D e f e n s e Mechanisms

My therapist still doesn't prescribe me enough medication. So I had to get this expensive book
and this little one for the road.
A number of phenomena are used to aid in the maintenance of repression. These are termed Ego
Defense Mechanisms (the terms Mental Mechanisms! and "efense Mechanisms! are
essentially synonymous #ith this$. The primary functions of these mechanisms are%
&. to minimi'e anxiety
(. to protect the ego
). to maintain repression
*epression is useful to the individual since%
&. it prevents discomfort
(. it leads to some economy of time and
effort
Ego Defense Mechanisms include:
Acting Out: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by actions rather than reflections or feelings. This definition is
broader than the original concept of the acting out of transference feelings
or #ishes during psychotherapy and is intended to include behavior arising
both #ithin and outside the transference relationship. "efensive acting
out is not synonymous #ith bad behavior! because it re+uires evidence
that the behavior is related to emotional conflicts.
Affiliation: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by turning to others for help or support. This involves sharing
problems #ith others but does not imply trying to make someone else
responsible for them.
Aim inhibition: ,lacing a limitation upon instinctual demands- accepting partial or
modified fulfillment of desires. .xamples% (&$ a person is conscious of
sexual desire but if finding it frustrating/ 0decides0 that all that is really
#anted in the relationship is companionship. (($ a student #ho originally
#anted to be a physician decides to become a physician's assistant.
Aim inhibition/ like the other mechanisms/ is neither healthful nor
pathological/ desirable nor undesirable/ in itself. It may be better to have
half a loaf than no bread/ but an unnecessary aim inhibition may rob one
of other#ise attainable satisfactions.
1ote that the first example could include the mechanism of displacement/
and the second/ rationali'ation. 2p to a point/ mutual ideali'ation can
make for a happy relationship- ho#ever/ unrealistic expectations of
another person based upon this mechanism can lead to serious
disappointment.
Altruism: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by dedication to meeting the needs of others. 2nlike the self3
sacrifice sometimes characteristic of reaction formation/ the individual
receives gratification either vicariously or from the response of others.
Anticipation: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by experiencing emotional reactions in advance of/ or
anticipating conse+uences of/ possible future events and considering
realistic/ alternative responses or solutions.
Autistic Fantasy: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by excessive daydreaming as a substitute for human
relationships/ more effective action/ or problem solving.
Avoidance: A defense mechanism consisting of refusal to encounter situations/
ob4ects/ or activities because they represent unconscious sexual or
aggressive impulses and5or punishment for those impulses- avoidance/
according to the dynamic theory/ is a ma4or defense mechanism in
phobias. 6symboli'ation7 6displacement7
Compensation: .ncountering failure or frustration in some sphere of activity/ one
overemphasi'es another. The term is also applied to the process of over3
correcting for a handicap or limitation. .xamples% (&$ a physically
unattractive adolescent becomes an expert dancer. (($ a youth #ith
residual muscle damage from poliomyelitis becomes an athlete. ()$
"emosthenes.
Conversion: 8onflicts are presented by physical symptoms involving portions of the
body innervated by sensory or motor nerves. This mechanism and
somati'ation are the only ones that are al#ays pathological. .xamples% a
man's arm becomes paraly'ed after impulses to strike another (($ regular
heavy drinking limited to #eekends- ()$ long periods of sobriety
interspersed #ith binges of daily heavy drinking lasting for #eeks or
months. 6somati'ation7
Deflection: Also detected #hen the individual is in group therapy and consists of
redirecting attention to another group member.
Denial: 9ailing to recogni'e obvious implications or conse+uences of a thought/
act/ or situation. .xamples% (&$ a person having an extramarital affair
gives no thought to the possibility of pregnancy. (($ persons living near a
volcano disregard the dangers involved. ()$ a disabled person plans to
return to former activities #ithout planning a realistic program of
rehabilitation. 6repression7
Devaluation: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by attributing exaggerated negative +ualities to self or others.
6ideali'ation7
Displacement: A change in the ob4ect by #hich an instinctual drive is to be satisfied-
shifting the emotional component from one ob4ect or idea to another.
.xamples% (&$ a #oman is abandoned by her fiance:- she +uickly finds
another man about #hom she develops the same feelings- (($ a salesman is
angered by his superior but suppresses his anger- later/ on return to his
home/ he punishes one of his children for misbehavior that #ould usually
be tolerated or ignored.
"isplacements are often +uite satisfactory and #orkable mechanisms- if
one cannot have steak/ it is comforting to like hamburger e+ually #ell. As
the March ;are observed/ 0I like #hat I have is the same as I have #hat I
like.0 ;o#ever/ the example of displaced anger illustrates a situation
#hich/ if often repeated/ could cause serious complications in the person:s
life. 8onscious acceptance of a substitute #ith full recognition that it is a
substitute for something one #ants is an analog of displacement.
6avoidance7 6symboli'ation7
Dissociation: Splitting3off a group of thoughts or activities from the main portion of
consciousness- compartmentali'ation. .xample% a politician #orks
vigorously for integrity in government/ but at the same time engages in a
business venture involving a conflict of interest #ithout being consciously
hypocritical and seeing no connection bet#een the t#o activities.
Some dissociation is helpful in keeping one portion of ones life from
interfering !ith another "e#g#$ not bringing problems home from the office%#
&o!ever$ dissociation is responsible for some symptoms of mental illness' it
occurs in (hysteria( "certain somatoform and dissociative disorders% and
schi)ophrenia$ *he dissociation of hysteria involves a large segment of the
consciousness !hile that in schi)ophrenia is of numerous small portions#
*he apparent splitting of affect from content often noted in schi)ophrenia is
usually spoken of as dissociation of affect$ though isolation might be a better
term#
Fi+ation: The cessation of the process of development of the personality at a stage
short of complete and uniform mature independence is kno#n as fixation.
6regression7
&elp,-e.ecting
Complaining: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by complaining or making repetitious re+uests for help that
disguise covert feelings or hostility or reproach to#ard others/ #hich are
then expressed by re4ecting the suggestions/ advice/ or help that others
offer. The complaints or re+uests may involve physical or psychological
symptoms or life problems.
&umor: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or external stressors by
emphasi'ing the amusing or ironic aspects of the conflict or stressors.
/deali)ation: <verestimation of the desirable +ualities and underestimation of the
limitations of a desired ob4ect. .xamples% (&$ a lover speaks in glo#ing
terms of the beauty and intelligence of an average3looking #oman #ho is
not very bright. (($ a purchaser/ having finally decided bet#een t#o
items/ expounds upon the advantages of the one chosen. 6devaluation7
/dentification: Similar to intro4ection/ but of less intensity and completeness. The unconscious
modeling of one's self upon another person. <ne may also identify #ith
values and attitudes of a group. .xamples% (&$ #ithout being a#are that he
is copying his teacher/ a resident physician assumes a similar mode of
dress and manner #ith patients. (($ a school girl #ants her mother to buy
her the same kind of shoes her classmates are #earing- she angrily re4ects
the idea that she is trying to be like the other girls and insists that the shoes
are truly the best available and are the style she has al#ays #anted.
8onscious analogs of identification are intentional imitation of others and
volitional efforts to conform to a group. 6incorporation7 6intro4ection7
/ncorporation: The assimilation of the ob4ect into one's o#n ego and5or superego. This
is one of the earliest mechanisms utili'ed. The parent becomes almost
literally a part of the child. ,arental values/ preferences/ and attitudes are
ac+uired. 6intro4ection7 6identification7
/ntellectuali)ation: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by the excessive use of abstract thinking or the making of
generali'ations to control or minimi'e disturbing feelings.
/ntro.ection: The process of assimilation of the picture of an ob4ect (as the individual
conceives the ob4ect to be$. 9or example/ #hen a person becomes
depressed due to the loss of a loved one/ his feelings are directed to the
mental image he possesses of the loved one.
6identification7 6incorporation7
/solation: The splitting3off of the emotional components from a thought. .xample% a
medical student dissects a cadaver #ithout being disturbed by thoughts of
death. Isolation may be temporary (affect postponement$. .xample% a
bank teller appears calm and cool #hile frustrating a robbery but after#ard
is tearful and tremulous.
The mechanism of isolation is commonly over utilized by obsessive compulsives.
Omnipotence: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by feeling or acting as if he or she possesses special po#ers or
abilities and is superior to others.
0assive Aggression: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal or external
stressors by indirectly and unassertively expressing aggression to#ard
others. There is a facade of overt compliance masking covert resistance/
resentment/ or hostility. ,assive aggression often occurs in response to
demands for independent action or performance or the lack of
gratification of dependent #ishes but may be adaptive for individuals in
subordinate positions #ho have no other #ay to express assertiveness
more avertly.
0ro.ection: Attributing one's thoughts or impulses to another person. In common
use/ this is limited to unacceptable or undesirable impulses. .xamples%
(&$ a man/ unable to accept that he has competitive or hostile feelings
about an ac+uaintance/ says/ ;e doesn:t like me.! (($ a #oman/ denying
to herself that she has sexual feelings about a co3#orker/ accuses him/
#ithout basis/ of flirt and described him as a #olf.!
This defense mechanism is commonly over utili'ed by the paranoid.
A broader definition of pro4ection includes certain operations that allo#
for empathy and understanding of others. *ecognition that another
person is lonely or sad may be based not upon having seen other
examples of loneliness or sadness and learning the out#ard
manifestations but upon having experienced the feelings and recogni'ing
automatically that another person:s situation #ould evoke them.
6pro4ective identification7
0ro.ective
/dentification: As in pro4ection/ the individual deals #ith emotional conflict or internal
or external stressors by falsely attributing to another his or her o#n
unacceptable feelings/ impulses/ or thoughts. 2nlike simple pro4ection/
the individual does not fully disavo# #hat is pro4ected. Instead/ the
individual remains a!are of his or her o#n affects or impulses but mis3
attributes them as 4ustifiable reactions to the other person. 1ot
infre+uently/ the individual induces the very feelings in others that #ere
first mistakenly believed to be there/ making it difficult to clarify #ho did
#hat to #hom first. 6pro4ection7
-ationali)ation: <ffering a socially acceptable and apparently more or less logical
explanation for an act or decision actually produced by unconscious
impulses. The person rationali'ing is not intentionally inventing a story to
fool someone else/ but instead is misleading self as #ell as the listener.
.xamples% (&$ a man buys a ne# car/ having convinced himself that his
older car #on't make it through the #inter. (($ a #oman #ith a closet full
of dresses buys a ne# one because she doesn't have anything to #ear.
-eaction
Formation: =oing to the opposite extreme- overcompensation for unacceptable
impulses..xamples% (&$ a man violently dislikes an employee- #ithout
being a#are of doing so/ he 0bends over back#ards0 to not critici'e the
employee and gives him special privileges and advances. (($ a person #ith
strong antisocial impulses leads a crusade against vice. ()$ a married
#oman #ho is disturbed by feeling attracted to one of her husband's
friends treats him rudely.
Intentional efforts to compensate for conscious dislikes and prejudices are
sometimes analogous to this mechanism. [undoing] [restitution]
-egression: >y another anxiety3evading mechanism kno#n as regression/ the
personality may suffer a loss of some of the development already attained
and may revert to a lo#er level of adaptation and expression. 6fixation7
-epression: The involuntary exclusion of a painful or conflictual thought/ impulse/ or
memory from a#areness. This is the primary ego defense mechanism-
others reinforce it.
-esistance: This defense mechanism produces a deep3seated opposition to the bringing
of repressed (unconscious$ data to a#areness. Through its operation/ the
individual seeks to avoid memories or insights #hich #ould arouse
anxiety.
-estitution: The mechanism of relieving the mind of a load of guilt by making up or
reparation (paying up #ith interest$. 6reaction formation7 6undoing7
Self,Assertion: The individual deals #ith emotional conflict or stressors by expressing his
or her feelings and thoughts directly in a #ay that is not coercive or
manipulative.
Somati)ation: 8onflicts are represented by physical symptoms involving parts of the
body innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic system.
.xample% a highly competitive and aggressive person/ #hose life situation
re+uires that such behavior be restricted/ develops hypertension.
6conversion7
Splitting: This term is #idely used today to explain the coexistence #ithin the ego
of contradictory states/ representative of self and others/ as #ell as
attitudes to self and others- other individuals or the self is perceived as
0All good or all bad.
Sublimation: Attenuating the force of an instinctual drive by using the energy in other/
usually constructive activities. This definition implies acceptance of the
?ibido Theory- the examples do not re+uire it. Sublimation is often
combined #ith other mechanisms/ among them aim inhibition/
displacement/ and symboli'ation. .xamples% (&$ a man #ho is dissatisfied
#ith his sex life but #ho has not stepped out on his #ife becomes very
busy repairing his house #hile his #ife is out of to#n. Thus/ he has no
time for social activities. (($ a #oman is forced to undertake a restrictive
diet- she becomes interested in painting and does a number of still life
pictures/ most of #hich include fruit.
The conscious use of #ork or hobbies to divert one:s thoughts from a
problem or from a re4ected #ish is an analog of this. Sublimation is often
a desirable mechanism. ;o#ever/ the conse+uences may/ in addition to
preventing instinctual satisfaction/ interfere #ith the person's life in other
#ays if disproportionate time/ money/ or effort is used in the activity.
Substitution: Through this defense mechanism/ the individual secures alternative or
substitutive gratification comparable to those that #ould have been
employed had frustration not occurred.
Suppression: 2sually fisted as an ego defense mechanism but actually the conscious
analog of repression- intentional exclusion of material from
consciousness. At times/ suppression may lead to subse+uent repression.
.xamples% (&$ a young man at #ork finds that he is letting thoughts about
a date that evening interfere #ith his duties- he decides not to think about
plans for the evening until he leaves #ork. (($ a student goes on vacation
#orried that she may be failing- she decides not to spoil her holiday by
thinking of school. ()$ a #oman makes an embarrassing faux pas at a
party- she makes an effort to forget all about it.
In the first example, suppression as probably a desirable mechanism since it
permitted concentration on ork and deferred dealing ith plans for the evening until a more
appropriate time. In the second instance, suppression ould have been undesirable if failing
ork could have been corrected during vacation or if a realistic appraisal of probable
conse!uences of the school situation ould have permitted battery planning.
Symboli)ation: An ob4ect or act represents a complex group of ob4ects and acts/ some of
#hich may be conflictual or unacceptable to the ego- ob4ects or acts stand
for a repressed desire. .xamples% (&$ a soldier/ #hen asked #hy he
volunteered/ he said/ 0To defend the flag.0 ;e re4ects as irrelevant a
+uestion about the purpose of the #ar. (($ a boy asks for a girl's hand (in
marriage$.
As in the second illustration/ symboli'ation is often combined #ith
displacement. it is one of the mechanisms usually involved in phobias.
6avoidance7 6displacement7
1ndoing: An act or communication #hich partially negates a previous one.
.xamples% (&$ t#o close friends have a violent argument- #hen they next
meet/ each act as if the disagreement had never occurred. (($ #hen asked
to recommend a friend for a 4ob/ a man makes derogatory comments
#hich prevent the friend's getting the position- a fe# days later/ the man
drops in to see his friend and brings him a small gift.
In a conscious analog of this/ 1apoleon made it a practice after
reprimanding any officer to find some #ords of praise to say at their next
meeting. 6reaction formation7 6restitution7
&ome