
(Note: UNIX is case-sensitive. Therefore, lowercase and uppercase letters must be typed
as they are shown or listed.)
1. Find out where the Abaqus release is installed by typing
UNIX and Windows NT: abqxxx whereami
where abqxxx is the name of the Abaqus execution procedure on your system. It
can be defined to have a different name. For example, the command for the
6.81 version might be aliased to abq681.
This command will give the full path to the directory where Abaqus is installed,
referred to here as abaqus_dir.
2. Extract all the workshop files from the course tar file by typing
UNIX: abqxxx perl abaqus_dir/samples/course_setup.pl
Windows NT: abqxxx perl abaqus_dir\samples\course_setup.pl
Note that if you have Perl and the compilers already installed on your machine,
you may simply type:
UNIX: abaqus_dir/samples/course_setup.pl
Windows NT: abaqus_dir\samples\course_setup.pl
3. The script will install the files into the current working directory. You will be
asked to verify this and to choose which files you wish to install. Choose y for
the appropriate lecture series when prompted. Once you have selected the lecture
series, type q to skip the remaining lectures and to proceed with the installation
of the chosen workshops.

WP.2
Basic operating system commands
(You can skip this section and go directly to the workshops if everyone in your group is
familiar with the operating system.)
Note: The following commands are limited to those necessary for doing the workshop
exercises.
Working with directories
1. Start in the current working directory. List the directory contents by typing
UNIX: ls
Windows NT: dir
Both subdirectories and files will be listed. On some systems the file type
(directory, executable, etc.) will be indicated by a symbol.
2. Change directories to a workshop subdirectory by typing
Both UNIX and Windows NT: cd dir_name
3. To list with a long format showing sizes, dates, and file, type
UNIX: ls -l
Windows NT: dir
4. Return to your home directory:
UNIX: cd
Windows NT: cd home-dir
List the directory contents to verify that you are back in your home directory.
5. Change to the workshop subdirectory again.
6. The * is a wildcard character and can be used to do a partial listing. For example,
list only Abaqus input files by typing
UNIX: ls *.inp
Windows NT: dir *.inp
Working with files
Use one of these files, filename.inp, to perform the following tasks:
1. Copy filename.inp to a file with the name newcopy.inp by typing
UNIX: cp filename.inp newcopy.inp
Windows NT: copy filename.inp newcopy.inp
2. Rename (or move) this new file to newname.inp by typing
UNIX: mv newcopy.inp newname.inp
Windows NT: rename newcopy.inp newname.inp
(Be careful when using cp and mv since UNIX will overwrite existing files
without warning.)

WP.3
3. Delete this file by typing
UNIX: rm newname.inp
Windows NT: erase newname.inp
4. View the contents of the files filename.inp by typing
UNIX: more filename.inp
Windows NT: type filename.inp | more
This step will scroll through the file one page at a time.

Now you are ready to start the workshops.

Wor k shop 1
Mat er i al Model s f or Geot echni c al Appl i c at i ons
I nt er ac t i ve Ver si on
Dassault Systmes, 2008 Analysis of Geotechnical Problems with Abaqus
Note: This workshop provides instructions on using geotechnical material
models in terms of the Abaqus GUI interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus
Keywords interface instead, please see the Keywords version of these
instructions.
Please complete either the Keywords or Interactive version of this
workshop.
Introduction
When you complete this workshop you will be able to:
Create stress state diagrams.
Define a number of geotechnical material models.
Use Abaqus/CAE to build simple models and view and interpret material
behavior.

Figure W11 Configuration of the model cube.

W1.2

In this workshop you will become familiar with some of the geotechnical material models
in Abaqus. You will study the behavior of the 2x2x2 m cube shown in Figure W1-1. This
cube will be subjected to uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, pure shear, hydrostatic
tension, and hydrostatic compression. Different material models will be assigned to the
cube and the response of the cube for these material models will be simulated.

Preliminaries
1. Enter the working directory for this workshop:
../geotechnical/interactive/geomaterials
2. Run the script ws_geotech_geomaterials.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_geotech_geomaterials.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named cube.cae in the current
directory. This database contains a complete model named cube. The cube material is
linear elastic with a Youngs modulus of 70 GPa and a Poissons ratio of 0.3. The faces
of the cube lying on the 1-2, 2-3, and 3-1 planes are constrained against displacements
normal to these respective planes. Prescribed displacements of 0.01 along the outward
normals to the other three faces are specified so that the cube is subjected to a state of
hydrostatic tension. This cube is meshed with one reduced integrated element as shown in
Figure W1-1. For each of the problem cases in this workshop you will copy the original
cube model and modify the applied boundary conditions and material data.

Case 1: Linear Elasticity
You will begin this workshop by running the model created by the setup script and
studying the behavior of the cube under hydrostatic tension. You will then create new
models by copying the original model and modifying the boundary conditions to subject
the cube to (a) uniaxial tension, (b) uniaxial compression, (c) hydrostatic compression,
and (d) pure shear. After the boundary conditions are modified for a model, you will run
the analysis, check for any modeling errors, and then view the results.

1. In an Abaqus/CAE session, open the database named cube.cae, which was
created by running the setup script.
2. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job named Case_1_hydro_TN
and select Submit in the menu that appears to submit the job for analysis.
Tip: If the Model Tree is not visible, make sure there is a check mark next to
Show Model Tree in the View menu. If the Model Tree is still not visible, drag
the cursor from the left side of the Abaqus/CAE window to expand the Model
Tree. Once the Model Tree is visible, expand the Jobs container by clicking the
+ symbol next to Jobs.

W1.3

3. While the job is running, click mouse button 3 on the job Case_1_hydro_TN in
the Model Tree and select Monitor from the menu that appears to view the
progress of the analysis. Check for errors and warning messages under the Errors
and Warnings tabs in the job monitor dialog box.
4. After the job has completed, click mouse button 3 on the job Case_1_hydro_TN
in the Model Tree and select Results from the menu that appears.
5. Study the analysis results in the Visualization module. Look at the deformed
shape and plot contours of the nonzero components of stress (S11, S22, and S33).
6. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the model cube and select Copy
Model from the menu that appears. Name the new model Case_1_uni_TN.
7. Modify the boundary conditions to subject the cube to uniaxial tension in the 1-
direction.
a. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the BCs container for the
model Case_1_uni_TN and select Manager from the menu that appears.
b. In Step-1, select BC-5, which is the prescribed displacement of 0.01 in the
2-direction, and click Delete. This will remove this displacement
boundary condition.
c. Similarly delete BC-6, which refers to the prescribed boundary
displacement in the 3-direction.
Removing these boundary conditions will allow free expansion or
contraction of the cube along the 2- and 3-directions. Do not delete BC-4,
which will apply the tension in the 1-direction. This model is now ready
for execution.

8. In the Model Tree, double-click on Jobs to create a new job.
9. Name the new job Case_1_uni_TN and select Case_1_uni_TN as the model
name. Click Continue. In the Edit Job dialog box, click OK to accept the default
job settings.
10. Submit the job Case_1_uni_TN for analysis and view the results
11. Similarly, create models with names Case_1_uni_CMP for uniaxial compression,
Case_1_hydro_CMP for hydrostatic compression, and Case_1_shear for pure
shear state of deformation. Modify these models as follows:
Apply a displacement of -0.01 m in BC-4 and delete BC-5 and BC-6 to
obtain uniaxial compression.
Apply displacements of -0.01 m for BC-4, BC-5, and BC-6 in order to
obtain hydrostatic compression.
A pure shear state of deformation can be obtained by removing BC-2, BC-
5, and BC-6, modifying BC-4 so that now it specifies a displacement of
0.01 m along the 2-direction, and modifying BC-1 to prescribe zero
displacement along directions 1 and 2.
12. Create and submit jobs for these models and visualize the results.

W1.4

Question W11: Plot the locus of stress points for uniaxial tension, uniaxial
compression, hydrostatic tension, hydrostatic compression,
and pure shear on the meridional plane (pressure p vs. Mises
stress q). Note: Detailed instructions are included in the
workshop answers.
Question W12: Derive the relationship between the pressure and Mises stress
for uniaxial tension. Compare with the plot in the meridional
plane.

Case 2: Drucker-Prager Plasticity
In Case 1 the material of the cube was linear elastic. In Case 2 you will add Drucker-
Prager plasticity and investigate the cubes response to uniaxial tension and compression
by performing the following steps:

1. Copy the model cube to a new model named Case_2_uni_CMP.
2. In the Model Tree branch for the model Case_2_uni_CMP, click mouse button
3 on the material Elastic and select Rename from the menu that appears.
Rename this material to Drucker-Prager.
3. Double-click the renamed material Drucker-Prager to edit the material.
4. In the Edit Material dialog box select MechanicalPlasticityDrucker-
Prager. In the respective data columns specify the angle of friction as 30.0,
flow stress ratio as 1.0 and dilation angle as 30.0. The units of the angles are in
degrees.
5. Under the Drucker-Prager options of the material editor, click Suboptions and
select Drucker-Prager Hardening from the menu that appears. Specify the yield
stress as 30.0e6 Pa at an absolute plastic strain of 0.0. This data is for perfect
plasticity as the yield stress is not dependent on the plastic strain. Select OK in
the Drucker-Prager Hardening dialog box and the Edit Material dialog box.
6. In the Model Tree, double-click Section-1 to edit the section definition. Abaqus
warns you that the sections material no longer exists. Click Dismiss to close the
warning. In the section editor, click OK to define the section with the material
Drucker-Prager.
7. Delete boundary conditions BC-4, BC-5, and BC-6.
8. In the Model Tree branch for the model Case_2_uni_CMP, double-click Loads
to create a new load. Select Pressure as the load type and click Continue.
9. Select the surface parallel to the face lying on the 2-3 plane as the surface for
applying the pressure load (as shown in Figure W1-2) and click on Done in the

W1.5

prompt area. Specify the magnitude of the pressure load as 25.0e6 Pa and click
on OK. This pressure load will subject the cube to uniaxial compression.

Figure W1-2: Selection of the surface lying parallel to the face on the 2-3
plane.

10. In the Model Tree, double-click Steps to create a new general static step named
Step-2. In the step editor click the Incrementation tab and change the initial
increment size to 0.025.
11. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the Loads container and select
Manager from the menu that appears. In Step-2 increase the magnitude of the
pressure load to 40.0e6 Pa.
12. In the Model Tree, double-click Jobs to create a new analysis job. Name the job
Case_2_uni_CMP. Submit this job.
13. The job will not complete due to some errors. After the execution is over, click
mouse button 3 on the job and select Results from the menu that appears. You
should be able to visualize results from Step-1 and Step-2 in the Visualization
module. You will find that Step-1 completed successfully, but Step-2 did not run
to completion.

Question W13: For Step-1, sketch the yield surface on the meridional plane
and plot the stress history along the loading direction. Confirm
that the stress is in equilibrium with the external load.
Question W14: Why does the job not complete Step-2?

14. Create a new model named Case_2_uni_CMP_TN by copying the model
Case_2_uni_CMP.
15. Delete the pressure load defined for the previous compression test.
In order to investigate the performance of the Drucker-Prager material model in
compression as well as tension, you will now perform a uniaxial compression
test followed by a uniaxial tension test. Use two analysis steps for this purpose.

W1.6

16. In Step-1 apply uniaxial compression by prescribing a displacement of -0.01 m
along the 1-direction on the face of the cube that is parallel to that lying on the
2-3 plane (as shown in Figure W1-2). In Step-2 change the boundary conditions
on this face so that this face now has a prescribed displacement of 0.01 m,
which will subject the cube to uniaxial tension.
17. Create a job named Case_2_uni_CMP_TN. Submit this job.

Question W15: Plot the history of direct stress (S11), the Mises stress, and the
stress locus on the meridional plane. Does the material yield at
the correct yield stress in tension and compression?

18. Plot the equivalent deviatoric plastic strain as a function of the volumetric plastic
strain.
a. Switch to the Visualization module and open the output database file
Case_2_uni_CMP_TN.odb with the read-only option toggled off in
the Open Database dialog box.
b. Run the Python script ws_geotech_dev_tensor.py. This script
computes the deviatoric and volumetric components of tensor output
variables.
c. In the Get Input dialog box, specify PE as the output variable.
d. The script results are written to the output database as field data. To
save the field data as X-Y data do the following:
i. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
ii. In the Create XY Data dialog box, select ODB field output as the
data source. Click Continue.
iii. In the Variables tabbed page of the XY Data from ODB Field
Output dialog box, choose Integration Point as the variable
position. Toggle on EQ_DEV_PE: Deviatoric, which is the
equivalent deviatoric plastic strain. Toggle on VOL_PE:
Volumetric, which is the volumetric plastic strain.
iv. In the Elements/Nodes tabbed page, click Edit Selection, and
select the element displayed in the viewport. Click Done in the
prompt area.
v. In the XY Data from ODB Field Output dialog box, click Save.
e. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
f. In the Create XY Data dialog box, choose Operate on XY data as the
source and click Continue.
g. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select combine(X,X) from the
list of operators. Select EQ_DEV_PE and click Add to Expression.
Similarly, add VOL_PE to the expression.
h. Click Plot Expression.

W1.7

Question W16: Compare these plastic strain results to a Drucker-Prager
material with a zero dilation angle. You will need to rerun the
analysis after modifying the value of the dilation angle. What
do you observe?

Case 3: Drucker-Prager with Cap Plasticity
In Case 1 the material of the cube was linear elastic and in Case 2 the material was
Drucker-Prager. In Case 3 you will modify the material of the model to Drucker-Prager
with Cap Plasticity and investigate the response of the model to uniaxial compression.
1. Create a new model by copying the model cube. Name the new model Case_3.
2. Rename material Elastic to Cap.
3. In the Model Tree, double-click Cap to edit the material. In the Edit Material
dialog box, select MechanicalPlasticityCap Plasticity. In the respective
data columns specify the material cohesion as 2.4226e7 Pa, angle of friction as
30.0, cap eccentricity as 0.1, initial yield surface position as 0.002, transition
surface radius as 0.0, and flow stress ratio as 1.0.
4. Select SuboptionsCap Hardening and specify the yield stress vs. volumetric
plastic strain according to the data in Table W1-1. Click OK in the Suboptions
Editor and the Edit Material dialog boxes.

p
b
(Pa)
vol

5.0e6 0.000
10.0e6 0.001
30.0e6 0.002
60.0e6 0.003
100.0e6 0.004
200.0e6 0.005
500.0e6 0.006

Table W11: Cap Hardening Data.

5. Edit Section-1 so that it refers to the material Cap.

Question W17: Sketch the initial yield surface and the flow potential on the
meridional plane.

W1.8

Next you will modify the model to perform a uniaxial compression test by
applying a displacement of -0.05 m along direction 1 to the face of the cube that
is parallel to the one lying on the 2-3 plane.
5. Delete boundary conditions BC-5, and BC-6. Edit BC-4 to specify the prescribed
displacement of -0.05 m along the 1-direction.
6. Create a job named Case_3 and submit it for analysis. After the job has
completed view the results.

Question W18: Plot the equivalent deviatoric plastic strain as a function of the
volumetric plastic strain. (Use the Python script
ws_geotech_dev_tensor.py as described previously.)
Compare the result with the behavior obtained with the
Drucker-Prager model in Question W16 and explain the
behavior of the Cap model.
Question W19: Sketch the updated flow potential on the meridional plane.
Question W110: Plot the stress component S11 vs. the strain component E11.
Explain the response.

Case 4: Clay Plasticity
In Case 4 you will use the Clay material model. The Clay model in Abaqus does not have
cohesion, and hence the model will first be subjected to an initial stress state of
hydrostatic compression. This will occur in Step 1 of the analysis. Subsequently, in Step
2 of the analysis, the response of the model to uniaxial compression will be investigated.
Further, in Step 3, the compression will be replaced by tension. The compression and
tension in Steps 2 and 3 will be applied through the use of appropriate prescribed
displacement boundary conditions.

1. Create a new model by copying the model cube. Name the new model Case_4.
2. Rename the material Elastic to Clay.
3. In the Model Tree, double-click Clay to edit the material. In the Edit Material
dialog box, select MechanicalPlasticityClay Plasticity. From the list of
Hardening options, choose Tabular. In the respective data columns specify the
stress ratio as 0.577 (which is tan 30 degrees), initial volumetric plastic strain as
0.002, wet yield surface size as 1.0, and flow stress ratio as 1.0.
4. Select SuboptionsClay Hardening and specify the yield stress vs. volumetric
plastic strain according to the data in Table W1-1, and click OK in the
Suboptions Editor and the Edit Material dialog boxes.
5. Edit Section-1 so that it refers to the material Clay.

W1.9

6. Delete BC-4, BC-5, and BC-6. Apply a pressure load of magnitude 30.0e6 Pa in
Step-1 to the three faces of the cube that do not have any displacement boundary
conditions applied.
7. Apply an initial hydrostatic compressive stress of 30.0e6 Pa that balances the
applied pressure load as follows:
a. From the main menu bar, select ModelEdit KeywordsCase_4.
b. In the Edit Keywords, Model: Case_4 dialog box each keyword is
displayed in its own block. The INITIAL CONDITIONS option must be
placed in the model data portion of the input file (before the STEP
option). Select the text block just before the *STEP option, and click Add
After to add an empty text block.
c. In the new text block, type the following:
*Initial Conditions, type=stress
Set-1, -30.e6, -30.e6, -30.e6, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0
d. Click OK.

7. Create a general static step named Step-2. In the step editor, select the
Incrementation tab. Change the initial increment size to 0.025. Similarly,
create Step-3 with an initial increment size of 0.025.
8. In Step-2, apply uniaxial compression relative to the initial state by prescribing a
uniform displacement of 0.05 for the displacement along 1-direction on the
face of the cube that is parallel to that lying on the 2-3 plane. In Step-3, change
the boundary conditions on this face so that this face now has a prescribed
displacement of 0.05, which will subject the cube to uniaxial tension.
9. Create a job named Case_4 and submit it for analysis. After the job has
completed view the results.

Question W111: Sketch the initial yield surface on the meridional plane.
Question W112: Plot the direct stress component S11 vs. the analysis time.
Compare the behavior in tension and compression with an
equivalent Cap model.

Note: A script that creates complete models described in these instructions
is available for your convenience. Run this script if you encounter
difficulties following the instructions outlined here or if you wish to check
your work. The script is named ws_geotech_geomaterials_answer.py
and is available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

Answer s 1

stress q).
Answer: A plot of pressure p vs. Mises stress, q, can be obtained for a
representative problem as follows:
1. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container
underneath the output database named
Case_2_uni_CMP_TN.odb.
2. From the list of available history data, click mouse button
3 on the Mises stress (SINV: MISES) variable. From the
menu that appears, select Save As and name the XY data
Mises.
3. Similarly, select the pressure (SINV: PRESS) variable.
Save the XY data as Press.
4. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
5. In the Create XY Data dialog box, choose Operate on XY
data as the source and click Continue.
6. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select
combine(X,X) from the list of operators. Select Press and
click Add to Expression. Repeat this for Mises. The final
expression is:
combine ("Press", "Mises")
7. Click Save As to save the Mises vs. Pressure data for this
model.
Repeat this procedure for all five stress states. Plot all five
Mises vs. Pressure curves in one XY plot (expand the XYData
container, select the curves, and click mouse button 3; from
the menu that appears, select Plot). Customize the plot
(double-click plot components in the viewport or use
OptionsXY Options ).

WA1.2

plane.
Answer: For uniaxial tension we have
11
=
t
and all other stress
components as zero.
Pressure p =(
11
+
22
+
33
)/3
=
t
/3
Deviatoric stress component S
11
=
t
+p
=2
t
/3
S
22
=p
S
33
=p
All other deviatoric stress components are zero.

Mises stress ={(3/2) S:S }
0.5

=
t

Thus for uniaxial tension, Mises stress is related to the
pressure by a factor of 3. The plot in the meridional plane
agrees with this relationship.
UT
Shear
UC
HC
HT

WA1.3


Answer: The Mises stress, q, has the same magnitude as the direct
stress
11
, but it is always positive, i.e. q =|
11
|.
If we apply an external pressure of 25 MPa on a face along the
global 1-direction, we find that
11
=25 MPa. As this state of
stress is uniaxial compression, we have Mises, q, as 25 MPa,
and pressure, p, as 25/3, that is, 8.333 MPa.
The yield point in compression,
c
, is 30 MPa (same as the
input value). The yield point in tension,
t
, has a lower value
than the yield point in compression. The yield stress in
tension,
t
, is related to the yield stress in compression,
c
, as
follows:

We have the yield criterion as: F =q p tan d =0
For uniaxial tension, q =
t
and pressure p =
t
/3.
For uniaxial compression, q =
c
and pressure p =
c
/3.
Substituting these values in the expression for F and
eliminating d, we get,
t
=
c
{(1(tan )/3)/(1+(tan )/3)}.
Therefore, for
c
=30 MPa and =30 degrees, we get,
t
=20.32 MPa.
The yield surface and the stress history for Step 1 can be
depicted as follows:

(20.32/3, 20.32)
Mises q
(25/3 , 25)
(10, 30)
Stress history
Yield surface
Pressure p
(0, 0)

WA1.4

Answer: The analysis fails with a numerical singularity, because the
applied load is larger than the limit (or failure) yield stress in
compression.

Question W15: Plot the history of direct stress, (S11), the Mises stress, (q),
and the stress locus on the meridional plane. Does the material
yield at the correct yield stress in tension and compression?
Answer: Yes, the material does yield at the expected stress values in
compression and tension. The yield stress in compression is 30
MPa and the yield stress in tension is 20.32 MPa, as discussed
in the answer to Question W13.
History plots of direct stress, (S11), the Mises stress, (q), and
the stress locus on the meridional plane follow:

t
=20.32 MPa
|
c
| =30.0 MPa

Mises
S11

WA1.5

Question W16: Compare these plastic strain results to a Drucker Prager
do you observe?

Answer: The volume strain is zero when the dilation angle is zero; i.e.
the material is incompressible. Hybrid elements may be
required to prevent locking.
The slope of the line in a plot of equivalent deviatoric plastic
strain vs volumetric plastic strain is the tangent of the dilation
angle. The Drucker Prager model predicts continuing dilation,
regardless of the mode of deformation. In practice, materials
show a limited amount of dilation.

20.32 MPa
Compression
Tension
30.0 MPa
In this plot the unloading
curve appears to deviate from
the loading curve only
because of the coarseness of
the incrementation.

WA1.6

meridional plane.
Answer:

Mises q
(0, 24.226)
(30, 0)
=30
o

Yield
surface
Flow
potential
Pressure p
Dilation angle = 30
Dilation angle = 0

WA1.7

Drucker Prager model in Question W16 and explain the
Answer: The Cap model exhibits a limit on the amount of dilation. The
Drucker-Prager model exhibits no dilation limit.

Answer:
Mises q
(0, 24.226)
(13, 0)
=30
o

Yield
surface
Flow
potential
Pressure p
(10, 30)

WA1.8

Answer: Yielding on the shear surface results in perfect plastic
response; i.e. the shear surface is a failure surface.

Answer:

Mises q
(30, 0)
=30
o

Critical
state line
Slope 3
Pressure p
Compression
Tension
Yield
surface

WA1.9

Answer: In the Clay model, the yielding results in softening on the dry
side, while hardening takes place on the wet side. The failure
state occurs when the stress reaches the critical state line.
The Clay model exhibits softening during tensile failure and
hardening in compressive failure. The Cap model, however,
would predict perfect plastic failure on the failure surface.
If the shear failure surface of the Cap model matches with the
critical state line of this Clay model, then the Cap model
would predict failure without any softening at a relative
uniaxial tensile stress of 14.53 MPa (the tension limit in the
figure above, that is, at S11=15.47 MPa). In the compressive
case, it will fail without any hardening at a relative uniaxial
compressive stress of 21.45 MPa (the compression limit in the
figure above, that is, at S11=51.45 MPa).

Step-1
Hydrostatic
compression

Step-2
Uniaxial
compression
Step-3
Uniaxial
tension

Wor k shop 2
Por e Fl ui d Fl ow Anal ysi s: Consol i dat i on
Note: This workshop provides instructions on using the pore fluid flow
modeling feature in Abaqus in terms of the Abaqus GUI interface. If you
wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please see the
Keywords version of these instructions.
workshop.
Introduction
Model pore fluid flow in fully saturated problems.
Specify initial conditions that equilibriate loading.
Use Abaqus/CAE to build simple models, and view and interpret the pore fluid
flow phenomenon.

In this workshop you will perform a consolidation analysis on a fully saturated model.
This problem illustrates how consolidation analyses can be performed in Abaqus by using
the available coupled stress diffusion analysis cabability.

The one-dimensional Terzaghi consolidation problem will be modeled using two
dimensional plane strain elements. In this problem a body of soil is confined by
impermeable, smooth, rigid walls on all but the top surface where perfect drainage is
possible. At the start of the analysis, a load is applied suddenly on the top surface of the
body. We wish to predict the response of the soil as a function of time after the load
application. Gravity is neglected. This problem is similar to The Terzaghi Consolidation
Problem, Section 1.14.1 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual.

The model is 50 m wide and 100 m high. The soil is considered to be elastic with a
modulus of 1.0e8 Pa, Poissons ratio of 0.3, and permeability of 0.002 m/s. The initial
spatially constant void ratio value is 1.1. The soil is considered to be fully saturated. The

W2.2
model is meshed with 10 elements through its height and 1 element across its width. The
geometrical configuration of the model is shown in Figure W2-1.

Figure W2-1: Geometrical configuration of the consolidation specimen.

Preliminaries
../geotechnical/interactive/consolidate
2. Run the script ws_geotech_consolidate.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_geotech_consolidate.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named consolidate.cae in the
current directory. The model geometry, material properties, and displacement boundary
conditions have already been created in the database in the model named consolidate.
The model consolidate does not have any pore pressure boundary conditions specified
on the exterior edges of the soil. This is the natural zero pore fluid flux boundary
condition, which represents an undrained condition. The application of the external load
will result in a build up of pore pressure in the model. You will simulate this
phenomenon in the first step of the consolidation analysis, wherein you will apply a
pressure load on the top surface of the model and not allow for any pore fluid drainage
across the whole model boundary. In the second step of the analysis you will maintain the
pressure load from the first step and allow for pore fluid drainage across the top surface
of the model.

W2.3

Initial Void Ratio
In this section you will specify an initial void ratio of 1.1 in the model as a pre-defined
initial field. You will use the keywords editor to define the initial void ratio for the entire
model (Set-1) using the *INITIAL CONDITIONS option This specification can be
achieved in CAE as follows:
1. In an Abaqus/CAE session, open the database named consolidate.cae, which
was created by running the setup script ws_geotech_consolidate.py.
2. From the main menu bar, select ModelEdit Keywordsconsolidate.
3. In the keywords editor that appears, add a new option block just before the
comment **STEP: Step-1.
4. In the new text block, type the following:
*Initial conditions, type=ratio
Set-1, 1.1, 0.0, 1.1, 100.0
5. Click OK to close the keywords editor.

Pressure loading
The first analysis step was created by the setup script. In this section you will complete
the step definition by defining the pressure load.

1. In the Model Tree, double-click Loads to create a new load.
2. Select Step-1 as the load definition step and Pressure as the load type.
3. Select the top surface in the model as the surface to which the load will be
applied, and click Done in the prompt area.
4. In the Edit Load dialog box, specify a load magnitude of 100.0 Pa and click OK.

Question W21: What will be the state of effective stress in the model when a
pressure load of 100.0 is applied on the top surface of the
model and pore fluid drainage is prevented from taking place?

W2.4
Consolidation
In this section you will create the second step with a total step time of 10.0. In this step
you will allow for pore fluid drainage across the top boundary by specifying appropriate
pore pressure boundary conditions on the top surface. You also need to specify an
appropriate value for UTOL, which is a parameter that governs the accuracy of the time
integration for the transient consolidation analysis.

Question W22: Determine an appropriate value for UTOL.

The element size and the time increment size are related to the extent that time
increments smaller than a certain size give no useful information. This coupling of the
spatial and temporal approximations is most obvious at the start of diffusion problems,
immediately after prescribed changes in the boundary values.

Question W23: Using the time-space criterion described in Lecture 5,
determine the initial time increment size to avoid overshoot in
the initial solution.

The values of UTOL and the initial time increment size will be specified as data for the
second step of the analysis and the analysis.

1. In the Model Tree, double-click Steps to create a new step. In the Create Step
dialog box that appears, accept Soils as the procedure and click Continue.
2. In the Step editor, specify a time period of 10.0 and toggle off the Include
creep/swelling/viscoelastic behavior option.
3. Select the Incrementation tab and specify the initial time increment size at the
appropriate location. Specify the value of the Max. pore pressure change per
increment (UTOL). Click OK.
4. In the Model Tree, double-click BCs to create a new boundary condition.
5. In the Create Boundary dialog box, select Step-2 as the boundary condition
definition step, Other as the Category, and Pore pressure as the boundary
condition type.
6. Select the top surface of the model as the region for the new boundary condition,
and click Done in the prompt area.
7. In the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box specify a pore pressure of 0.0. This
specification will lead to a constant zero pore pressure on the top surface and
allow for pore fluid drainage across this boundary.
8. Click OK in the Edit Boundary Condition dialog box.

W2.5

Visualizing the results
The model definition is now complete. In this section you will run the analysis and study
the results.
1. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job consolidate and select
Submit from the menu that appears.
2. After the job completes, click mouse button 3 on the job consolidate and select
Results from the menu that appears. Abaqus switches to the Visualization
module and opens the output database file consolidate.odb.

Question W24: Plot the pore pressure and vertical stress along the vertical
edge at different times during the analysis.
Question W25: Plot the pore pressure and vertical stress as a function of time
at the bottom of the specimen.

Note: A script that creates the complete model described in these
instructions is available for your convenience. Run this script if you
encounter difficulties following the instructions outlined here or if you wish
to check your work. The script is named
ws_geotech_consolidate_answer.py and is available using the Abaqus
fetch utility.

Answer s 2

pressure load of 100.0 Pa is applied on the top surface of the
Answer: A stress state with a uniform pore pressure equal to the
external load throughout the body with no effective stress
carried by the soil skeleton is obtained. The fluid carries the
instantaneous load.

Answer: UTOL which is one order of magnitude less than the applied
pressure should give moderate accuracy.

Answer: The initial time increment can be computed as follows:
t {
w
/(6Ek)}(h)
2

We have h = 10 m, E = 10
8
Pa, k = 210
-4
m/s,
w
=1.0
N/m
3
. Hence,

t 0.00083 s.

Answer: A path needs to be created in the Visualization module so that
results along this path can be plotted. The path creation and

WA2.2

plotting of X-Y results along this path can be accomplished as
follows:
1. In the Results Tree, double-click Paths.
2. In the Create Path dialog box, select Node list and click
Continue.
3. In the Edit Node List Path dialog box, click Add After.
4. In the viewport, select all consecutive nodes on one
vertical edge from the bottom to the top. Click Done in the
prompt area.
5. The selected nodes are listed in the Edit Node List Path
dialog box. Click OK to complete the path definition.
7. In the Create XY Data dialog box, select Path and click
Continue.
8. In the XY Data from Path dialog box, select the frame and
the field output variable by clicking Step/Frame and Field
Output respectively. Plot and save stress (S22) and pore
pressure (POR) X-Y data for a few frames.
9. Expand the XYData container.
10. Select the saved data names and click mouse button 3;
from the menu that appears, select Plot. A combined X-Y
plot for the selected curves will be displayed.

The plots indicate that the pore pressure decreases and the
values of S22 increase over time. The pore pressure values are
almost zero after about t=1.25.

WA2.3

t = 0.001
t = 0.022
t = 0.251
t = 1.248
t = 0.022
t = 0.251
t = 1.248
t = 0.001

WA2.4

Answer: The pore pressure and stress results were written to the output
database as history data during the analysis. This data is
accessible from the History Output dialog box (Result
History Output). To plot the stress magnitude you must save
the history data and operate on it (double-click XYData, and
select Operate on XY data as the data source).
The values of POR decrease over time as the pore water
permeates away from the top surface. The values of S22
simultaneously increase in magnitude. Hence, as the
consolidation progresses, the load initially carried by the pore
fluid is transferred to the solid grains.

S22 magnitude
POR

Wor k shop 3
Por e Fl ui d Fl ow Anal ysi s: Wi ck i ng
modeling feature in Abaqus in terms of the Abaqus GUI interface. If you
wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please see the
Keywords version of these instructions.
workshop.
Introduction
Model pore fluid flow in partially saturated problems.
Use Abaqus/CAE to build simple models, and view and interpret the pore fluid
flow phenomenon.

In this workshop you will perform a pore fluid absorption analysis on a partially saturated
specimen. This problem illustrates how pore fluid absorption analyses can be performed
in Abaqus using the available coupled stress diffusion analysis cabability.
We consider a one-dimensional wicking test where the absorption of fluid takes place
against the gravity load caused by the weight of the fluid. In this test the fluid is made
available at the bottom of a partially saturated material column, and the material absorbs
as much fluid as the weight of the rising fluid permits. The column of material is
kinematically constrained in the horizontal direction so that all material deformations will
be in the vertical direction. In this sense the problem is one-dimensional. The geometrical
configuration of the model is shown in Figure W31.

W3.2

Figure W31 Geometrical configuration of the wicking model.

Preliminaries

../geotechnical/interactive/wicking
2. Run the script ws_geotech_wicking.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_geotech_wicking.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named wicking.cae in the
current directory. The model geometry, material properties, and loading history have
already been created in the database in the model named wicking.
The units used for the material data in the database are in terms of metric tonnes, meters
(m), and seconds (s), and therefore the force will be in kiloNewtons (kN) and stress in
kiloPascals (kPa). The column of material is 1.0 m high and 0.1 m wide. It is meshed
with 10 plane strain elements with displacement and pore pressure degrees of freedom at
the nodes (CPE4P). For the mechanical properties we assume that the material is elastic

W3.3

with a Young's modulus of 50000 Pa and a Poisson's ratio of 0.0. The dry mass density of
the material is 100 kg/m
3
.
The permeability of the fully saturated material is 3.7 10
4
m/sec. We assume that the
permeability varies as a cubic function of saturation, which is the default setting for
partially saturated permeability.
The specific weight of the fluid (water) is 10
4
N/m
3
and the bulk modulus is 2 GPa. The
capillary action in the porous medium is defined by absorption/exsorption curves shown
in Figure W32. These curves give the (negative) pore pressure versus saturation
relationships for the absorption and exsorption behaviors. The transition between
absorption and exsorption and vice-versa takes place along a scanning slope which in this
example is set by default to be 1.05 times the largest slope of any branch in the
absorption/exsorption curves.

Figure W32 Absorption and exsorption curves for the model material.

W3.4

Initial conditions
The initial condition for saturation is 5% and the initial void ratio is 5.0 throughout the
column.
The initial conditions for the pore pressure must have a gradient that is equal to the
specific weight of the fluid so that, according to Darcy's law, there is no initial flow. For
this purpose we assume the initial pore pressures vary linearly from 12000 Pa at the
bottom of the column to 22000 Pa at the top of the column. These initial conditions
satisfy the pore pressure/saturation relationship in the sense that they are between the
absorption and exsorption curves.

Question W31: Determine the vertical coordinate of the phreatic surface.

The initial conditions for the effective stress are calculated from the densities of the dry
material and the fluid, the initial saturation, the void ratio, and the initial pore pressures
using equilibrium considerations and the effective stress principle. It is important to
specify the correct initial conditions for this type of problem; otherwise, the system may
be so far out of equilibrium initially that it may fail to start because converged solutions
cannot be found.

Question W32: Determine the initial conditions for the effective stress.

The initial conditions for the pore pressure, effective stress, saturation, and void ratio
must be specified as input data for the analysis. Perform the following procedures to
incorporate these data into the model database:

1. In an Abaqus/CAE session, open the database named wicking.cae, which was
created by running the setup script ws_geotech_wicking.py.
2. From the main menu bar, select ModelEdit Keywordswicking.
3. In the keywords editor that appears, add a new option block just before the
comment **STEP: Step-1.
4. In the new option block, type the following with the appropriate values for the
quantities in italics (Recall that the model is defined in terms of metric tonnes,
meters, and seconds):

*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=SATURATION
Set-1,.05
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=PORE PRESSURE
Set-1, pore press. at elevation 1.0, 1.0, pore press. at elevation 0.0, 0.0

W3.5

*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=RATIO
Set-1,5.
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=STRESS,GEOSTATIC
Set-1, stress at elevation 1.0, 1.0, stress at elevation 0.0, 0.0, 0., 0.

5. Click OK to close the keywords editor.

Analysis and results
The analysis will be performed in two steps. The first step is a geostatic analysis step
with a short time duration. This geostatic step ensures that the model is in equilibrium at
the initiation of step 2, which models the transient wicking phenomenon. For step 2, the
convergence criterion for the ratio of the largest solution correction to the largest
corresponding incremental solution value has been increased from the default value of
0.01 to a value of 1.0. This increase helps in obtaining convergence in the early stages of
the analysis wherein the rate of change of saturation and pore pressure is large at the
bottom of the wicking column. Steps 1 and 2 are already included in the model wicking.
In this section you will create and submit an analysis job. Once the job is complete, you
will study the results

1. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job wicking and select Submit
from the menu that appears.
2. After the job completes, study the results.

Question W33: Plot the vertical stress distribution, the pore pressure, and
saturation along the height of the sample at different times.

Question W34: Plot the time history of the volume of the fluid absorbed by
the column.

Note: A script that creates the complete model described in these
instructions is available for your convenience. Run this script if you
encounter difficulties following the instructions outlined here or if you wish
to check your work. The script is named ws_geotech_wicking_answer.py
and is available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

Answer s 3

Answer: The phreatic surface lies at a vertical coordinate of 1.2 m.
This value can be found by linearly extrapolating the pore
pressure distribution to obtain the vertical coordinate at which
the pore pressure is zero. The known pore pressure values are
22000 Pa, and 12000 Pa, at vertical coordinates of 1.0 m,
and 0.0 m, respectively.

Answer: The initial void ratio is spatially constant and is 5.0.
The initial saturation is spatially constant and is 0.05.
Denoting
d
as the dry weight density of the soil,
w
as the
weight density of the pore fluid, e as the void ratio, n as the
porosity, s as the saturation, z as the vertical coordinate,
z
as
the total stress, and as the effective stress, we have:
(d
z
/dz) =
d
+sn
w
, which implies,

z
= (
d
+sn
w
)(zz
0
).
For
d
=10
3
, s =0.05, n =e/(1+e) =5/6, and z
0
=1,

z
=1416.7 (z1).
Effective stress =
z
+su
w

At z =0.0, pore pressure u
w
=12.0 kPa
w
=22.0 kPa
Therefore,
At z =0.0, effective stress =2.0167 kPa

z

WA3.2

Answer: At steady state the pore pressure gradient must equal the
weight of the fluid and hence the pore pressure varies linearly
with height and saturation. Thus, points close to the bottom of
the column are fully saturated, while those at the top are still at
5% saturation.
In the following plots the stress and pore pressure values are in
kiloPascals:

t =15
t =200000
Distance from the bottom surface (m)
t =0
t =171
t =69526
t =2000

WA3.3

t =69526
t =0
t =15
t =171
t =2000
t =200000
t =0
t =15
t =171
t =2000
t =69526
t =200000

WA3.4

Question W34: Plot the time history of the volume of the fluid absorbed by the
column.

Answer: The volume of the fluid absorbed by the column will be given
by the sum of the values of the output variable RVT (reactive
fluid total volume) at all boundary nodes where the pore
pressure is prescribed. The pore pressure is prescribed at nodes
on the bottom of the column. The following plot, showing the
total RVT value in cubic meters, indicates that the rate of
increase in RVT decreases with time and the total volume of the
absorbed fluid approaches a limiting value.

Wor k shop 1
Keywor ds Ver si on
Note: This workshop provides instructions on using geotechnical material
models in terms of the Abaqus Keywords interface. If you wish to use the
Abaqus GUI interface instead, please see the Interactive version of these
instructions.
workshop.
Introduction
Create stress state diagrams.
Define a number of geotechnical material models.
Use Abaqus/Viewer to view and interpret material behavior.

Figure W11 Single element cube.

W1.2

In this workshop you will become familiar with some of the geotechnical material models
in Abaqus. You will study the behavior of the 2x2x2 m cube shown in Figure W11. This
cube will be subjected to uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, pure shear, hydrostatic
tension, and hydrostatic compression. Different material models will be assigned to the
cube and the response of the cube for these material models will be simulated.

Preliminaries
Enter the working directory for this workshop:
../geotechnical/keywords/geomaterials
This directory contains the input file geo_elastic_hydro_t.inp.
The file geo_elastic_hydro_t.inp contains the input data to analyze the response of
a cube subjected to hydrostatic tension. The cube is meshed with one reduced-integration
solid element (C3D8R) as shown in Figure W11. The cube material is linear elastic with
a Youngs modulus of 70 GPa and a Poissons ratio of 0.3. Node sets named x0, y0, z0,
x1, y1, and z1 for nodes lying on the six faces of the cube have been defined in this input
deck to help in the specification of the boundary conditions. These sets are shown in
Figure W12. Two surfaces have also been defined to help in the specification of the
loading conditions. The faces of the cube lying on the 2-3, 3-1, and 1-2 planes are
constrained against displacements normal to these respective planes using boundary
conditions applied to the node sets x0, y0, and z0, respectively. Prescribed
displacements of 0.01 m along the outward normals of the other three faces are specified
so that the cube is subjected to a state of hydrostatic tension. These prescribed
displacements are applied to the nodes in sets x1, y1, and z1. For each of the problem
cases in this workshop you will copy the original input file and modify the material data
and loading conditions.

Figure W12 Node sets.

x1
x0
y1
y0

z1
z0

W1.3

Case 1: Linear Elasticity
You will begin this workshop by executing the geo_elastic_hydro_t.inp input file
and studying the behavior of the cube under hydrostatic tension. You will then create new
input files by copying the original input file and modifying the boundary conditions to
subject the cube to (a) uniaxial tension, (b) uniaxial compression, (c) hydrostatic
compression, and (d) pure shear. After the boundary conditions are modified in an input
file, you will run the analysis, check for any modeling errors, and then view the results.
1. At the command prompt, enter the following command to submit the hydrostatic
tension analysis:
abaqus job=geo_elastic_hydro_t
2. While the job is running, you can monitor the execution of the job by reading the
message (.msg) file, the status (.sta) file, or the log (.log) file.
3. After the job has completed, enter the following command to visualize the results
in Abaqus/Viewer:
abaqus viewer odb=geo_elastic_hydro_t
4. Look at the deformed shape and plot contours of the nonzero components of
stress (S11, S22, and S33).
5. Copy the input file geo_elastic_hydro_t.inp to
geo_elastic_uni_t.inp.
6. In a text editor, modify the boundary conditions in the input file
geo_elastic_uni_t.inp to subject the cube to uniaxial tension in the 1-
direction.
a. Open geo_elastic_uni_t.inp in a text file editor and review its
contents.
b. In Step-1, remove the displacement boundary conditions applied on node
sets y1 and z1.
Removing these boundary conditions will allow free expansion or
contraction of the cube along the 2- and 3-directions. Do not delete the
boundary condition on node set x1, which will apply the tension in the
1-direction. This input file is now ready for execution.
7. Save the model and use the following command to submit it for analysis:
abaqus job=geo_elastic_uni_t
8. View the results after the job has completed.
9. Similarly, create input files named geo_elastic_uni_c.inp for uniaxial
compression, geo_elastic_hydro_c.inp for hydrostatic compression, and
geo_elastic_shear.inp for pure shear state of deformation. Modify these
input files as follows:
Modify the input file geo_elastic_uni_c.inp so that a prescribed
displacement of 0.01 m is now specified on node set x1, and delete the
boundary conditions on node sets y1 and z1 in order to obtain uniaxial
compression.

W1.4

Modify the input file geo_elastic_hydro_c.inp, by changing the
prescribed displacements at node sets x1, y1, and z1 to 0.01 m in order
to obtain hydrostatic compression.
In the input file geo_elastic_shear.inp, a pure shear state of
deformation can be obtained by removing the boundary conditions on
node sets y0, y1, and z1, modifying the boundary condition on node set
x1 so that now it specifies a displacement of 0.01 m along the 2-direction,
and modifying the boundary condition on node set x0 to prescribe zero
displacement along directions 1 and 2.
10. Execute the jobs geo_elastic_uni_c, geo_elastic_hydro_c, and
geo_elastic_shear and visualize the results.

stress q). Note: Detailed instructions are included in the
workshop answers.
plane.

Case 2: Drucker-Prager Plasticity
In Case 1 the material of the cube was linear elastic. In Case 2 you will add Drucker-
Prager plasticity and investigate the cubes response to uniaxial tension and compression
by performing the following steps:

1. Copy the input file geo_elastic_hydro_t.inp to a new file named
geo_drucker_uni_c.inp.
2. In the new input file, rename the material ELASTIC to DRUCKER-PRAGER.
Tip: You need to make this change on the *MATERIAL option and the *SOLID
SECTION option which refers to the renamed material.
3. Add the following lines after the *MATERIAL option to include Drucker-Prager
plasticity in the material model. In this plasticity definition the friction angle is
30 degrees, the ratio of flow stress in triaxial tension to flow stress in triaxial
compression is 1.0, the dilation angle is 30 degrees, and the yield stress is 30
MPa at a plastic strain of 0.0.
*DRUCKER PRAGER
30., 1., 30.
3E+07, 0.

W1.5

4. Delete the prescribed boundary conditions on node sets x1, y1, and z1 applied in
Step-1.
5. Replace the step boundary conditions with a 25 MPa uniform pressure load on
the face of the cube that is parallel to that lying on the 2-3 plane (i.e., on surface
surf_x1 shown in Figure W13):
*DSLOAD
surf_x1, P, 2.5E+07

Figure W13 Surface lying parallel to the face on the 2-3 plane.
6. After the *END STEP option, add the following lines to create a new static step
named Step-2, wherein the applied pressure load is increased to 40 MPa. The
initial time increment size for this step is 0.025.
*STEP, name=Step-2
*STATIC
0.025, 1., 1E-05, 1.
*DSLOAD
surf_x1, P, 4E+07
*ENDSTEP
7. Save the file and execute job geo_drucker_uni_c.
8. The job will not complete due to some errors. The message (.msg) file, the
status (.sta) file, and the log (.log) file will indicate that the job did not
complete. You will find that Step-1 completed successfully, but Step-2 did not
run to completion. Open the output database (.odb) file in Abaqus/Viewer in
order to visualize the results from Step-1 and Step-2.


surf_x1

W1.6

In order to investigate the performance of the Drucker-Prager material model in
compression as well as tension, you will now perform a uniaxial compression
test followed by a uniaxial tension test. Use two analysis steps for this purpose.
9. Create a new input file named geo_drucker_uni_ct.inp by copying the
input file geo_drucker_uni_c.inp.
10. Open the input file geo_drucker_uni_ct.inp in a text editor and delete the
pressure load defined in both analysis steps.
11. In Step-1 apply uniaxial compression by prescribing a displacement of 0.01 m
along the 1-direction on the face of the cube that is parallel to that lying on the 2-
3 plane. Node set x1 contains these nodes. In Step-2 change the boundary
conditions on this node set so that this face has a prescribed displacement of 0.01
m, which will subject the cube to uniaxial tension.
12. Execute job geo_drucker_uni_ct and visualize the results.
Question W15: Plot the history of direct stress (S11), the Mises stress, and the
stress locus on the meridional plane. Does the material yield at
the correct yield stress in tension and compression?
13. Plot the equivalent deviatoric plastic strain as a function of the volumetric plastic
strain.
a. In Abaqus/Viewer, open the output database file
geo_drucker_uni_ct.odb with the read-only option toggled off in the
Open Database dialog box.
b. Run the Python script ws_geotech_dev_tensor.py. This script
computes the deviatoric and volumetric components of tensor output
variables.
c. In the Get Input dialog box, specify PE as the output variable.
d. The script results are written to the output database as field data. To save
the field data as X-Y data do the following:
i. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
ii. In the Create XY Data dialog box, select ODB field output as the
data source. Click Continue.
iii. In the Variables tabbed page of the XY Data from ODB Field
Output dialog box, choose Integration Point as the variable
position. Toggle on EQ_DEV_PE: Deviatoric, which is the
equivalent deviatoric plastic strain. Toggle on VOL_PE:
Volumetric, which is the volumetric plastic strain.
iv. In the Elements/Nodes tabbed page, click Edit Selection, and
select the element displayed in the viewport. Click Done in the
prompt area.
v. In the XY Data from ODB Field Output dialog box, click Save.
e. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.

W1.7

f. In the Create XY Data dialog box, choose Operate on XY data as the
source and click Continue.
g. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select combine(X,X) from the list
of operators. Select EQ_DEV_PE and click Add to Expression.
Similarly, add VOL_PE to the expression.
h. Click Plot Expression.

do you observe?
Case 3: Drucker-Prager with Cap Plasticity
In Case 1 the material of the cube was linear elastic and in Case 2 the material also
included Drucker-Prager plasticity. In Case 3 you will modify the cube material to
Drucker-Prager with Cap Plasticity and investigate the response of the model to uniaxial
compression.

1. Create a new input file named geo_cap.inp by copying input file
geo_elastic_hydro_t.inp.
2. In the new input file, rename the material ELASTIC to CAP.
3. Add the following lines after the *MATERIAL option in order to define a Cap
plasticity model in which the material cohesion is 2.4226e7 Pa, material angle of
friction is 30 degrees, cap eccentricity parameter is 0.1, initial yield surface
position is 0.002, transition surface radius is 0.0, and flow stress ratio is 1.0:
*CAP PLASTICITY
2.4226E+07, 30., 0.1, 0.002, 0., 1.
4. Yield stress vs. volumetric plastic strain data for this material model is included
in Table W11. This cap hardening data needs to be specified in the input file.

p
b
(Pa)
vol

5.0e6 0.000
10.0e6 0.001
30.0e6 0.002
60.0e6 0.003
100.0e6 0.004
200.0e6 0.005
500.0e6 0.006
Table W11 Hardening Data.
Specify this data by adding the following lines after the *CAP PLASTICITY
option:

W1.8

*CAP HARDENING
5E+06, 0.
1E+07, 0.001
3E+07, 0.002
6E+07, 0.003
1E+08, 0.004
2E+08, 0.005
5E+08, 0.006
meridional plane.
Next you will modify the input deck in order to perform a uniaxial compression
test by applying a displacement of 0.05 m along direction 1 to the face of the
cube that is parallel to the one lying on the 2-3 plane.
5. Delete the boundary conditions on node sets y1 and z1. Edit the boundary
condition on node set x1 in order to specify a prescribed displacement of
0.05 m along the 1-direction.
6. Execute job geo_cap. After the job has completed, view the results.


Case 4: Clay Plasticity
In Case 4 you will use the Clay material model. The Clay model in Abaqus does not have
cohesion, and hence the model will first be subjected to an initial stress state of
hydrostatic compression. This will occur in Step 1 of the analysis. Subsequently, in Step
2 of the analysis, the response of the model to superimposed uniaxial compression will be
investigated. Further, in Step 3, the compression will be replaced by tension. The
compression and tension in Steps 2 and 3 will be applied through the use of appropriate
prescribed displacement boundary conditions.
1. Create a new input file named geo_clay by copying the file
geo_elastic_hydro_c.inp.
2. In the new input file, rename the material ELASTIC to CLAY.

W1.9

3. Add the following lines after the *MATERIAL option in order to include clay
plasticity with a stress ratio of 0.577 (which is tan 30 degrees), an initial
volumetric plastic strain of 0.002, a wet yield surface size of 1.0, and a flow
stress ratio of 1.0:
*CLAY PLASTICITY, HARDENING=TABULAR
, 0.577, 0.002, 1., 1.
4. The hardening data for the clay plasticity model must be specified in terms of the
hydrostatic pressure stress at yield as a function of the volumetric plastic strain.
For this model use the hardening data provided in Table W1-1. Add the
following lines after the *CLAY PLASTICITY option in order to specify this
hardening data:
*CLAY HARDENING
5E+06, 0.
1E+07, 0.001
3E+07, 0.002
6E+07, 0.003
1E+08, 0.004
2E+08, 0.005
5E+08, 0.006
The first step of this analysis involves balancing an applied hydrostatic pressure
load with the internal forces arising from the initial hydrostatic stresses, thus
ensuring equilibrium. The computed displacements in this first step will be small
if the initial conditions are appropriate for the applied loading conditions.
5. In Step-1 delete the boundary conditions on node sets x1, y1, and z1 and replace
them with a pressure load of 30.0e6 Pa. Apply the pressure load to the faces
included in the surface surf_x1y1z1 shown in Figure W14. This pressure
load will subject the cube to a state of hydrostatic compression. Replace the
Step-1 boundary conditions with the following option:
*DSLOAD
surf_x1y1z1, P, 3E+07

Figure W14 Surface surf_x1y1z1.
surf_x1y1z1

W1.10

6. Define an initial hydrostatic compressive stress of 30.0e6 Pa that balances the
applied pressure load so that the cube is close to equilibrium at the start of the
analysis. The initial stress can be applied to the element set all. Add the
following lines before the *STEP option to specify the initial hydrostatic stress:
*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=STRESS
all, -30.E6, -30.E6, -30.E6, 0., 0., 0.

In the second step you will subject this hydrostatically compressed cube to a
superimposed uniaxial compression and in the third step you will replace the
superimposed uniaxial compression with a superimposed uniaxial tension. The
uniaxial compression and uniaxial tension are applied using appropriate
displacement boundary conditions.
7. After the *END STEP option, add the following lines to create a new static step
named Step-2, wherein the superimposed compression is achieved by applying
prescribed displacements to the nodes in node set x1:
*STEP, NAME=Step-2
*STATIC
0.025, 1., 1E-05, 1.
*BOUNDARY
x1, 1, 1, -0.05
*ENDSTEP
8. After the *END STEP option for Step-2, add the following lines to create a new
static step named Step-3, wherein the superimposed tension is achieved by
applying prescribed displacements to the nodes in node set x1:
*STEP, NAME=Step-3
*STATIC
0.025, 1., 1E-05, 1.
*BOUNDARY
x1, 1, 1, 0.05
*ENDSTEP
9. Save the file and execute job geo_clay. After the job has completed view the
results.


W1.11

Note: Complete input files are available for your convenience. You may
consult these files if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input files are named
geo_elastic_uni_t.inp
geo_elastic_uni_c.inp
geo_elastic_hydro_c.inp
geo_elastic_shear.inp
geo_drucker_uni_c.inp
geo_drucker_uni_ct.inp
geo_cap.inp
geo_clay.inp
and are available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

Answer s 1
Keywor ds Ver si on

stress q).
Answer: A plot of pressure p vs. Mises stress, q, can be obtained for a
representative problem as follows:
1. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container
underneath the output database named
geo_drucker_uni_ct.odb.odb.
2. From the list of available history data, click mouse button
3 on the Mises stress (SINV: MISES) variable. From the
menu that appears, select Save As and name the XY data
Mises.
3. Similarly, select the pressure (SINV: PRESS) variable.
Save the XY data as Press.
5. In the Create XY Data dialog box, choose Operate on XY
data as the source and click Continue.
6. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select
combine(X,X) from the list of operators. Select Press and
click Add to Expression. Repeat this for Mises. The final
expression is:
combine ("Press", "Mises")
7. Click Save As to save the Mises vs. Pressure data for this
model.
Repeat this procedure for all five stress states. Plot all five
Mises vs. Pressure curves in one XY plot (expand the XYData
container, select the curves, and click mouse button 3; from
the menu that appears, select Plot). Customize the plot
(double-click plot components in the viewport or use
OptionsXY Options ).

WA1.2

plane.
Answer: For uniaxial tension we have
11
=
t
and all other stress
components as zero.
Pressure p =(
11
+
22
+
33
)/3
=
t
/3
Deviatoric stress component S
11
=
t
+p
=2
t
/3
S
22
=p
S
33
=p
All other deviatoric stress components are zero.

Mises stress ={(3/2) S:S }
0.5

=
t

Thus for uniaxial tension, Mises stress is related to the
pressure by a factor of 3. The plot in the meridional plane
agrees with this relationship.
UT
Shear
UC
HC
HT

WA1.3


Answer: The Mises stress, q, has the same magnitude as the direct
stress
11
, but it is always positive, i.e. q =|
11
|.
If we apply an external pressure of 25 MPa on a face along the
global 1-direction, we find that
11
=25 MPa. As this state of
stress is uniaxial compression, we have Mises, q, as 25 MPa,
and pressure, p, as 25/3, that is, 8.333 MPa.
The yield point in compression,
c
, is 30 MPa (same as the
input value). The yield point in tension,
t
, has a lower value
than the yield point in compression. The yield stress in
tension,
t
, is related to the yield stress in compression,
c
, as
follows:

We have the yield criterion as: F =q p tan d =0
For uniaxial tension, q =
t
and pressure p =
t
/3.
For uniaxial compression, q =
c
and pressure p =
c
/3.
Substituting these values in the expression for F and
eliminating d, we get,
t
=
c
{(1(tan )/3)/(1+(tan )/3)}.
Therefore, for
c
=30 MPa and =30 degrees, we get,
t
=20.32 MPa.
The yield surface and the stress history for Step 1 can be
depicted as follows:

(20.32/3, 20.32)
Mises q
(25/3 , 25)
(10, 30)
Stress history
Yield surface
Pressure p
(0, 0)

WA1.4

Answer: The analysis fails with a numerical singularity, because the
applied load is larger than the limit (or failure) yield stress in
compression.

Question W15: Plot the history of direct stress, (S11), the Mises stress, (q),
and the stress locus on the meridional plane. Does the material
yield at the correct yield stress in tension and compression?
Answer: Yes, the material does yield at the expected stress values in
compression and tension. The yield stress in compression is 30
MPa and the yield stress in tension is 20.32 MPa, as discussed
in the answer to Question W13.
History plots of direct stress, (S11), the Mises stress, (q), and
the stress locus on the meridional plane follow:

t
=20.32 MPa
|
c
| =30.0 MPa

Mises
S11

WA1.5

do you observe?

Answer: The volume strain is zero when the dilation angle is zero; i.e.
the material is incompressible. Hybrid elements may be
required to prevent locking.
The slope of the line in a plot of equivalent deviatoric plastic
strain vs volumetric plastic strain is the tangent of the dilation
angle. The Drucker-Prager model predicts continuing dilation,
regardless of the mode of deformation. In practice, materials
show a limited amount of dilation.

20.32 MPa
Compression
Tension
30.0 MPa
In this plot the unloading
curve appears to deviate from
the loading curve only
because of the coarseness of
the incrementation.

WA1.6

meridional plane.
Answer:
Mises q
(0, 24.226)
(30, 0)
=30
o

Yield
surface
Flow
potential
Pressure p
Dilation angle = 30
Dilation angle = 0

WA1.7

Answer: The Cap model exhibits a limit on the amount of dilation. The
Drucker-Prager model exhibits no dilation limit.

Answer:
Mises q
(0, 24.226)
(13, 0)
=30
o

Yield
surface
Flow
potential
Pressure p
(10, 30)

WA1.8

Answer: Yielding on the shear surface results in perfect plastic
response; i.e. the shear surface is a failure surface.

Answer:

Mises q
(30, 0)
=30
o

Critical
state line
Slope 3
Pressure p
Compression
Tension
Yield
surface

WA1.9

Answer: In the Clay model, the yielding results in softening on the dry
side, while hardening takes place on the wet side. The failure
state occurs when the stress reaches the critical state line.
The Clay model exhibits softening during tensile failure and
hardening in compressive failure. The Cap model, however,
would predict perfect plastic failure on the failure surface.
If the shear failure surface of the Cap model matches with the
critical state line of this Clay model, then the Cap model
would predict failure without any softening at a relative
uniaxial tensile stress of 14.53 MPa (the tension limit in the
figure above, that is, at S11=15.47 MPa). In the compressive
case, it will fail without any hardening at a relative uniaxial
compressive stress of 21.45 MPa (the compression limit in the
figure above, that is, at S11=51.45 MPa).

Step-1
Hydrostatic
compression

Step-2
Uniaxial
compression
Step-3
Uniaxial
tension

Wor k shop 2
Keywor ds Ver si on
modeling feature in Abaqus in terms of the Abaqus Keywords interface. If
you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead, please see the
Interactive version of these instructions.
workshop.
Introduction
Model pore fluid flow in fully saturated problems.
Use Abaqus/Viewer to view and interpret the pore fluid flow phenomenon.

In this workshop you will perform a consolidation analysis on a fully saturated model.
This problem illustrates how consolidation analyses can be performed in Abaqus by using
the available coupled stress diffusion analysis cabability.

The one-dimensional Terzaghi consolidation problem will be modeled using two
dimensional plane strain elements. In this problem a body of soil is confined by
impermeable, smooth, rigid walls on all but the top surface where perfect drainage is
possible. At the start of the analysis, a load is applied suddenly on the top surface of the
body. We wish to predict the response of the soil as a function of time after the load
application. Gravity is neglected. This problem is similar to The Terzaghi Consolidation
Problem, Section 1.14.1 of the Abaqus Benchmarks Manual.

The model is 50 m wide and 100 m high. The soil is considered to be elastic with a
modulus of 1.0e8 Pa, Poissons ratio of 0.3, and permeability of 0.002 m/s. The initial
spatially constant void ratio value is 1.1. The soil is considered to be fully saturated. The
model is meshed with 10 elements through its height and 1 element across its width. The
meshed model is shown in Figure W21.

W2.2

Figure W21 Consolidation specimen mesh.

Preliminaries
../geotechnical/keywords/consolidate
This directory contains the input file geo_consolidate.inp.
2. Open geo_consolidate.inp in a text editor.
The input file geo_consolidate.inp already contains the model mesh, material
properties, and displacement boundary conditions. The model does not have any pore
pressure boundary conditions specified on the exterior edges of the soil. This is the
natural zero pore fluid flux boundary condition, which represents an undrained condition.
The application of an external load will result in a build up of pore pressure in the model.
You will simulate this phenomenon in the first step of the consolidation analysis, wherein
you will apply a pressure load on the top surface of the model and not allow for any pore
fluid drainage across the whole model boundary. In the second step of the analysis you
will maintain the pressure load from the first step and allow for pore fluid drainage across
the top surface of the model.

W2.3
Initial Void Ratio
In this section you will specify an initial void ratio of 1.1 as a pre-defined initial field.
Use the *INITIAL CONDITIONS option to specify the initial void ratio for element set
all, which encompasses all the elements in the model. Add the following lines before
the *STEP option in order to specify the initial void ratio:

*Initial conditions, type=ratio
all, 1.1, 0.0, 1.1, 1.0

Pressure loading
The first analysis step already exists in the input file. You must complete the step
definition by defining the pressure load. A surface named surfload has already been
created in the input file; this surface covers the top boundary of the consolidation
specimen. To apply a pressure load of 100.0 Pa to the surface surfload, add the
following lines before the output requests in the first analysis step:

*Dsload
surfload, P, 100.0

pressure load of 100.0 is applied on the top surface of the

Consolidation
In this section you will define the second step with a total step time of 10.0. In this step
you will allow for pore fluid drainage across the top boundary by specifying appropriate
pore pressure boundary conditions on the top surface. Use a prescribed pore pressure
value of 0.0 for this purpose. A node set named porebc, which contains both the nodes
on the top surface, has been created for the application of the pore pressure boundary
conditions. You also need to specify an appropriate value for UTOL, which is a
parameter that governs the accuracy of the time integration for the transient consolidation
analysis.


W2.4
The element size and the time increment size are related to the extent that time
increments smaller than a certain size give no useful information. This coupling of the
spatial and temporal approximations is most obvious at the start of diffusion problems,
immediately after prescribed changes in the boundary values.


The values of UTOL and the initial time increment size will be specified as data for the
second step of the analysis. Add the following lines after the *END STEP option of the
first step and use the appropriate values for utol and the initial time increment:

*Step, name=Step-2
*Soils, consolidation, utol=utol
Initial time increment, 10., 1e-05, 10.,
*Boundary
porebc, 8, 8, 0.0
*End Step

Save the input file geo_consolidate.inp and submit it for anlaysis.

Visualizing the results
After the job completes, view the results in Abaqus/Viewer.


Note: The complete input file is available for your convenience. You may
consult this file if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input file is named
geo_consolidate_complete.inp and is available in the working directory
for this workshop.

Answer s 2
Keywor ds Ver si on

pressure load of 100.0 Pa is applied on the top surface of the
Answer: A stress state with a uniform pore pressure equal to the
external load throughout the body with no effective stress
carried by the soil skeleton is obtained. The fluid carries the
instantaneous load.

Answer: UTOL which is one order of magnitude less than the applied
pressure should give moderate accuracy.

Answer: The initial time increment can be computed as follows:
t {
w
/(6Ek)}(h)
2

We have h = 10 m, E = 10
8
Pa, k = 210
-4
m/s,
w
=1.0
N/m
3
. Hence,

t 0.00083 s.

WA2.2

Answer: A path needs to be created in Abaqus/Viewer so that results
along this path can be plotted. The path creation and plotting
of X-Y results along this path can be accomplished as follows:
1. In the Results Tree, double-click Paths.
2. In the Create Path dialog box, select Node list and click
Continue.
3. In the Edit Node List Path dialog box, click Add After.
4. In the viewport, select all consecutive nodes on one
vertical edge from the bottom to the top. Click Done in the
prompt area.
5. The selected nodes are listed in the Edit Node List Path
dialog box. Click OK to complete the path definition.
7. In the Create XY Data dialog box, select Path and click
Continue.
8. In the XY Data from Path dialog box, select the frame and
the field output variable by clicking Step/Frame and Field
Output respectively. Plot and save stress (S22) and pore
pressure (POR) X-Y data for a few frames.
9. Expand the XYData container.
10. Select the saved data names and click mouse button 3;
from the menu that appears, select Plot. A combined X-Y
plot for the selected curves will be displayed.

The plots indicate that the pore pressure decreases and the
values of S22 increase over time. The pore pressure values are
almost zero after about t=1.25.

WA2.3

t = 0.001
t = 0.022
t = 0.251
t = 1.248
t = 0.022
t = 0.251
t = 1.248
t = 0.001

WA2.4

Answer: The pore pressure and stress results were written to the output
database as history data during the analysis. This data is
accessible from the History Output dialog box (Result
History Output). To plot the stress magnitude you must save
the history data and operate on it (double-click XYData, and
select Operate on XY data as the data source).
The values of POR decrease over time as the pore water
permeates away from the top surface. The values of S22
simultaneously increase in magnitude. Hence, as the
consolidation progresses, the load initially carried by the pore
fluid is transferred to the solid grains.

S22 magnitude
POR

Wor k shop 3
Keywor ds Ver si on
modeling feature in Abaqus in terms of the Abaqus Keywords interface. If
you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead, please see the GUI
version of these instructions.
workshop.
Introduction
Model pore fluid flow in partially saturated problems.
Use Abaqus/Viewer to view and interpret the pore fluid flow phenomenon.

In this workshop you will perform a pore fluid absorption analysis on a partially saturated
specimen. This problem illustrates how pore fluid absorption analyses can be performed
in Abaqus using the available coupled stress diffusion analysis cabability.
We consider a one-dimensional wicking test where the absorption of fluid takes place
against the gravity load caused by the weight of the fluid. In this test the fluid is made
available at the bottom of a partially saturated material column, and the material absorbs
as much fluid as the weight of the rising fluid permits. The column of material is
kinematically constrained in the horizontal direction so that all material deformations will
be in the vertical direction. In this sense the problem is one-dimensional. The model mesh
is shown in Figure W31.

W3.2

Figure W31 Wicking model mesh.

Preliminaries

../geotechnical/keywords/wicking
The directory contains the input file geo_wicking.inp.
2. Open geo_wicking.inp in a text editor.
The input file geo_wicking.inp already contains the model mesh, material properties,
and loading history.
The units used for the material data in the database are in terms of metric tonnes, meters
(m), and seconds (s), and therefore the force will be in kiloNewtons (kN) and stress in
kiloPascals (kPa). The column of material is 1.0 m high and 0.1 m wide. It is meshed
with 10 plane strain elements with displacement and pore pressure degrees of freedom at
the nodes (CPE4P). For the mechanical properties we assume that the material is elastic
with a Young's modulus of 50000 Pa and a Poisson's ratio of 0.0. The dry mass density of
the material is 100 kg/m
3
.

W3.3

The permeability of the fully saturated material is 3.7 10
4
m/sec. We assume that the
permeability varies as a cubic function of saturation, which is the default setting for
partially saturated permeability.
The specific weight of the fluid (water) is 10
4
N/m
3
and the bulk modulus is 2 GPa. The
capillary action in the porous medium is defined by absorption/exsorption curves shown
in Figure W32. These curves give the (negative) pore pressure versus saturation
relationships for the absorption and exsorption behaviors. The transition between
absorption and exsorption and vice-versa takes place along a scanning slope which in this
example is set by default to be 1.05 times the largest slope of any branch in the
absorption/exsorption curves.

Figure W32 Absorption and exsorption curves for the model material.

W3.4

Initial conditions
The initial condition for saturation is 5% and the initial void ratio is 5.0 throughout the
column.
The initial conditions for the pore pressure must have a gradient that is equal to the
specific weight of the fluid so that, according to Darcy's law, there is no initial flow. For
this purpose we assume the initial pore pressures vary linearly from 12000 Pa at the
bottom of the column to 22000 Pa at the top of the column. These initial conditions
satisfy the pore pressure/saturation relationship in the sense that they are between the
absorption and exsorption curves.


The initial conditions for the effective stress are calculated from the densities of the dry
material and the fluid, the initial saturation, the void ratio, and the initial pore pressures
using equilibrium considerations and the effective stress principle. It is important to
specify the correct initial conditions for this type of problem; otherwise, the system may
be so far out of equilibrium initially that it may fail to start because converged solutions
cannot be found.


The initial conditions for the pore pressure, effective stress, saturation, and void ratio
must be specified as input data for the analysis. An element set named all and a node set
named all have been created encompassing all the elements and nodes in the model.
Add the following lines before the *STEP option in order to specify the initial conditions
(You will need to type in the appropriate values for the quantities in italics. Recall that
the model is defined in terms of metric tonnes, meters, and seconds.):

*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=SATURATION
all,.05
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=PORE PRESSURE
all, pore press. at elevation 1.0, 1.0, pore press. at elevation 0.0, 0.0
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=RATIO
all,5.
*INITIAL CONDITIONS,TYPE=STRESS,GEOSTATIC
all, stress at elevation 1.0, 1.0, stress at elevation 0.0, 0.0, 0., 0.

W3.5

Analysis and results
The input file is now ready for execution. The analysis will be performed in two steps.
The first step is a geostatic analysis step with a short time duration. This geostatic step
ensures that the model is in equilibrium at the initiation of step 2, which models the
transient wicking phenomenon. For step 2, the convergence criterion for the ratio of the
largest solution correction to the largest corresponding incremental solution value has
been increased from the default value of 0.01 to a value of 1.0. This increase helps in
obtaining convergence in the early stages of the analysis wherein the rate of change of
saturation and pore pressure is large at the bottom of the wicking column. Steps 1 and 2
are already included in the input file geo_wicking.inp.
Save the input file geo_wicking.inp and submit it for analysis. After the job
completes, view the results in Abaqus/Viewer.


Question W34: Plot the time history of the volume of the fluid absorbed by
the column.

Note: The complete input file is available for your convenience. You may
consult this file if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input file is named
geo_wicking_complete.inp and is available in the working directory for
this workshop.

Answer s 3
Keywor ds Ver si on

Answer: The phreatic surface lies at a vertical coordinate of 1.2 m.
This value can be found by linearly extrapolating the pore
pressure distribution to obtain the vertical coordinate at which
the pore pressure is zero. The known pore pressure values are
22000 Pa, and 12000 Pa, at vertical coordinates of 1.0 m,
and 0.0 m, respectively.

Answer: The initial void ratio is spatially constant and is 5.0.
The initial saturation is spatially constant and is 0.05.
Denoting
d
as the dry weight density of the soil,
w
as the
weight density of the pore fluid, e as the void ratio, n as the
porosity, s as the saturation, z as the vertical coordinate,
z
as
the total stress, and as the effective stress, we have:
(d
z
/dz) =
d
+sn
w
, which implies,

z
= (
d
+sn
w
)(zz
0
).
For
d
=10
3
, s =0.05, n =e/(1+e) =5/6, and z
0
=1,

z
=1416.7 (z1).
Effective stress =
z
+su
w

w
=12.0 kPa
w
=22.0 kPa
Therefore,

z

WA3.2

Answer: At steady state the pore pressure gradient must equal the
weight of the fluid and hence the pore pressure varies linearly
with height and saturation. Thus, points close to the bottom of
the column are fully saturated, while those at the top are still at
5% saturation.
In the following plots the stress and pore pressure values are in
kiloPascals:

t =15
t =200000
t =0
t =171
t =69526
t =2000

WA3.3

t =69526
t =0
t =15
t =171
t =2000
t =200000
t =0
t =15
t =171
t =2000
t =69526
t =200000

WA3.4

Question W34: Plot the time history of the volume of the fluid absorbed by the
column.

Answer: The volume of the fluid absorbed by the column will be given
by the sum of the values of the output variable RVT (reactive
fluid total volume) at all boundary nodes where the pore
pressure is prescribed. The pore pressure is prescribed at nodes
on the bottom of the column. The following plot, showing the
total RVT value in cubic meters, indicates that the rate of
increase in RVT decreases with time and the total volume of the
absorbed fluid approaches a limiting value.

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