Slide 1

Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Introduction to Deep Submicron
CMOS Device Technology
& Its Impact on Circuit Design
Alvin Loke, Tin Tin Wee, Mike Gilsdorf,
Tom Cynkar & Jim Pfiester
Imaging Solutions Division, Fort Collins, Colorado
IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Seminar
Vancouver Chapter
February 23, 2006
Slide 2
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Outline
Part 1
CMOS Technology Trends
MOSFET Basics
Lithography
Deep Submicron FET Fabrication Sequence
Enabling Device & Equipment Technologies
Part 2
FET Non-idealities & Second-Order Effects
Impact of Technology Advances on Circuit Design
Process Variations in Manufacturing
Conclusions
Slide 3
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Evolution of IC Technology
0.25m CMOS
(Motorola, 1996)
Al (0.5%Cu) Al (0.5%Cu)
oxide (SiO2 ) oxide (SiO2 )
M5 M5
M4 M4
M3 M3
M2 2
M1 M1
I can see Waldo, but wheres the transistor?
1
st
Fabricated IC
(Texas Instruments, 1958)
90nm CMOS
(TSMC, 2002)
M5 M5
M4 M4
M3 M3
M2 M2
M1 M1
M9 M9
M8 M8
M7 M7
M6 M6
Cu Cu
Low Low- -K K
Is the transistor getting less important?
Slide 4
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Source: Thompson et al., Intel (2002)
CMOS Scaling is Alive & Well
Transistors Are Picking Up The Slack
Where are we now?
130nm & 90nm in volume manufacturing (8-inch wafers)
65nm early production in progress (12-inch wafers)
Key trends:
Gate CD* scaling is more aggressive than interconnect scaling
Scaling driven by exclusively by digital circuit needs
Source: Wu et al., TSMC (2002)
90nm Technology
59nm 59nm
* CD = critical dimension
Slide 5
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Why Aggressive FET Scaling?
The road to higher digital performance
C
load
reduce parasitics (largely dominated by wires & gate load)
V reduce V
DD
or logic swing, need for core & I/O FETs
I
FET
all about moving charge quickly
Major hiccup along the way
Interconnect scaling much more difficult than
anticipated, especially Cu/low-K reliability
t
delay

C
load
V
I
FET
I
dsat
C
ox
(W/L) (V
GS
V
T
)
2
How to beef up I
FET
?
Tweak with , C
ox
, L & V
T
Technology scaling not necessarily compatible with analog design
Stress-Induced
Voiding
Got redundant vias?
Slide 6
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Why Should Designers Care So Much
About Technology Details?
Technology dictates performance limitations
Simulating layout-extracted parasitics now even more critical
Statistical design considerations necessary for circuit functionality
Technology-related surprises keep showing up as we keep scaling
Implementation of accurate models is ALWAYS late
Live with new technology-related effects & issues before they are
included in simulations
New model implementations not necessarily accurate or reliable
Meanwhile, learn to either mitigate or exploit these effects
Keeping your foundry partner honest is key to silicon success
J ob security
Slide 7
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
MOS Fundamentals
V
T
= FET ON voltage, i.e., gate voltage required to form inversion layer
connecting source & drain by shorting out back-to-back pn-junctions with
substrate
V
T
= V
FB
+ 2
b
+
Q
dep
C
ox

b
= ln
N
A
n
i
k
B
T
q
p-substrate

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Q
dep
depletion
charge
n

inversion layer
poly gate
n
+
source
n
+
drain
silicon
surface
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

flatband (offset) voltage
due to oxide charge &
work function difference
oxide capacitance
per unit area =
ox
/ t
ox
bulk potential
depletion charge per unit area
= qN
A
x
dep
N
A
(x
dep
1/ N
A
)
Remember E = / ?
Slide 8
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Electron Energy Band Diagram
Formation of Inversion Layer
V
T
= gate voltage required to reverse doping of silicon surface, i.e., move
s
by 2
b
onset of inversion
(surface is undoped)

s
M O S

s
= 0
onset of strong inversion
(V
T
condition)

s
V
T
M O S

s
= -
b
inversion
layer
V
T
= V
FB
+ 2
b
+
Q
dep
C
ox
offset bulk
drop
oxide
drop
E
C
E
V
E
i
flatband
(no field in silicon)

s
E
F
E
F
silicon
surface
M O S

s
=
b

b
= ln
N
A
n
i
k
B
T
q
Slide 9
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
All the Action is at the Surface
V
GS
> V
T
V
DS
> 0 (net source-to-drain current flow)
Carriers easily overcome source barrier
Surface is strongly inverted
V
GS
V
T
V
DS
= 0 (no net current flow)
Source barrier is lowered
Surface is inverted
V
GS
= 0
V
DS
= 0 (no net current flow)
Large source barrier
(back-to-back diodes)
electron electron
current current
Source: Sze (1981)
Slide 10
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Lifes Never So Perfect
Ideal
I
DS
V
DS
Reality
Well plunge into a lot of neat second-order effects.
But first, we need to understand what physical structure
were dealing with, and how it has evolved with scaling
I
DS
V
DS
V
GS
V
GS
Ideal MOSFET = voltage-controlled current source (saturation)
Slide 11
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Warp Speed Ahead Short-Channel Effect (SCE)
Prominent in older CMOS technologies
How to minimize SCE?
Minimize volume of charge depleted by source/drain junctions
Higher substrate doping for thinner junction depletion regions (x
dep
1/ N )
Higher V
T
& junction capacitance not consistent with scaling
Shallower source/drain junctions
Higher source/drain resistance smaller drive currents
Tighter gate coupling to surface potential
Thinner gate oxide of surface potential direct tunneling leakage
Higher K gate dielectrics
Other SCE problems: large electric fields carrier v
sat
& degradation
V
T
Drawn Channel Length, L
V
T
rolloff at shorter L
since less charge must
be depleted to achieve
surface inversion
junction
depletion
region
poly gate
n
+
n
+
p-substrate
poly gate
n
+
n
+
p-substrate
depleted by
gate charge
Slide 12
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Lithography Trends
What 1m Barrier???
Refractive projection (4) optics
More aggressive CDs shorter
Higher NA lenses $$$
Larger field sizes (increased integration) $$$
Now over 25% of total wafer cost
Resolution =
k
1

NA
k
1
= (resist quality, resolution tricks)
Source: ICKnowledge.com(2003)
365nm
436nm
365nm
436nm
Slide 13
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Step-and-Scan Projection Lithography
Beyond 0.35m Technology
Slide both reticle & wafer across narrow
slit of light
Aberration-free high-NA optics only
required along 1-D but now requires high-
precision constant-velocity stages
Still much cheaper than high-NA optics
optimized in 2-D
6 x 6 physical reticle size (4reduction)
25 x 33mm or 26 x 32mm field size
shorter edge limited by slit width
Relatively weak intensity of deep-UV
source required development of very
sensitive chemically-amplified resists for
throughput
Source: Nikon
Deep-UV Slit Source
Excimer Laser
KrF (248nm) or ArF (193nm)
Slide 14
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Key Resolution Enhancement Tricks
Sharp features are lost because diffraction attenuates & distorts higher
spatial frequencies (mask behaving as low-pass optical filter)
Compensate for diffraction effects when printing feature sizes << exposure
manage sub- constructive & destructive interference
Software complexity during mask fabrication but this is foundrys problem
Optical Proximity Correction (OPC)
Add scattering features to sharpen corners
Used extensively for poly gate definition
Phase Shift Masking (PSM)
Modulate optical path through mask
Used extensively for contacts & vias
Complicated for irregular patterns
Non-Optimized Optimized
Mask
Resist
Pattern
Source: Socha, ASML (2004) Source: Plummer, Stanford (2004)
Mask
Amplitude
Of Mask
Intensity
at Wafer
Amplitude
at Wafer
180
phase
shift
Slide 15
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Deep Submicron FET Fabrication Sequence
Well Implantation
2
n-well p-well
Gate Oxidation &
Poly Definition
3
gate oxide
Source/Drain Extension
& Halo Implantation
4
halos
Spacer Formation &
Source/Drain Implantation
5
Salicidation
6
silicide
pFET nFET
Shallow Trench Isolation
1
STI
oxide
p-Si substrate
Slide 16
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Basics of LOCOS Isolation 0.35m & Earlier
Industry played lots of tricks to reduce width of birds beak &
make field oxide coplanar with active areas
Required detailed understanding of visco-elastic properties of oxide
during thermal oxidation
LOCOS ran out of gas beyond 0.25m
2
Grow thermal field oxide
1
Deposit & pattern thin Si
3
N
4
oxidation mask
Strip Si
3
N
4
oxidation mask
3
birds
beak
Depth of Focus Resolution / NA
Slide 17
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) 0.25 m & Beyond
1
2
3
4
5
Advantages over LOCOS
technologies
Reduced active-to-active
spacing (no birds beak)
Planar surface for gate
lithography
Deposit & pattern thin Si
3
N
4
etch
mask & polish stop
Etch silicon around active area
profile critical to minimize stress
Grow liner SiO
2
, then deposit conformal
SiO
2
void-free deposition is critical
CMP excess SiO
2
Strip Si
3
N
4
polish stop
etched away in
subsequent
oxide cleans
Slide 18
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
STI Etch Profile Control
Reactive ion plasma etching (RIE)
Etching ions vertically bombard
surface to be removed
Very directional
High sputtering component causes
resist to re-deposit inside trench
Tune etch gas chemistry to keep or
remove redeposited resist for
desired etch profile (micromasking)
Source: Plummer, Stanford (2004)
Slide 19
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
STI HDP-CVD Oxide Gapfill
High-Density Plasma Chemical-Vapor Deposition
Fills aggressive aspect ratios
Rapid cycling between successive deposition & etch
Re-sputtering nature results in very compressive oxide films
Source: Plummer, Stanford (2004)
Conformal CVD HDP CVD
keyhole
Slide 20
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Lets Think a Little Bit More About CMP
Ideal world for CMP: want perfect
periodicity of patterns throughout
wafer
Need to throw in dummy features to
minimize pattern density variations
optimize planarity
Polishing pad will flex
oxide CMP
dishing
wafer carrier
in situ pad
conditioner
(critical)
polishing table
polishing
pad
wafer
(facing down)
slurry
optical
endpoint
detection
CMP technology pioneered by IBM
Leveraged expertise from lens polishing
Slide 21
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Always Think Dummies in Any CMP Process
Dummification is key to minimize topography in any CMP process
Add dummy patterns to open spaces to minimize layout density variations
Added design complexity to check layout density & insert dummy patterns
Also critical to step dummy dies along wafer circumference
Slide 22
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Well Implants Lots of Transistor Variants
core vs. I/O FETs, core low-/nom-/high-V
T
variants, native vs. implanted
Core
n-well
Core
n-well
Core
p-well
I/O
n-well
Core
n-well
Core
p-well
I/O
n-well
I/O
p-well
Core
native
I/O
native
Core
n-well
Core
p-well
free lunch!!!
Slide 23
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Well Engineering
Retrograded well dopant profile
(implants before poly deposition)
p-well
Depth
Substrate
Doping
Deeper subsurface implant
Extra dopants to prevent subsurface
punchthrough under halos
Prevent parasitic channel formation on
active sidewall beneath source/drain
Faster diffusers (B, As/P)
Shallow & steep surface channel implant
V
T
control
Slow diffusers critical (Ga, Sb)
Very deep high-dose implant
Latchup prevention
Noise immunity
Faster diffusers (B, As/P)
STI
oxide
STI
oxide
Implant order matters to prevent ion channeling, especially for the shallow implant
substrate
background
Slide 24
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Gate Oxidation
Need two gate oxide t
ox
s thin for core FETs & thick for I/O FETs
1 2 3
Oxide is grown, not deposited
Need high-quality Si-SiO
2
interface with low Q
f
& D
it
Gate oxide is really made of silicon oxynitride (SiO
x
N
y
)
N content prevents boron penetration from p+ poly to channel in pFETs
Improves GOI (gate oxide integrity) reliability
Side benefit increased
ox
Foundries now offer triple gate oxide (TGO) processes with two I/O FET varieties
Grow 1
st
oxide
Strip oxide for core FETs
Grow 2
nd
oxide
I/O FET
gate oxide
Core FET
gate oxide
Si substrate
gate
oxide
Slide 25
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Aside on Equipment Technology Evolution
Source: Maex, IMEC (2002)
Gate oxide no longer furnace grown
Multi-chamber cluster tools now
ubiquitous
Pre-oxidation clean, gate oxidation &
poly/ARL deposition performed in
separate chambers without breaking
vacuum
Better thickness & film compositional
control (native SiO
2
grows instantly
when exposed to air)
Fast minutes-seconds per wafer vs.
hours per wafer batch
Economically feasible with trend
towards larger wafer sizes
Top
View
Slide 26
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Poly Gate Definition
Si substrate
Process control is everything resist & poly etch chamber conditioning is
critical (lesson to remember: dont clean residues in tea cups or woks)
Way to get smaller CDs to trim more (requires tighter control)
Dummification also necessary for poly mask (ILD0 CMP)
poly-Si
1 2 3
anti-reflection
layer (ARL)
gate
oxide
resist resist
Pattern resist Trim resist
(oxygen ash)
Etch gate stack
poly
gate
Gate CD way smaller than lithography capability
Slide 27
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Source/Drain & Channel Engineering
Resulting structure has:
Smaller SCE
Shallow junction where needed most
Low junction capacitance
Not to be confused with LDDs in I/O FETs
Same process with spacers but Iightly
doped drain (LDD) is used for minimizing
peak E fields that cause hot carriers &
breakdown
Extensions need to be heavily doped to
minimize series resistance
Different halo & extension/LDD implants for
each FET variant
poly gate
self-aligned source/drain extension implant
(n-type)
self-aligned high-tilt halo/pocket implant
(p-type)
p-well
p-well
poly gate
dielectric spacer formation
p-well
poly gate
self-aligned source/drain implant
(n-type)
p-well
poly gate
1
2
3
4
halos
Slide 28
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Control of Minimum Channel Length
Foundries get paid for wafers that hit nFET & pFET I
dsat
targets in L
min
devices
which depend strongly on channel CD
Adjust resist trim ash time to compensate for poly photo variations
Adjust halo dose to compensate for poly etch variations (modulate position of pn
junction where counterdoping occurs)
Designers can help by orienting poly gates along direction of least variation
shorter
ash time
longer
ash time
poly
higher
halo dose
lower
halo dose
well
Slide 29
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP)
Wasabi Wasabi vs. Curry
Initially developed for short anneals
Impossible to control short thermal cycles in furnaces
Want minimum diffusion for shallow & abrupt junctions
Process steps:
Annealing repair implant damage
Oxidation gate oxide
Nitridation spacers, ARL
Poly deposition gate
RTP in single-wafer multi-chamber cluster tools
RTP
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Time
Furnace
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Time
substantial
ramp times
Slide 30
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Self-Aligned Silicidation (Salicidation)
Need to reduce poly & diffusion R
s
, otherwise get severe I
FET
degradation due to
voltage drops from contacts to intrinsic FET (source degeneration)
Selectivity degraded at RTA2, i.e., metal over SiO
2
& Si
3
N
4
will form silicide
Technology progression: TiSi
x
CoSi
x
NiSi
x
Scaling requires smaller silicide grain size to minimize R
s
variations
1
Deposit sicilide metal (Ti, Co, Ni)
RTA1 (low temperature)
Selective formation of metal silicide
from direct metal reaction with Si
well
diffusion
2
Strip unreacted metal
3
RTA2 (high temperature)
Transforms silicide into low-
phase by consuming more Si
4
poly
STI
Slide 31
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Making Cheap Resistors
Only one extra mask can buy you unsalicided poly & diffusion resistors
Salicide block etch
SiO
2
deposition prior to salicide module
field oxide
diffusion
poly
1
protection oxide
2
Salicide block etch
3
Salicide module
salicide
Slide 32
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Outline
Part 1
CMOS Technology Trends
MOSFET Basics
Lithography
Deep Submicron FET Fabrication Sequence
Enabling Device & Equipment Technologies
Part 2
FET Non-idealities & Second-Order Effects
Impact of Technology Advances on Circuit Design
Process Variations in Manufacturing
Conclusions
Slide 33
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
SPICE FET Binning
Wondered why so many SPICE transistor bins, e.g, core nFETs?
A single model cannot suffice what can possibly vary with L & W?
1 6 11 16 21
2 7 12 17 22
3 8 13 18 23
4 9 14 19 24
5 10 15 20 25
0.100.24 0.5 10 20 1.2
Drawn Channel Length (m)
0.12
0.24
0.5
1
10
900
D
r
a
w
n

C
h
a
n
n
e
l

W
i
d
t
h

(

m
)
Slide 34
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
V
T
Variations Across FET L & Win 90nm
V
T
s for 90nm core nFET @ 85C
V
T
as L
V
T
as W
WHY?
0
.
1
0
0
.
1
6
0
.
2
5
0
.
4
0
0
.
6
3
1
.
0
0
1
.
5
8
2
.
5
1
3
.
9
8
6
.
3
1
1
0
.
0
0
0
.
1
5
0
.
3
8
0
.
9
5
2
.
3
8
5
.
9
7
1
5
.
0
0
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
V
T
(V)
L (m)
W (m)
0.34-0.36
0.32-0.34
0.30-0.32
0.28-0.30
0.26-0.28
0.24-0.26
0.22-0.24
0.20-0.22
0.18-0.20
0.16-0.18
0.14-0.16
0.12-0.14
0.15/0.1m
15/0.1m
15/10m
0.15/10m
short
narrow
short
wide
Think how much
gate charge is
needed to raise
surface potential
needed for surface
inversion
Slide 35
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Revisiting Short-Channel Effect (SCE)
V
T
Drawn Channel Length, L
V
T
rolloff at shorter L
since less charge
must be depleted to
achieve surface
inversion
junction
depletion
region
poly gate
n
+
n
+
p-substrate
poly gate
n
+
n
+
p-substrate
depleted by
gate charge
But V
T
as L is observed why?
Slide 36
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Reverse Short-Channel Effect (RSCE)
Mechanism Transient Enhanced Diffusion (TED)
Halo implant damage creates crystalline defects that accelerate
dopant diffusion in subsequent anneals where damage is repaired
Dopants migrate to source-to-substrate junction & raise source-to-
channel barrier height
V
T
increases
Target L
min
near V
T
peak for good process margin, i.e., minimize V
T
sensitivity to poly-CD variations
V
T
Drawn Channel Length, L
as L decreases, V
T
rises
before conventional SCE
kicks in
conventional SCE
p-well
poly gate
halo
dopant
diffusion
towards
junction
Slide 37
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Narrow-Channel Effect (NCE)
Prominent with LOCOS isolation
Does not exist in STI
V
T
Drawn Channel Width, W
V
T
increases for narrower W
since more gate charge is
required to deplete edge of
active area under gate
poly gate
p-substrate
Thicker oxide under gate edge
Tougher to deplete
More gate charge needed for
inversion
poly gate
field
oxide
birds
beak
Sure enough, V
T
as W is observed in 90nm time for another excuse
Slide 38
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Reverse Narrow Channel Effect (RNCE)
Prominent in STI technologies
Concentration of electric field
lines terminating at corner
Trench recess results from
faster oxide etch rate at STI
edge during pre-oxidation HF
wet-cleans
V
T
Drawn Channel Width, W
V
T
decreases for narrower W
due to trench recessing &
corner outdoping
Edge device turns on before center
device I-V kink in very narrow devices
trench
recess
corner
outdoping
Source: Burenkov & Lorenz, Fraunhofer Institut (2003)
Slide 39
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Well Proximity Effect
|V
T
| if FET is too close to resist edge due to dopant ions scattering off
resist sidewall into active area during well implants
|V
T
| depends on:
FET channel distance to well mask edge
implanted ion species/energy
Other effects: , L
eff
, R
extension
I
dsat

Well mask symmetry now critical for FET matching
Modeled in BSIM4.5
high-energy
well implant
Source: TSMC (CICC 2005)
90nm 90nm
Core Core nFET nFET

V

T
,
g
m
(
V
)
Average Distance Between MOS Channel
& Well Mask Edge
active
area
island
Slide 40
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
ON vs. OFF Current Benchmark
1.2V 1.0V 1.2V 1.0V
Comparison of 90nm Technology Foundry Vendors
1.2V 1.0V 1.2V 1.0V
nFET pFET
0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1000.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
O
F
F

L
e
a
k
a
g
e

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
n
A
/

m
)
ON Drive Current (A/m)
No free lunch principle prevails again: high I
ON
high I
OFF
V
T
s not scaling as aggressively as V
DD
(1.0V in 90nm & 65nm)
Technology providers offer variety of V
T
s on same die to
concurrently meet high-speed vs. low-leakage needs
Slide 41
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Leakage Current Contributions
130nm 100nm 65nm
Source: Assenmacher, Infineon (2003)
I
SUB
Subthreshold leakage from source
I
G
Gate leakage (direct tunneling)
I
GIDL
Gate-induced drain leakage (GIDL)
I
J
Junction reverse-bias leakage
Relative contributions of OFF-state leakage (but magnitude of total leakage
getting exponentially worse for deeper submicron nodes)
p-well
poly gate
n
+
n
+
V
DD
I
G
I
GIDL
I
J
I
SUB
Slide 42
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Subthreshold Conduction Diode Action
Diffusion of carriers from source spilling over barrier into channel when
applying V
G
to lower
s
Want tight coupling of V
G
to
s
but have capacitive sharing with substrate
Large C
ox
high-K gate dielectrics, thinner gate oxides
Small C
Si
low substrate doping, fully-depleted SOI
Inverse subthreshold slope (S) 100mV/decade at 300K (60mV/dec ideal)
e.g., V
T
=0.2V & I
ON
= 100A I
OFF
=1A !!!
Get BJT in limit C
ox
& C
Si
0

s
= V
G

C
ox
C
ox
+ C
Si
silicon surface
potential (
s
)
C
ox
gate oxide
capacitance
C
Si
silicon
depletion
capacitance
p-substrate
gate
V
G
V
B
S = ln(10)
C
ox
+ C
Si
C
ox
k
B
T
q
source
drain V
G
Slide 43
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Basic Intuition on Body Effect
Body or backgate effect
More reverse bias between substrate (body) & source increases |V
T
|
Basic equation: V
T
= V
T0
+ ( 2
b
+V
SB
2
b
)
Tug-o-war between V
G
& V
B
to control surface potential through C
ox
& C
si
Silicon surface
Potential (
s
)
C
ox
gate oxide
capacitance
C
Si
silicon
depletion
capacitance
p-substrate
gate
V
G
V
B
Slide 44
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
p-well
poly gate
n
+
n
+
V
DD
Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering (DIBL)
Worsens subthreshold leakage in short-channel devices
Soft punchthrough induced by drain-to-substrate depletion region
|V
T
| as V
D
(drain-induced SCE)
V
D
drain-to-substrate depletion region grows with more reverse bias
Lateral electric fields in drain-induced depletion region lowers source-to-
channel barrier, allowing more carriers to diffuse from source to channel
Typical DIBL magnitude: V
T
= 0.12V for V
D
= +1.2V in 90nm
reduction of electron barrier
height in conduction band (CB)
at edge of source
CB
V
DD
source drain
p-well
poly gate
n
+
n
+
Slide 45
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
A Simple Analogy
So Many Effects, How Can We Make Life A Little Easier?
Whats happening to the surface
potential?
How is source-to-channel barrier
height affected?
p-substrate
gate
V
B
source
drain
V
D
drain
substrate
(body)
V
G
V
D
source
drain
V
G
source
drain
|V
B
|
Slide 46
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Gate-Induced Drain Leakage (GIDL)
Drain-to-substrate leakage due to band-to-band tunneling current in
very high-field depletion region in drain overlap region
Similar gate-induced source leakage (GISL) mechanism exists when source
is raised above gate potential
Modeled in BSIM4 not BSIM3
p-well
poly gate
n
+
drain
halo
V
DD
poly gate
gate
oxide
E-field & band bending
are strong function of V
GD
& weak function of V
DB
drain
Slide 47
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Gate Leakage (Direct Tunneling)
Historical Trends
Source: Taur, IBM (2002)
t
ox
has been scaling aggressively with L
min
higher I
FET
tighter gate control less SCE
Significant direct tunneling for t
ox
< 2nm
Gate leakage = f (t
ox
, V
G
)
Tunneling probability exp (- t
ox
)
Hole & electron tunneling in CB & VB
High-K gate dielectric achieves same C
ox
with much thicker t
ox
Modeled in BSIM4 not BSIM3
Slide 48
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Poly Depletion & Surface Charge Centroid Effects
Increasing discrepancy between electrical & physical gate oxide
thicknesses since charge is not intimately in contact with oxide interface
Modeled in BSIM4 more accurate I-V & C-V calculations
Si surface charge
centroid few s away
from oxide interface
n
+
poly gate
p-well
gate
oxide
poly depletion (band
bending) results from
nonzero conductivity
gate charge centroid
few s away from
oxide interface
C
ox
=
ox
/ EOT
EOT =Equivalent Oxide Thickness
Source: Wong, IBM (2002)
C C
ox ox
1.5nm (15 1.5nm (15 ) )
poly poly- -Si Si
gate gate
Si Si
substrate substrate
gate gate
oxide oxide
Slide 49
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1 1 10
1
L
i
n
e
a
r

V
T

a
t

8
5
o
C

(
V
)
L, Drawn Channel Length (m)
high-V
T
nom-V
T
low-V
T
low-V
T
nom-V
T
high-V
T
pFET
nFET
Using FETs with Multiple V
T
s
One Foundry Example
Be very careful when using multiple-V
T
FETs, especially in analog land
V
T
separation typically advertised only for L L
min
long L
no V
T
between
low-V
T
& nom-V
T
devices
Foundry may use different mechanisms for setting V
T
in low-V
T
vs. high-V
T
devices
Want to share as many implant masks as possible to save $$$
V
T
adjustment: channel implant vs. halo implant
short L
V
T
0.1V
between devices
V
T
V
T
Simulated Core FET V
T
(W=0.6m)
Slide 50
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Lateral Channel Surface Doping Under Gate Oxide
One Foundry Example
short-channel
FET
low-V
T
FET
long-channel
FET
nom-V
T
FET high-V
T
FET
source
extension
drain
extension
channel
halo implant dose is significant
to total channel dose
in short-channel FETs
large channel implant dose is
significant to total channel
dose regardless of L
Slide 51
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
-0.6
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
L
i
n
e
a
r

V
T

(
V
)
Temperature (C)
high-V
T
nom-V
T
low-V
T
low-V
T
nom-V
T
high-V
T
pFET
nFET
-0.82mV/C
-0.67mV/C
-0.55mV/C
-0.88mV/C
-1.04mV/C
-1.08mV/C
V
T
vs. Temperature
|V
T
| as T
T
E
g

n
i

b
for constant N
A
|V
T
|
V
T
can vary a lot with temperature
Worse I
OFF
due to |V
T
| & S
Temperature sensitivity depends on
W& L

b
= ln
N
A
n
i
k
B
T
q
E
g
as Atomic Spacing
Simulated Linear V
T
for 0.6/0.1m
90nm Core FET
E
g
E
V
E
C
Where are all the non-valent
electron energy levels?
Slide 52
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
Temperature (C)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
Gate Overdrive
Threshold Voltage
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Temperature (C)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
Temperature (C)
Voltage Headroom vs. Temperature
Huge issue in 90nm CMOS analog design (V
DD
=1.0V)
Must operate FET with small gate overdrive to device in saturation
T but V
T

With decreasing gate overdrive, worst case headroom may occur
at cold temperature
Not applicable to CMOS where gate overdrive >> V
T
nom-V
T
90nm
core nFET
50A
V
GS
I
dsat
C
ox
(W/L) (V
GS
- V
T
)
2
W/L=0.3/0.3m W/L=1.2/0.3m W/L=4.8/0.3m
W/L
Slide 53
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Impact of Halos on r
out
Halo at source side suppresses SCE in short-channel devices
Halo at drain side creates Drain-Induced Threshold Shift (DITS) in long-channel devices
Drain bias very effective in modulating drain halo barrier V
T
I
ds

Worse DIBL compared to uniform-doped FET
Can degrade FET r
out
by 10-100!!!
Critical limitation for building current sources
(cascoding difficult with low V
DD
)
Asymmetric FETs with only source-side halo
shown to improve r
out
significantly
Less degradation for devices with weaker halos
Modeled in BSIM4 not BSIM3, but still need improvement
Source: Cao et al., UC Berkeley (1999)
halo
uniform-doped
CB
V
D
source drain
Slide 54
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Impact of Halos on Gate Capacitance
Halo implant increases off-state gate capacitance
Impact is worst for short-channel devices where
halos contribute most significantly to channel
doping
BSIM3 & BSIM4 models can reasonably account
for poly depletion & charge centroid effects, but
implementation is largely mathematical fitting
0
2
4
6
8
10
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Measurement
Simulation - Original Fit
Simulation - Improved Fit
C
p
a
r
a
l
l
e
l
(
p
F
)
V
gs
(V)
range of interest
depletion
Source
Gate
edge of depletion region
retrograded
well
halo
relative
doping
LOW HIGH
inversion
Source
Gate
inversion layer
C-V Characteristics of VCO Varactor
depletion
capacitance
modeling error
Slide 55
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Contact-to-Poly Capacitance
tungsten
contact
poly-Si
gate
Cross-sectional SEM of 90nm CMOS
active area
STI
oxide
nitride
spacer
contact-to-poly
capacitance
Can add substantial parasitic capacitive coupling between gate &
source/drain
Worse if Miller multiplication exists, i,e, diffusion node is not AC ground
& moves in opposite direction to gate signal
Nitride spacer makes matters worse
active
poly
gate
source/
drain
spacer
contact ILD0
Slide 56
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Active Area Mechanical Stress (LOD) Effect
Silicon is piezoelectric electrical properties (m*, E
g
, V
T
, ) depends on
mechanical stress state
Compression slower nFET, faster pFET
Tension faster nFET, slower pFET
STI compression in Si channel due to 10x CTE mismatch between Si &
SiO
2
and compressive stress of HDP-CVD SiO
2
film
I
ds
can easily change by 15-20% affects digital device ratios
Channel stress is strong function of distance from poly to active edge
Can play tricks with tensile spacer &
silicide films to relieve channel stress
Modeled in BSIM4 not BSIM3
high compression lower compression
Source: Xi et al., UC Berkeley (2003)
SA SB SA SB
Slide 57
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Layout Implications of LOD Effect
I
IN
85C
Layout Guidelines for Optimal Matching
Same L & W
Same active area size, shape &
orientation (SA, SB)
Same environment
Example: Current Mirror
I
OUT
I
IN
I
OUT
Source: ST Microelectronics (2004)
I
IN
I
OUT
I
IN
I
OUT
GND
GND
GND
BAD!
CHEAP FIX
ANAL RETENTION
Slide 58
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Characterizing Process Variations
Statistical variations in IC manufacturing variations in FET
characteristics
Circuits must function across operating V
DD
& temperature but also
across statistically acceptable process tolerances
Summarized by spread in nFET & pFET V
T
s, or in I
dsat
s, i.e., use V
T
or I
dsat
to summarize cumulative effect of ALL process variances
Consider die-to-die, wafer-to-wafer & lot-to-lot variations
pFET
I
dsat
nFET
I
dsat
TT
FF
SS FS
SF
I
dsat
(V
DD
V
T
)
2
pFET
V
T
nFET
V
T
TT
FF
SS
FS
SF
acceptable
F = fast
T = typical
S = slow
Slide 59
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Correlated vs. Uncorrelated Process Variations
Elliptical 2-D Gaussian distribution from natural variations with no
deliberate retargetting of process parameters
Tougher to control poly CD than implant doses
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
10/0.13m nFET I
dsat
(mA)
1
0
/
0
.
1
3

m

p
F
E
T

I
d
s
a
t

(
m
A
)
3.0
2.5
Measurements
SPICE Targets
TT TT
FF FF
SS SS
FS FS
SF SF
correlated variations due
to common processes
e.g., poly photo/etch CD &
gate oxide thickness
uncorrelated variations
due to uncommon
processes e.g., channel
& well ion implants
Slide 60
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Skew Process for Design Margin Verification
Process wafers with I
dsat
s that target SPICE corners of acceptable distribution
Statistical distribution is cumulative result of ALL variations for processes
targetted as NOMINAL
Countless possibilities of tweaks to achieve skew nFET/pFET I
dsat
combination
Fab typically employs SIMPLE means of retargetting nFET & pFET I
dsat
s with
very few deliberate non-nominal process tweaks
FF vs. SS
Adjust poly CD, no change in gate oxide thickness
Nominal implant doses
FS vs. SF
Adjust surface channel or halo implant dose
Nominal poly CD & gate oxide thickness
Consequences
Nominal & skew results frequently miss intended targets since nominal (by
definition) can land anywhere in distribution
Not 100% representative of natural process corners
Decent approximation for vanilla digital circuits
May be bad approximation for some analog & high-speed digital circuits if
they are insensitive to selected tweaks
Slide 61
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Impact of FET Mismatch
130nm Differential Amplifier Example
in+ in-
out+ out-
bias
waveforms
should be
differential
Extensive work in FET mismatch modeling, pioneered for data converters
Pelgroms basic model (applicable not just to FETs)
WL
T
V
1

Slide 62
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Technology Options Looking Forward
Make faster FETs by increasing C
ox
or
Increase C
ox
High-K gate dielectric (e.g., HfSiON) tighter gate coupling, lower
gate leakage
Metal/silicided gate (e.g., W) circumvent poly gate depletion
Development is facing tough integration problems (low crystallization
temperature, interface quality, hysteresis, mobility)
Likely not ready for initial 45nm production
Increase
Apply mechanical strain to channel perturbs m* in E-k diagram
Improved I
on
/I
off
performance without sacrificing leakage
Remember: nFET likes tension, pFET likes compression
Emphasis on gate & source/drain straining, not substrate straining
Already used by Intel & IBM at 90nm, TSMC starting at 65nm
I
dsat
C
ox
(W/L) (V
GS
V
T
)
2
Slide 63
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Strain Engineering
Basis of High Performance in 65nm & 45nm
IBM example using Dual Stress Liners (DSL) nitride liners
N P N P N P


tensile Compr
N
P
Tensile nit
Compr nit Contact
ST
Source: Chan, IBM (CICC 2005)
Slide 64
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
The Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI) Niche
Only PD-SOI in production so far
Applications: high-end processors (e.g., IBM Cell, AMD)
Whats hot?
Low junction capacitance
No body effect allows taller FET stack with low V
DD
Steeper subthreshold characteristic (FD-SOI only)
Whats not?
Substrate memory effect substrate hacky-sacked capacitively
Substrate heating buried oxide is good insulator
Expensive substrate
In most applications, bulk CMOS is still the way to go
buried oxide
buried oxide
partially-depleted (PD-SOI) fully-depleted (FD-SOI)
Slide 65
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
The Near Future of Patterning
Immersion Lithography
Remember oil immersion microscopy in biology class?
Extend resolution of refractive optics by squirting water puddle on wafer
surface prior to exposure
n
water
~1.45 vs. n
air
~ 1
Tedious but much cheaper than big switch to 157nm reflective optics
Will be mainstream at 45nm
NA = n sin = d / 2 f
Source: ICKnowledge.com(2003)
Resolution =
k
1

NA
Slide 66
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
Conclusions
CMOS scaling continues to be driven by digital circuit needs,
analog modules available at a premium
New learning expected in 65nm & 45nm CMOS front-end as
we cope with design implications of strain engineering
Back-end advances in 65nm & 45nm CMOS are incremental
Always a time lag for SPICE models to include new effects
Huge issue since tapeout mistakes are costlier than ever
Need to work closely with technology providers to quickly
find out about these new effects
Account for them or avoid them!!!
Statistical & layout considerations more critical than ever
Designers with intimate knowledge of technology are best
positioned to avoid pitfalls & to turn bugs into features
Slide 67
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
References (Part 1)
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors, Front End Processes (2003 Edition), 2003.
Technology Backgrounder: Immersion Lithography, ICKnowledge.com, 2003.
Technology Backgrounder: Atomic Layer Deposition, ICKnowledge.com, 2003.
H.-S. P. Wong, Beyond the Conventional Transistor, IBM Journal of Research & Development, vol. 46, no. 2/3, pp.
133-168, Mar. 2002.
C. R. Cleavelin, Front End Manufacturing Technology, IEEE IEDM Short Course on The Future of Semiconductor
Manufacturing, Dec. 2002.
D. Harame, RF Device Technologies, IEEE IEDM Short Course on RF Circuit Design for Communication Systems,
Dec. 2002.
S. Thompson et al., A 90nm Logic Technology Featuring 50nm Strained Silicon Channel Transistors, 7 Levels of Cu
Interconnect, Low k ILD, and 1m
2
SRAM Cell, IEEE IEDM Tech. Digest, pp. 61-64, Dec. 2002.
C. C. Wu et al., A 90nm CMOS Device Technology with High-Speed , General-Purpose, and Low-Leakage
Transistors for System on Chip Applications, IEEE IEDM Tech. Digest, pp. 65-68, Dec. 2002.
J . D. Plummer et al., Silicon VLSI Technology Fundamentals, Practice and Modeling, Prentice-Hall, 2000.
S.M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices (2
nd
ed.), J ohn Wiley & Sons, 1981.
Slide 68
Loke et al.
Avago Technologies
References (Part 2)
V. W. C. Chan et al., Strain Engineering for CMOS Performance Improvement, IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conf.,
Sept. 2005.
T. B. Hook et al., Lateral Ion Implant Straggle and Mask Proximity Effect, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices, vol. 50, no. 9,
pp. 1946-1951, Sept. 2003.
J . Assenmacher, BSIM4 Modeling and Parameter Extraction, Technical Univ. Berlin Analog Integrated Circuits
Workshop, Mar. 2003.
X. Xi et al., BSIM4.3.0 MOSFET Model Users Manual, The Regents of the University of California at Berkeley, 2003.
Y. Taur, CMOS Design Near the Limit of Scaling, IBM Journal of Research & Development, vol. 46, no. 2/3, pp. 213-
222, Mar. 2002.
C. R. Cleavelin, Front End Manufacturing Technology, IEEE IEDM Short Course on The Future of Semiconductor
Manufacturing, Dec. 2002.
R. Rios et al., A Three-Transistor Threshold Voltage Model for Halo Processes, IEEE IEDM Tech. Digest, pp. 113-116,
Dec. 2002.
R.A. Bianchi et al., Accurate Modeling of Trench Isolation Induced Mechanical Stress Effects on MOSFET Electrical
Performance, IEEE IEDM Tech. Digest, pp. 117-120, Dec. 2002.
B. Razavi, Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
K. M. Cao et al., Modeling of Pocket Implanted MOSFETs for Anomalous Analog Behavior, IEEE IEDM Tech. Digest,
pp. 171-120, Dec. 1999.
A. Chatterjee et al., Transistor Design Issues in Integrating Analog Functions with High Performance Digital CMOS,
IEEE Symp. VLSI Technology Tech. Digest, pp. 147-148, J une 1999.
T. H. Lee, The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
D. P. Foty, MOSFET Modeling with SPICE: Principles and Practice, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
A. Beiser, Concepts in modern Physics (4
th
ed.), McGraw-Hill, 1987.