Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Affiliated With
Sig.
Mr. Amir Gafoor Sb.
Head of Department
B-Tech (Pass) Electrical
G.C.T. Burewala.
Sig.
Sig.
Mr. Ghulam Abbas Sb
Muhammad Shoaib Saleem
B-Tech (Pass) Electrical
B-Tech (Pass) Electrical
G.C.T. Burewala.
University Roll# 31
Of
Prepared by:
Eng. Muhammad Shoaib Saleem
B-Tech
(Pass) Electrical
University
Roll #: 31
Introduction:
Protection of Electrical System:
Equipment applied to electric power
systems to detect abnormal and intolerable conditions and to initiate
appropriate corrective actions. These devices include lightning arresters,
surge protectors, fuses, and relays with associated circuit breakers,
reclosers, and so forth.
From time to time, disturbances in the normal operation of a power
system occur. These may be caused by natural phenomena, such as
lightning, wind, or snow; by falling objects such as trees; by animal
contacts or chewing; by accidental means traceable to reckless drivers,
inadvertent acts by plant maintenance personnel, or other acts of
humans; or by conditions produced in the system itself, such as switching
surges, load swings, or equipment failures. Protective devices must
therefore be installed on power systems to ensure continuity of electrical
service, to limit injury to people, and to limit damage to equipment when
problem situations develop. Protective devices are applied
commensurately with the degree of protection desired or felt necessary
for the particular system.
Overvoltage Protection
Definition:
Overvoltage Protector (OVP) refers to a circuit that protects
downstream circuitry from damage due to excessive voltage. An OVP
monitors the DC voltage coming from an external power source, such as
an off-line power supply or a battery, and protects the rest of the
connected circuitry using one of two methods: a crowbar clamp circuit or
a series-connected switch.
The crowbar short-circuits or clamps the supply line to limit the voltage,
possibly triggering other forms of protection such as a fuse. See Crowbar.
The series-connected switch uses a MOSFET or transistor connected as a
switch in series with the supply line. During an overvoltage condition, the
OVP circuit rapidly shuts off the MOSFET and disconnects the downstream
circuit.
Protective relays:
Fault detection:
Overcurrent protection:
Distance protection:
Overvoltage protection:
Undervoltage protection:
Underfrequency protection:
Reverse-current protection:
Reverse-phase-rotation protection:
Thermal protection:
Motors and generators are particularly
subject to overheating due to overloading and mechanical friction.
Excessive temperatures lead to deterioration of insulation and
increased losses within the machine. Temperature-sensitive elements,
located inside the machine, form part of a bridge circuit used to supply
current to a relay. When a predetermined temperature is reached, the
relay operates, initiating opening of a circuit breaker or sounding of an
alarm.
. Minimize damage.
. Leave unaffected equipment in-service.
. Maintain equipment operating limits.
. Maintain electrical system stability.
. Speed
. Reliability
. Security
. Sensitivity
Double Protection:
Duplicate Protection Schemes:
Bus Protection:
. Over-current
. Differential
. Back-up
. Under voltage
Over-current Relay:
Differential Protection:
Fault Conditions:
Bus Protection Scheme:
Back-up relay:
Transformer Protection:
. Instantaneous
. Differential
. Gas
. Thermal Overload
. Ground
Transformer Characteristics:
. High magnetizing inrush currents
. Ratio mismatch with CTs aggravated by tap-changers
. Phase shifts
. Transformers are affected by over-fluxing
. Affected by over-temperature
Transformer Zone:
Differential:
Gas Relay:
Winding Temperature:
Ground Fault Protection:
Circuit breaker :-
A circuit breaker is an equipment, which can open or
close a ckt under normal as well as fault condition. It is so designed
that it can be operated manually ( or by remote control) under normal
conditions and automatically under fault condition. For the latter
operation a relay wt. is used with a C.B. generally bulk oil C.B. are used
for voltage upto 66 KV while for high voltage low oil & SF6 C.B. are used.
For still higher voltage, air blast vacuum or SF6 cut breaker are used.
The Trip-Circuit
Fig (1) below illustrates the basic connections of the Circuit Breaker
control for the opening operation
The type of the Circuit Breaker
The type of the Circuit Breaker is usually identified according to the
medium of arc extinction. The classification of the Circuit Breakers
based on the medium of arc extinction is as follows:
(1) Air break' Circuit Breaker. (Miniature Circuit
Breaker).
(2) Oil Circuit Breaker (tank type of bulk oil)
(3) Minimum oil Circuit Breaker.
(4) Air blast Circuit Breaker.
(5) Vacuum Circuit Breaker.
(6) Sulphur hexafluoride Circuit Breaker. (Single
pressure or
Double Pressure).
The problem with fuses is they only work once. Every time you blow a
fuse, you have to replace it with a new one. A circuit breaker does the
same thing as a fuse -- it opens a circuit as soon as current climbs to
unsafe levels -- but you can use it over and over again.
The hot wire in the circuit connects to the two ends of the switch.
When the switch is flipped to the on position, electricity can flow from
the bottom terminal, through the electromagnet, up to the moving
contact, across to the stationary contact and out to the upper terminal.
One of the newer circuit breaker devices is the ground fault circuit
interrupter, or GFCI. These sophisticated breakers are designed to
protect people from electrical shock, rather than prevent damage to a
building's wiring. The GFCI constantly monitors the current in a circuit's
neutral wire and hot wire. When everything is working correctly, the
current in both wires should be exactly the same. As soon as the hot
wire connects directly to ground (if somebody accidentally touches the
hot wire, for example), the current level surges in the hot wire, but not
in the neutral wire. The GFCI breaks the circuit as soon as this
happens, preventing electrocution. Since it doesn't have to wait for
current to climb to unsafe levels, the GFCI reacts much more quickly
than a conventional breaker.
So you've hooked up your trailer to your tow vehicle, you've got the
tow vehicle's engine running and the lights on the trailer refuse to
come on. What do you do next?
The Reese Towpower 74633 4-Way Tester is one of the simpler trailer
wiring testers on the market The key to detecting a wiring issue is to
eliminate possibilities until you can determine the source of the
problem. First, you may want to check the lights on your trailer -- the
problem may be as simple as a burned-out bulb. If that's not the
problem, you'll need to disconnect your trailer's wiring system from
your tow vehicle. Next, you'll need to check to make sure your
vehicle's lights are in good working order. Test your vehicle's turn
signals, brake lights and backup lights to make sure the problem isn't
the tow vehicle itself.
.
Plug the tester into your tow vehicle's socket. The tester should have
one or more indicators that will alert you if it detects an electric
current. Most testers have an indicator for each function. Test each
system in turn and check your results. If the tester responded to each
system, then the trailer's wiring system is the likely source of the
problem. But if one or more of the tests results in no response from the
tester, your tow vehicle may be at fault.
Some wiring problems are easy to fix. If two wires are connecting to
the wrong connection points, it's usually just a matter of using some
wire cutters, a wire stripper and a crimper to swap them. Others might
require a visit to a mechanic. The important thing to remember is that
if the wiring isn't working properly, you can't travel on the road safely.
Other drivers could misinterpret your actions if the wrong lights
activate on your trailer as you drive.
Mounting a breakaway kit is a simple task with the right tools, but if
you're not used to working with electrical wiring, you might want to opt
for professional installation.
After choosing the right type of breakaway kit, the next step is to
install the kit onto your vehicle. There are basically two steps to this:
mounting the breakaway kit and switch and connecting the electrical
system.
Mounting a breakaway kit is the simplest step, and if you have the
right tools you should be able to do it on your own. Most breakaway
kits come with either a mounting bracket or they have mounting holes
built into the plastic battery box itself, so all you have to do is bolt the
kit onto the trailer. Where you choose to mount the battery is up to you
-- it can go almost anywhere on the trailer -- even on the inside. Most
people choose to place the kit on the trailer frame for easy access.
Mounting the breakaway switch is just as easy. Again, you can mount it
nearly anywhere on the trailer, but it's best to keep it away from any
space that might be damaged by dragging or debris. Be sure that the
switch wiring will reach the trailer hitch, as the disconnection of the
trailer hitch is what triggers the breakaway switch.
The next step, properly wiring the breakaway system, may be best
handled by a professional. The process involves cutting and splicing
several wires together, so unless you're experienced with electrical
wiring you might want to leave this step to someone trained in
breakaway kit installation.
The wires from the battery connect to the breakaway switch, providing
the necessary power. Then the wires from the breakaway switch are
spliced to the trailer's brake wires. The breakaway switch, also known
as a plunger, is connected to the hitch -- when the trailer separates
from the tow vehicle, the switch immediately sends a signal to the
trailer's brakes to slow down and safely stop the vehicle.
The next time you are driving down the road, you can look
at the power lines in a completely different light. In the
typical scene pictured on the right, the three wires at the
top of the poles are the three wires for the 3-phase power.
The fourth wire lower on the poles is the ground wire. In
some cases there will be additional wires, typically phone
or cable TV lines riding on the same poles.
As mentioned above, this particular substation produces
two different voltages. The wires at the higher voltage
need to be stepped down again, which will often happen
at another substation or in small transformers somewhere
down the line. For example, you will often see a large
green box (perhaps 6 feet/1.8 meters on a side) near the entrance to a
subdivision. It is performing the step-down function for the subdivision.
Regulator Bank:
You will also find regulator banks located along the line, either
underground or in the air. They regulate the voltage on the line to
prevent undervoltage and overvoltage conditions.
A typical regulator bank
Up toward the top are three switches that allow this regulator bank to
be disconnected for maintenance when necessary:
At this point, we have typical line voltage at something like 7,200 volts
running through the neighborhood on three wires (with a fourth ground
wire lower on the pole):
Taps:
A house needs only one of the three phases, so typically you will see
three wires running down a main road, and taps for one or two of the
phases running off on side streets. Pictured below is a 3-phase to 2-
phase tap, with the two phases running off to the right:
Here is a 2-phase to 1-phase tap, with the single phase running out to
the right:
At the House:
And finally we are down to the wire that brings power to
your house! Past a typical house runs a set of poles with one phase of
power (at 7,200 volts) and a ground wire (although sometimes there
will be two or three phases on the pole, depending on where the house
is located in the distribution grid). At each house, there is a
transformer drum attached to the pole, like this:
In many suburban neighborhoods, the distribution lines are
underground and there are green transformer boxes at every house
or two. Here is some detail on what is going on at the pole:
The transformer's job is to reduce the 7,200 volts down to the 240
volts that makes up normal household electrical service. Let's look at
this pole one more time, from the bottom, to see what is going on:
There are two things to notice in this picture:
• There is a bare wire running down the pole.
This is a grounding wire. Every utility pole on the planet has one.
If you ever watch the power company install a new pole, you will
see that the end of that bare wire is stapled in a coil to the base
of the pole and therefore is in direct contact with the earth,
running 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3 m) underground. It is a good, solid
ground connection. If you examine a pole carefully, you will see
that the ground wire running between poles (and often the guy
wires) are attached to this direct connection to ground.
• There are two wires running out of the transformer and three
wires running to the house.
The two from the transformer are insulated, and the third one is
bare. The bare wire is the ground wire. The two insulated wires
each carry 120 volts, but they are 180 degrees out of phase so
the difference between them is 240 volts. This arrangement
allows a homeowner to use both 120-volt and 240-volt
appliances. The transformer is wired in this sort of configuration:
•
The 240 volts enters your house through a typical watt-hour meter
like this one:
The meter lets the power company charge you for putting up all of
these wires.
11KV Panel:
Electrical Faults:
. Phase to phase
. Phase to ground
. Phase to phase to phase
. Phase to phase to phase to ground
Breaker Failure:
. Minimizes the amount of equipment removed from service in event of
a failure
. Failure Determination
. Not started opening in a certain time
. Not open in a certain time
. Current not broken in a certain time
Other Protections:
. Phase Unbalance
. Loss of field
. Under frequency
. Out of Step
Reverse Power:
Sr Name of Grid
Date Work Done
# Station
Bahawalpur Testing of distance relay LZ31
02.06. 132KV Grid
01 circuit breakerBWP-2 and Calibration of KWH
09 Bahawalpur
meter 11KV University Feeder
24.06.
02 132KV M/Rasheed To attend the fault of Power Transformer TR-1
09
07.07. 132KV Basti
03 To attend the shut down on BTM-2 & BTM-3
09 Malook
09.07. 132KV Vehari Attend the shut down on VHR-1 & attend the
04
09 Road fault of differential relay of TR-1
12.07.
05 132KV Sadiqabad Commissioning of new 20/26 MVA P/Tr
09
16.07. Annual testing of 132KV breakers BSR-1 &
06 132KV Bosan Road
09 BSR-2
26.07. Attend the fault of fan control cable of
07 132KV Lodhran
09 P/Transformaer
07.09.
08 132KV Mesco To attend the 6 monthly routine testing of P/Tr
09
08.09.
09 132KV M/Rasheed To attend the fault on CT of 11KV O/G feeder
09
Sr Name of Grid
Date Work Done
# Station
10.09.
10 132KV Bosan Road To attend the shut down of TR-3
09
16.09. 132KV Basti To change the CT ratio of 11KV O/G Noori Lal
11
09 Malook feeder
19.09.
12 132KV Lodhran For installation of new 11KV O/G Panel
09
26.09. 132KV Vehari To attend the 6 monthly routine testing of PTr-
13
09 Road 1
29.09.
14 132KV Kabir Wala To attend the fault of cooling fan circuit
09
30.09.
15 132KV Ind: Estate To attend the fault of Fan circuit of TR-1
09