AC GENERATION &

DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
Module: 11 Book: 10/24
AUTHORITY
It is important to note that the information in this book or study/
training purposes only.
When carrying out a procedure/ work on aircraft / aircraft equipment
you MUST always refer to the releant aircraft maintenance manual
or equipment manufacturer!s handbook
"ou should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory
authority #The $%%& in the U&'( and laid down company policy as
regards local procedure. )ecording* report writing* documentation
etc.
+or health and safety in the workshop you should follow the
regulations/ $uidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer*
your company* ,ational safety authorities and national goernments.
CONTENTS
Types of Generators
Permanent Magnet Machines
otating !rmature Type
otating "ield Type
#onnection of Phases
Po$er in % Phase &ystems
"re'uency (ild &ystems Brushless
Generators )oltage egulation
*rror &ensing egulator
Transistorised )oltage egulator
#onstant "re'uency &ystems
#&+, in a -on.Paralleled &ystem
/ndications -on.
Paralleled &ystems
"ault Protection
Manual G# Tripping
*lectrical 0oad #ontrol ,nit
!# 0oad &hedding
B/T
"light +eck /ndication
Manual Paralleling
!utomatic Paralleling
Paralleled &ystems
0oad &haring
Po$er in ac #ircuits
Po$er "actor
0oad &ensing
eacti1e 0oad &haring
eal 0oad &haring
"ault Protection )aria2le &peed
#onstant "re'uency Generator
3peration
B/T
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!# G*-*!T/3-
/n ac generators8 the rotating part of the generator is called the 3T3 and
the stationary part is called the &T!T39 There are three 2asic types:
: Permanent Magnet Generator
: otating !rmature Generator
: otating "ield Generator
Permanent Magnet Type
The rotor of the machine is a permanent magnet and as the magnet is
rotated its magnetic field cuts the stationary output $indings producing an
alternating 1oltage output9 This type of generator ;or 1ariations of it< is
used as part of the most 2rushless ac generators ;see later te=t in this
2ook<9
otating !rmature Type
This type of ac machine is similar in construction to a dc generator in that
the rotor rotates in a fi=ed field $ith the emf picked off 1ia slip.rings9 The
rotor $indings are laid in slots along the rotor periphery8 the armature
2eing laminated to reduce eddy current losses9 The stator carries the dc
e=citation $indings $ound on the pole pieces to create alternate north and
south poles around the stator9 "igure 2 sho$s a single phase 2 pole
machine $ith the output as sho$n in "igure %9
. 1 .
3ne cycle of 1oltage is induced $hen the conductor mo1es through %60>
past one pair of poles9 /f there are t$o pairs of poles then t$o cycles of ac
$ill 2e produced9
The num2er of cycles of induced 1oltage of an actual generator $ill
correspond to the num2er of pairs of poles in the generator and is called
the fre'uency ;f<9
. 2 -
f? -p@
60
AertB
$here -

? speed in rpm of the generator at $hich the generator
must 2e dri1en in order to generate the re'uired fre'uency9
p ? num2er of pairs of poles9
C,*&T/3-: To pro1ide an output of 400AB $hat speed must a t$o pole
machine 2e dri1en atD
!-&(*: Transposing the formula
-? 60f
P
. 60 = 400
1
? 248000 rpm
!n ac generator8 in $hich the $hole of the output consists of a single
$inding $ith the outer ends connected to a pair of slip.rings8 is termed a
Esingle phase generatorE9 /f there $ere t$o $indings at different angles
connected to slip rings then this $ould gi1e t$o outputs and $ould 2e
kno$n as a Et$o phase generatorE9
3 / 3
"igure 4 sho$s a three phase system8 in $hich the coils are at 120> to
each other and a % phase output is generated9 /n other $ords it is really %
generators in one $ith % separate outputs each one 120> out.of.phase $ith
the ne=t9
Fig. 5 CURVE OF INDUCED EMF - 3 P!SE
Three phase supplies are used e=tensi1ely on aircraft . as it is on most
national grid systems9 This type of generator8 ho$e1er8 is not used as a
main generating source on its o$n as it has the follo$ing disad1antages9
;a< !s all the po$er is taken from the rotor8 the effecti1e
insulation and 1entilation causes pro2lems9
;a< !ll the ;hea1y< output is taken 1ia slip.rings and 2rushes9
;2< #entrifugal forces are considera2le on the rotor $indings9
otating "ield Type
/n this type of generator the dc field rotates and its field cuts the stationary
;output< $indings on the stator9 The output $indings consist of a num2er
of coils connected in series and inserted in slots in the laminated stator to
gi1e a single phase output9 The field $indings are supplied $ith dc 1ia
t$o slip rings and 2rushes9
The principle of a t$o.pole single phase ac generator is sho$n in figure 69
3 1 3
The general arrangement of a single phase rotating field ac generator is
sho$n in figure 49 -ote the dri1e rotating the field $indings8 the po$er of
$hich controlled 2y the dc input 1ia the 2rushes9 The ac output taken
directly from the stator $indings9
3 43
/f another set of single phase $indings at 50> to the first set is added8 then
a t$o phase output is produced 2eing 50> out.of.phase $ith the first
;figures F and 5<9
/f a further set of t$o coils is added and each coil in the system is spaced
at 60> to each other then $e ha1e a three phase system9 *ach pair of coils
is spaced at 120> to one another so there are % phases $here the % outputs
are 120> out of phase ;figure 10<9
The ad1antages of the rotating field generator o1er the rotating armature
type are:
;a< 3nly t$o slip.rings and 2rushes are used taking less current8 ie
field $inding current only9
;2< 0ess pro2lems $ith centrifugal effects on rotor $indings9
;c< The output is taken from the stator8 $here 1entilation and
insulation of $indings is less of a pro2lem9 9
. 6 .
#onnection of Phases
Each phase of a three phase generator can 2e 2rought out to separate
terminals and used to supply separate loads independently8 $hich $ould
re'uire a total of si= leads9 Ao$e1er8 a considera2le sa1ing in ca2le ;and
$eight< and other ad1antages can 2e o2tained 2y connecting together a
lead from one end of each of the three phase $indings as sho$n in figure
119
This sho$s that the three $indings are connected to one point and a lead
is taken from that point9 This configuration is called &T! #3--*#T/3-
and the point $here they meet is called the star point and the lead taken
from the star point is called the neutral lead9
Fig. 11 STAR CONNECTION GENERATOR
"igure 11 sho$s that the line current ? the phase current9
The phase 1oltage on an aircraft generator $ould 2e 117) and the
line 1oltage $hich is the sum of the t$o phase 1oltages across that
line8 ie t$o 117) phases at 120> phase angle8 is 200) and mathematically
is the same as multiplying the phase 1oltage 2y
The 2ig ad1antage of the star connection is that $ith the neutral line t$o
1oltages are a1aila2le . 200 and 1179 !ircraft ac generators are generally
connected in star9
!nother connection of the three coils $ould 2e to connect them as sho$n
in figure 128 kno$n as +*0T! #3--*#T/3-9 /n this case the three
$indings are connected in series to form a closed mesh8 $ith the three
output lines at the Gunctions9
3 5 3
Fig. 12 DELTA CONNECTION LAYOUT
!s can 2e seen from figure 12
/n this connection the line current is composed of t$o components and
mathematically it can 2e sho$n that:
The delta connection does not ha1e a neutral and cannot pro1ide t$o
outputs and must 2e connected to a 2alanced load8 2ut does gi1e a higher
current output than a star connected system9
-3T*: The reason $hy these interconnections can 2e used is that in
a three phase system the instantaneous sum of the emfs or
currents in a 2alanced three phase system is Bero9 0ook at
figure 1% and if8 on the line indicated8 you add the 1oltages
together the sum is Bero9 The same applies to the current
$a1eforms9
Fig. 13 TREE-P!SE "!VEFORMS
3 6 3
Po$er in Three Phase
The po$er in a single phase system is:
True po$er in a 2alanced three.phase star or delta system must 2e three
times that in a single phase system8 so:
/n a star connected system /0 ? /
Ph
&o the formula can 2e $ritten:
and as Then
"or a delta connected system )0 ? )
ph
Then the formula can 2e $ritten:
!nd as
&o for star or delta connected systems there are t$o formulas for po$er9
.5 .
"*C,*-#H (/0+ &H&T*M&
The first ac generators used on aircraft $ere rotating field generators in
$hat $as called a fre'uency $ildE system ;the generators gi1ing out a
fre'uency depending on their rpm8 $hich depended on engine rpm<9 The ac
generator ga1e an output of 20F) and $as connected to a main control
unit8 $hich con1erted this ac into dc8 so the aircraft 2us2ar $as 2F) dc9
These generators $ere preferred to dc systems 2ecause they had a 2etter
po$er to $eight ratio and $ere much less affected 2y poor 2rush
performance at high altitudes9 The output 1oltage of the generator $as
controlled 2y controlling the field strength of the rotating field ac generator
2y a signal from the 1oltage regulator in the control unit $hich kept the
1oltage constant irrespecti1e of load or speed 1ariations9
!t this time electrical heater mats for de.icing had created the need for
large 'uantities of po$er9 !s these elements are resisti1e8 the 1ariation of
fre'uency had no effect8 so the fre'uency $ild constant 1oltage supply $as
fed to resisti1e circuits such as $indshield heating8 heater mats on the
airframe8 engine de.icing heaters etc9
"igure 14 sho$s the 2asic layout of a rectified ac ;fre'uency $ild< system9
-ote the sym2ols used to denote % phase ;three short parallel lines<9
"igure 17 sho$s a fre'uency $ild generator $iring diagram9
- 10-
This generator is of the rotating field type9 !s can 2e seen from the
internal circuit diagram it has two s#a#o$ $indings8 one producing 20F)
and the other 104)9 The speed range is %8%00rpm to 108100rpm gi1ing a
fre'uency range of 167AB to 707AB9 The rotor $inding is supplied $ith
2F) dc applied 1ia t$o slip.rings9
- 11 -
"igure 16 sho$s the principal components of one channel of the system9
The reason for the t$o outputs from the generator ;20F/ 104)< is that the
main 2us2ars on older aircraft $ere 112) and 2F) dc9
The supply from the 20F) $inding is fed 1ia the compounding T, to the
fre'uency.$ild ser1ices9 "rom terminal !l of the Main #ontrol ,nit a
supply is fed 2ack to the rotor $inding to maintain the 1oltage constant9
/n this system sta2le ac is pro1ided 2y in1ertors9
! num2er of aircraft ha1e a small ac generator $hich only supplies the
anti.icing and de.icing systems9 3ne such generator is sho$n in figure 149
The generator has an output of 17k)!: at 20F)I its speed range is 68400
to 108400 rpm gi1ing an output fre'uency of %%7 to 7%7AB9 /t is a rotating
field generator8 $ith si= poles8 $hich you can see in the diagram8 they are
often called EsalientE poles9 The dc is fed to the poles 1ia slip.rings and
2rushes9
:k)! is a term used to denote the po$er output from a generator and is
kilo )olts !mps9 ;"rom module % 1olts = amps ? $atts9 -ot strictly true for
generator outputs 2ut the t$o can 2e e'uated as a 1ery simple rule<9
. 12 .
B,&A0*&& G*-*!T3&
There are o21ious pro2lems associated $ith 2rushes ru22ing on
commutators8 so a generator designed $ithout these has considera2le
ad1antages in terms of $ear8 sparking etc9
There are many types of 2rushless ac generators in use8 $e shall deal $ith
t$o 1ariations on the theme9
(ith reference to figure 1F9 There are t$o main parts in its construction:
;a< The *=citer8 $hich is a otating !rmature8 &tar.$ound ac
generator9
;2< The Main ac Generator8 $hich is of otating "ield8 &tar.$ound
construction9
3peration
;a< Permanent magnets are interspersed 2et$een the main poles of the
e=citer field on the stator9 !s the e=citer output $indings are
turned8 the $eak magnet field of the stationary magnets is cut 2y
the e=citer $indings inducing an emf $hich is fed to the rectifiers9
- 13-
;2<&ilicon diodes located on the rotor form a % phase8 full.$a1e rectifier
2ridge8 con1erting the output into dc8 $hich is smoothed 2y a
capacitor and fed along the rotor to the rotating field poles of the
main generator9
;c<The rotating field induces emfs into the main % phase stationary
output $indings $hich are star.connected ;e=ternally in this case< to
gi1e phase 1oltages of 117) rms and line.to.line 1oltages at 200)
rms9
;d< !part from feeding out to the loads8 the generator output is fed
2ack8 1ia a 1oltage regulator8 as dc onto its o$n e=citer field
$indings9 The e=citer field $indings take o1er from the permanent
magnets in controlling the output 1oltage of the generator9 ;/n this
machi ne8 t he permanent magnet s pl ay no furt her part in t he
operation as their flu= densities are lo$ compared to that of the
e=citer field coils<9
;e< T$o field $indings are pro1ided for the e=citer9 3ne ;"l< is
permanently in circuit9 The second ;"2< is only 2rought into
operation in the e1ent of a temperature rise causing the resistance
of "l to increase to the point $here the 1oltage regulator is una2le
to sustain sufficient current through it to maintain the 1oltage9
;This is kno$n as "ield #ritical esistance<9 !s the temperature
rises the thermistor resistance decreases and allo$s current to flo$
through "28 so assist ing "l9
;f< !lso $ound on the poles of the e=citer is a third $inding9 This is a
sta2ility feed.2ack $inding9 ,nder steady operating conditions8 no
emf is induced into this $inding8 2ut in the e1ent of rapid changes
in field current8 emfs are induced and currents are caused to flo$
in the sta2ility $indings in the 1oltage regulator in such a direction
as to pre1ent o1er.reaction9 Thus the system is sta2ilised9
;g< The current transformer 2oost circuit assists the 1oltage
regulator
during load changes and during periods of large un2alanced loads
on the generator9
!lso incorporated in each generator is a thermostatic s$itch $hich
s$itches on an o1erheat $arning light if the temperature limit is 2eing
e=ceeded9
The second type of 2rushless ac generator is sho$n in the figure 159
There are three main parts in its construction:
;a< The otating Permanent Magnet Generator ;PMG<
.sometimes kno$n as the Pilot *=citer9
- 1%-
;2< The Main *=citer8 $hich is a otating !rmature8 &tar.$ound
ac generator9
;c<The Main !# Generator8 $hich is of otating "ield8 &tar.
$ound construction9
- 15-
(hen the generator dri1e shaft is rotated the permanent magnet rotates
and its field cuts the three stationary star connected coils and induces an
ac current and 1oltage into them9 This is fed e=ternally to the )oltage
egulator section of the Generator #ontrol ,nit ;G#, . the J2rainsE 2ehind
the control of the generator<9
The regulator section controls and rectifies this output and feeds a dc
current to the main stationary e=citer $inding9 This is controlled to keep
the generator 1oltage output constant irrespecti1e of load9 This dc field is
cut 2y the rotating star connected e=citer armature $inding $hich induces
an ac into it9 This ac is fed 1ia the si= diodes on the rotating armature to
gi1e % phase full $a1e rectification and therefore dc to the main field coil
;also 2eing rotated 2y the engine<9 This rotating field cuts the star connected
$indings of the main generator to gi1e 117/200) % phase 400AB output
;400AB pro1ided the generator is rotating at the re'uired rpm<9
Part of the output is fed 2ack to the 1oltage regulator in the G#, $hich
controls the dc to the e=citer field and hence the generator output9
)30T!G* *G,0!T/3-
)oltage regulation is accomplished 2y 1arying the field strength of the ac
generatorEs e=citer field in order to keep the output 1oltage constant under
1arying speed and load conditions9 There are t$o main methods of
carrying this out:
18 The e=citer field is fed $ith dc8 $hich is 1aried in strength using an
*rror &ensing Bridge9
29 The e=citer field is fed $ith a stream of pulses8 the amplitude of
$hich remains constant $hilst the $idth of the pulses is increased
to increase the o1erall field current and decreased to decrease field
current9
*rror &ensing Bridge Method
3peration ;single generator running<9 The output of the ac generator is fed
1ia a full.$a1e rectifier 2ridge8 complete $ith choke/capacitor smoothing8
to an *rror &ensing Bridge9 ! trimmer is used to set the circuit so that8
$hen the ac output is correct ;200)<8 140)dc is applied to the 2ridge9 The
t$o constant 1oltage tu2es in the 2ridge each maintain a 1oltage of F7)
across itself throughout itEs $orking range9 ,nder correct output
conditions the points E!E and 1%E are at the same potential and no current
flo$s in the control $inding of the magnetic amplifier9
. 16.
Increased line voltage ;caused 2y increased speed or reduction in load<
causes an increased dc 1oltage to 2e applied to the error sensing 2ridge9
+ue to the action of the constant 1oltage tu2es8 point ! no$ 2ecomes
positi1e $ith respect to point B and current flo$s through the control
$inding from ! to B9 This has the effect of reducing the current in the
e=citer field and so reducing the generator output 1oltage 2ack to normal9
Decreased Line Voltage Kcaused 2y decreased speed or increase in load<
causes an action that is opposite to that of the pre1ious paragraph8 $ith
point B 2ecoming positi1e $ith respect to point !9 This causes current to
flo$ in the opposite direction through the control $inding8 resulting in an
increase in field current and an increase in generator output9
Transistorised )oltage egulation
The output from the PMG ;figure 22< is fed to the star connected primary
of a transformer in the G#,9 The star connected secondary of the
transformer feeds a com2ined 1oltage regulator and Transformer ectifier
,nit ;T,< to ensure the 1oltage to the field circuit is a constant dc
1oltage9
. 14.
The circuit continues through a contact of the Generator #ontrol elay
;G#<8 through to the main e=citer field $indings8 2ack into the G#, to a
transistor in the output stage of the 1oltage regulator to earth9 This is the
field circuit note the G# contact8 this is 1ery important 2ecause under
fault conditions the G# is tripped and the field circuit $ill 2e 2roken9
The generator output is fed 1ia the rectifiers to a sensor in the 1oltage
regulator9 /t is compared to a reference 1alue and the difference signal $ill
signal the amplifier to s$itch the transistor 3- and 3""8 this 3-/3""
pulse is 1aried according to $hether 1oltage is re'uired to 2e increased or
decreased8 ie effecti1e current to the field is increased or decreased9
'++'%TI7' +I'89 %U))',T
- 1&-
/f the generator loading $as to increase8 the terminal 1oltage of the
generator $ould decrease ;due to internal 1oltage drop<8 this $ould 2e
sensed 2y the regulator $hich $ould signal the s$itching transistor to
increase the $idth of the pulse8 i9e9 stay on for a longer period of time9 The
pulsing is fast so the field sees an effecti1e current8 $hich $ill increase in
this case to increase the output of the generator9
/f a 1ery hea1y load $as taken off the generator8 the terminal 1oltage of the
generator $ould tend to rise9 The regulator this time $ould signal the
s$itching transistor to s$itch on for a smaller period of time8 lo$ering the
effecti1e current8 $hich $ill decrease the current to the field8 lo$ering the
output of the generator9
The 1oltage amplitude of the pulses remains the same8 it is Gust the $idth
of the pulses that is 1aried8 and hence the name gi1en to this type of
regulation system is P,0&* (/+TA M3+,0!T/3-9
#3-&T!-T "*C,*-#H &H&T*M&
"or aircraft $here the load is only resisti1e ;heaters . anti.icing8
$indscreen heaters etc< then fre'uency $ild systems can 2e used9 /f
circuits that are inducti1e or reacti1e are used then the fre'uency of
supply must 2e constant 2ecause the impedance ;resistance< 1aries $ith the
fre'uency ;module % *lectrical "undamentals<9
"or most aircraft the generator is connected to a unit called a #onstant
&peed +ri1e ,nit ;#&+,<8 this in turn is connected to the engine9 The
#&+,Es Go2 is to ensure the generator runs at a constant speed and hence
constant fre'uency8 irrespecti1e of the speed of the engine9 The speed of
the generator is 128000 rpm8 2ut many aircraft ha1e generators running at
68000 rpm or F8000 rpm9
;3n some aircraft a generator is used called a )aria2le &peed #onstant
"re'uency ;)&#"< generator $hich runs at a speed related to engine rpm
and a constant fre'uency output is o2tained electronically . more of this
later<9
The #&+, and the generator can 2e separate units 2ut in later aircraft
they are one unit $hich is called an /ntegrated +ri1e Generator ;/+G<9
/n general there are t$o types of ac po$er distri2ution systems:
a< -on paralleled
2< Paralleled
. 15.
/n a non paralleled system each generator supplies its o$n 2us and all the
ser1ices attached thereto9 &o8 in general8 if there are four generators then
there are four 2uses each supplying their o$n ser1ices. The 2uses are
interconnected 2y relays so if one generator output drops off then another
generator can 2e s$itched in to supply some po$er to that 2us9
&ometimes called a -on 0oad &haring system9
(ith a paralleled or 0oad &haring system all generators share the load to
the 2usses9 This means that each generator is taking e=actly the same
load as each of the others9
#&+, in a -on Paralleled &ystem
/n this #&+, $e are going to look at an aircraft fitted $ith a LTF+ engine8
$hich is a t$in.spool a=ial flo$ tur2o fan engine9 !t the front of the -2
compressor is a 1ertical shaft called the To$er &haft8 $hich is dri1en 2y
the -2 shaft9 The to$er shaft dri1es the accessory gear2o= and all the
mechanical accessories such as the oil pimp8 fuel pump hydraulic pump
and the #&+,9
The #&+, is capa2le of adding or su2tracting from the speed recei1ed
from the engine gear2o= ;48%00 to F8600 rpmM to maintain the generator
speed at 68000 rpm and the fre'uency at 400 AB $ith small allo$a2le
tolerances9
- 20-
The #&+, is a hydro.mechanical de1ice $ith electrical connections to
e=ternal circuits for control and indication purposes9 /t is dri1en 2y the
engine and dri1es the generator9
+ri1e is 1ia a differential gear arrangement and a 1aria2le displacement
hydraulic unit9 The hydraulic unit comprises a $o22ler plate controlled
pump and a hydraulic motor9 Both are rotated 2y the engine9 The angle of
the pump $o22ler plate is controlled 2y a piston $hich recei1es its fluid
from a go1ernor9 Mo1ing the angle of the $o22ler plate changes the output
from the pump and hence the input to the hydraulic motor9
(ith the pump $o22le plate at the same angle as the fi=ed angled motor
$o22le plate the amount of fluid supplied to the motor matches the
amount re'uired to displace the motor pistons9 This means that there is no
e=tra supply to the motor to make it go faster and the motor rotates at the
same speed as the pump9 This is called &traight +ri1e9 &traight dri1e
occurs $hen the engine input speed is e=actly that re'uired 2y the ac
generator9
/f engine speed reduces then the go1ernor senses this and supplies fluid to
the control piston to increase the pump $o22ler plate angle9
.21 .
This $ill make the pump act like a con1entional a=ial piston pump and
supply fluid to the motor8 causing it to rotate . in the same direction as
the $hole unit is rotating9
This means the rpm of the motor is no$ added to the rpm of the $hole
unit to 2ring its output speed to that of the constant rpm re'uired9 This is
called 31erdri1e9
(hen the engine is running faster than the &traight +ri1e speed the
control piston mo1es the $o22ler plate in the other direction causing the
output from the pump to 2e the re1erse from the 31erdri1e condition9
This $ill cause the motor to rotate in the opposite direction from the
hydraulic unit8 deducting its rpm from the hydraulic unitEs rpm and
causing the output rpm to remain constant at the re'uired speed9 This
condition is called ,nder.dri1e9
The dri1e input and the output to/from the hydraulic unit goes through an
a=ial differential gear 2o= $hich houses a set of cyclic summing gears that
sums the output from the hydraulic unit to the output shaft to the
generator9
- 22-
/ndications
"igure 2F sho$s the #&+, and stand2y po$er control panel9
!t a pressure of 120 to 160psi8 the electromagnetic pressure sensor in the
#&+, $ill cause an amplifier to ground an !MB* lo$ pressure $arning
light9
!t a temperature of 174># in the oil reser1oir8 a 2i.metal s$itch $ill
ground the !MB* high oil temperature light9 Both am2er lights $ould 2e
accompanied 2y M!&T* #!,T/3- and *0*#T annunciator lights9
- 23-
T$o temperature 2ul2s measure the oil temperature change either side of
the oil cooler9 3ne 2ul2 measures the input oil temperature to the #&+,
and is read on the meter on the po$er panel9 ! s$itch on the panel alters
the circuit to include the oil out temperature 2ul2 so that the meter no$
reads the rise in oil temperature through the #&+,9 7 to 10># rise is
normal9
"igure 25 sho$s the circuitry in1ol1ed 'i#( the #&+, indications9
-24 -
/n case of a mechanical fault on the generator there is a disconnect on the
dri1e 2et$een the engine and the generator and8 in case of serious
Gamming8 there is a $asted dri1e shaft that $ill shear9
The disconnect solenoid is a guarded and lock s$itch on the po$er panel9
The normally closed contacts of the s$itch place a ground on the line to
pre1ent the possi2ility of a 1oltage pick.up from inad1ertently tripping the
#&+,9
(hen the s$itch is acti1ated one pole of the s$itch sends a signal to trip
the 3# $hich $ill trip the generator off.line9 The other pole energises the
disconnect solenoid9 This allo$s a spring.loaded pa$l to mo1e into
contact $ith threads on the $orm gear9 The input shaft acts as a scre$ in
a threaded hole and input rotation causes the input shaft to mo1e a$ay
from the input splined shaft8 separating the dri1ing dogs on the t$o shafts9
(hen the dri1ing dogs ha1e 2een separated8 the input splined shaft8 $hich
is still 2eing dri1en 2y the engine8 spins freely in the transmission $ithout
causing any transmission rotation ;figure %0<9
eset may only 2e accomplished on the ground follo$ing an engine
shutdo$n . 2y pulling out the reset handle until the solenoid nose pin
snaps into position9
.27.
"igure %1 sho$s an /+G schematic of a more modern aircraft ;Boeing<9
The /+G supplies 117/200)ac% phase 400AB and consists of a #&+ and
a 2rush.less generator in a common housing9 The gear2o= input speed is
78F00 to 58547rpm and the output speed is 12833Crpm9 &o in this system
the #&+ only adds rpm to the generator9
The go1ernor adGustment allo$s adGustment of the /+G output fre'uency8
if the fre'uency is Gust outside the 400AB N 7AB8 a go1ernor adGustment
may 2e performed9 3ne turn changes the fre'uency % to %97AB8 counter.
clock$ise to increase and clock$ise to decrease9
-ote the input speed sensor and the disconnect mechanism9 /+G
temperature sensor resistanceEs sense the /+G Eoil inE and Eoil outE and
sends signals 1ia the Generator #ontrol ,nit ;G#,< to the */#!& display9
"igure %2 sho$s the unit complete9
-3- P!!00*0*+ &H&T*M&
"igure %% sho$s a typical system9 /t consists of 2 main generators ;/+G 0
and /+G < $ith an !P, dri1en au=iliary generator pro1ides a 2ack up
generator in flight and a self sufficient po$er source for ground operation9
!n e=ternal po$er source can 2e connected to the ac tie 2us through the
e=ternal po$er receptacle and the e=ternal po$er contactor ;*P#<9
- 26-
/f the aircraft is on the ground $ith the !P, running then the !u=iliary
Po$er Breaker ;!PB< $ill 2e closed $ith *P# open8 the Generator #ircuit
Breakers ;G#BEs< $ill 2e open and 2oth Bus Tie Breakers ;BTBEs< contacts
$ill 2e closed9 &o the !P, generator can feed 2oth main 2us2ars and
other rele1ant 2us2ars9 /t is important to note there is an interlock
system8 $hich pre1ents any t$o sources of po$er 2eing paralleled to one
another9 ,sually the po$er coming onto the system has priority9
/f the engines are started and 2oth generator outputs are okay then 2efore
the G#BEs are energised the !PB must trip and 2oth BTBEs must trip8
lea1ing each generator feeding its o$n 2us2ar and rele1ant 2us2ar8 ie
non.paralleled9 /f one generator should fail in flight the !P, may 2e
started and its generator output can 2e fed to the rele1ant 2us2ar9
"or e=ample8 assume /+G 0 fails8 then its G#B $ill trip8 its BTB $ill close
and the !PB $ill close and feed that 2us2ar9 /f no !P, generator $as
a1aila2le then 2oth BTBEs $ould close after /+G 0 G#B opened so the left
2us2ar could 2e fed from the right generator ;the generator could not gi1e
out more than its rated ma=imum so demand $ould ha1e to 2e reduced
and some ser1ices curtailed<9
-27 -
The generator control units ;G#,Es< pro1ide automatic control and
protection function for each channel 2y monitoring the /+G output9 The
unit contains the 1oltage regulator and all the circuits for fault protection9
The po$er re'uired to operate internal G#, circuits and e=ternal G#B and
BTB contactors is deri1ed from the /+G PMG source $ith 2ackup from the
aircraft 2F) dc9
3 -6 3
The Bus Po$er #ontrol ,nit ;BP#,< contains all the circuitry necessary for
e=ternal po$er monitoring and protection8 load shedding: on the utility and
galley 2uses8 tie 2us differential protection8 and control of the e=ternal
po$er contactor ;*P#<8 ground handling relay and ground ser1ice relays9
: 0oad shedding reduces the demand $hen it is likely to 2e greater then the
generator/s can supply and is automatic in operation9 /t is carried out on
non essential ser1ices such as galleys etc9
*ach G#, and BP#, has 2uilt.in test e'uipment ;B/T*< $ith self.check
and fault diagnosis capa2ility9 The B/T* display and operating controls
are mounted on the BP#,9
The G#BEs8 BTBEs and !PB are identical circuit 2reakers8 the main contacts
allo$ electrical po$er source to the main load 2us or ac tie 2us9 The circuit
2reakers are of the latchedE type8 i9e9 $hen the close coil is energised8 the
circuit 2reaker closes8 the permanent magnet pro1ides the closed contact
holding force8 i9e9 latches the circuit 2reaker in the closed position9 (hen
a trip signal is applied8 the internal spring assists the electromagnetic field
of the coil in 2reaking the magnetic latch9 The t$o Bener diodes across the
coil are used to suppress arcing of the contacts $hen the 2reaker is
opening or closing9 There are t$o of them since current flo$s through the
coil in one direction for tripping and the opposite direction for closing9
The utility 2us relay ;,B< connects utility 2usloads to the main generator
2us9 The electrical load control units ;*0#,Es< connect aircraft galley
loads and electrically dri1en hydraulic pumps to the main generator
2uses9
. 25 .
The !P, generator pro1ides 117/200) % phase 400AB either in.flight or on
the ground8 controlled and monitored 2y its o$n G#,9
"!,0T P3T*#T/3-
The G#, monitors the main generating channel8 in the e1ent of system
faults it trips the G#8 $hich then trips the G#B9 3nce tripped there
must 2e a reset procedure8 $hich is to s$itch off the generator control
s$itch and then s$itch it on again9
Typical fault protection circuits are:
;i< 3)*)30T!G* ;1%3)< after an in1erse time delay8 trips the G#
and the G#B trips9
;ii< ,-+*)30T!G* ;100)< after a time delay trips G# and G#B9 To
pre1ent the G# tripping on run.do$n ;non.fault conditions< this is
inhi2ited 2y under.fre'uency/under.speed protection circuits9
;iii< ,-+*."*C,*-#H ;%67AB< after an in1erse time delay trips G#
and G#B trips9 /nhi2ited 2y under.speed protection circuit on run
do$n ;non.fault conditions<9 -ote9 &ome aircraft not using a speed
sensor on the /+G8 ha1e a fre'uency sensing circuit in the G#, and
this does not trip the G# it trips the G#B direct9
;i1< 3)*."*C,*-#H ;4%0AB< trips the G# and G#B trips9 !gain on
some aircraft not using a speed sensor on the /+G8 using a
fre'uency sensing in the G#,8 it trips the G#B direct9
;1< 3P*- PA!&* . typically lo$est phase 6 amps and ne=t lo$est
phase 40 amps8 after a time delay trips the G# and G#B trips9
;1i< 3)*#,*-T . /f the current dra$n from generator e=ceeds a set
1alue8 trips G# and G#B trips9
;1ii< &A3T*+ PMG . !ny permanent magnet generator $inding
shorted8 after a time delay trips G# and G#B trips9
;1iii< ,-+*.&P**+ . /+G input falls 2elo$ a set 1alue trips GCB direct
;i=< &A3T*+ 3T!T/-G +/3+* . !ny rotating diode on the generator
shorted8 after a time delay trips G# and G#B trips9
;=< +/""**-T/!0 P3T*#T/3- . line to line8 line to line to line8 and
line to earth faults 2et$een generator and 2us2ar are detected 2y
this circuit8 ie any feeder fault9 #ompares the current going to and
leaving the generator9
- 30-
There are three current transformers ;#TEs<8 one in each phase line8
connected to the star point of the generator9 These may 2e e=ternal to the
generator8 or integral to the generator9 ! further three current
transformers8 one in each phase line8 are do$nstream of the generator
2us2ar9
The current transformer outputs are fed to a differential protection circuit
$ithin the G#,9
"igure %F sho$s the principle of operation using one phase line9 *ach phase
line is identical and there are three relays in the G#,9
3peration
,nder no fault conditions the current sensed 2y the load #TEs and the star
point #TEs $ill 2e the same9 #urrent flo$s through the loads and aircraft
structure and through the star point #TEs to the generator9
.%1 .
The #T outputs are e'ual and opposite9 (hen there is an earth fault ;as
sho$n in the dra$ing8 the star point #TEs ha1e the load current and the
fault current8 ;$hich flo$s through the aircraft structure through the star
point #TEs to the generatorM9 &o the star point #TEs sense load and fault
currents8 the load #TEs sense only load current9
(hen the fault current is typically 20 . 40 !mps then the star point #T
output $ill 2e higher than the load #T and
sufficient current is fed to the relay to energise it and signal the G# to trip
and hence trip the G#B9
"igure %5 sho$s the relationship 2et$een the generator and the G#,9 -ote
the inputs and outputs to the G#, to include load shedding8 differential
current protection8 1oltage control8 2earing and diode condition monitoring
and communication $ith other G#,s9
- 32-
Manual Tripping of the 3#
Typically there are three actions $hich $ill trip the G#8 trip the G#B and
disconnect the generator from the 2us2ar9 They are:
;i< &$itching the generator E3""E9
;ii< 3perating the #&+, disconnect s$itch9
;iii< Pulling the fire handle9
"igure 40 sho$s the electrical po$er distri2ution system for a passenger
carrying aircraft9
(e ha1e discussed the ac generation control and also dc generation from
the T,Es9 *mergency ac po$er can 2e supplied from the static in1ertor8
the Aydraulic Motor Generator ;AMG< and a am !ir Tur2ine ;!T<9 These
$ill 2e descri2ed later9
/t is important to note the function of t$o of the 2us2ars8 the ground
handling 2us2ar and the Ground &er1ice Bus2ar ;G&B<9 The ground
handling 2us2ar is not connected to the main ac 2uses8 it is supplied from
e=ternal po$er or the !P,9 elays in the BP#, control the coil of the
ground.handling relay9 This 2us2ar feeds circuits such as cargo and
ser1ice lights8 and cargo doors ;figure 41<9
-33 -
The G&B supplies po$er to in.flight loads and can pro1ide po$er on the
ground for aircraft ser1icing operations9 The G&B is energised from either
e=ternal po$er8 !P, generator or the right main 2us9 #ontrol relays are
pro1ided in the BP#, to operate an e=ternal ground ser1ice select relay and
an e=ternal ground ser1ice transfer relay9 This 2us2ar feeds main and !P,
2attery chargers and interior lights9 "or full list see the ta2le 2elo$ $hich
sho$s typical circuits fed from all the ac 2us2ars9
3 /1 3
"igure 41 sho$s the full 2us2ar layouts of the ac and dc generation
systems for a large aircraft9 -ote that the left and right main 2uses8 left
and right hand transfer 2uses and the ground ser1ice 2us also feed to 2F)
ac 2uses9 These $ill 2e fed 1ia auto transformers8 dropping the 117) 2us
1oltage to 2F)9 -ote also that the 117) ac ground handling 2us feeds a
T, to con1ert the 117) ac to 2F) dc for the dc ground handling 2us9 /t
is not important you kno$ the circuit in detail 2ut you should ha1e a good
$orking kno$ledge of the system as a $hole9
. % 7 .
*lectrical 0oad #ontrol ,nit ;*0#,< ;"igure 42<
!s mentioned earlier this unit connects the aircraft galley load and
electrically dri1en hydraulic pumps to the main generator9 The galleys
re'uire a large amount of po$er and the *0#, not only contains a three
phase main contactor 2ut consists of integral current transformers and
sensing circuits for o1er.current8 phase un2alance current8 differential
current8 anti.cycle and lockout protection9
!# 0oad &hedding
*lectrical load management/load shedding is to ensure that electrical
loading on the generators stays $ithin limits during 2oth normal and
a2normal aircraft operating conditions9 To achie1e this load reduction is
carried out automatically during high demand periods9 This load reduction
is achie1ed 2y selecti1ely de.energising non.essential loads and 2uses8 as
re'uired8 during aircraft conditions $here the system is o1erloaded or
$here there is a high pro2a2ility that normal procedures such as prior to8
and at engine start8 $ill cause an o1erload9
&ystem load shedding is controlled primarily through the BP#, as sho$n
in figure 4% $hich trips the ,B and *0#,Es9 The BP#, monitors
o1erload information from all main po$er sources as $ell as ail main
po$er 2reaker positions9 The BP#, contains the logic for load shedding m
the e1ent of a system o1erload or generator loss in flight9 "igures 44 to 44
sho$ the action that occurs $ith each of the conditions indicated9 *ach
figure is self.e=planatory9
. %6.
3 /53
- 38-
Built /n Test *'uipment ;B/T*<
B/T* is common on all types of aircraft and the follo$ing sho$s an
e=ample of B/T* on a large passenger carrying aircraft9
The G#,Es and BP#, are indi1idually responsi2le for isolating faults and
storing the results in their -on )olatile Memory ;-)M<9
/n this e=ample there is an alphanumeric display located on the BP#,8
$hich is a 24 character readout that displays messages descri2ing $hat
faults ha1e occurred and $hich area of the system contains the pro2lem9
B/T* defines $hich 0, has failed or if a failure has occurred in the
$iring or sensors associated $ith the system9
The B/T* tests can 2e performed $ith the aircraft completely po$ered or
only $ith the 2attery s$itch E3-E9
3n the front of the BP#, are three s$itches8 B/T ;Built /n Test<8 P*/3+/#
and *&*T9
Pressing and releasing the B/T s$itch retrie1es the fault message stored in
the G#, and BP#, -)Ms for faults detected9
The system message is displayed for 2 seconds9 The fault message is
displayed for 17 seconds and identifies any protection trips or status
monitor faults9 The failed component or circuit message is displayed for
17 seconds9 /f there is no fault data stored for a flight8 an 3O is displayed
for 2 seconds9
- 39-
"ault data from pre1ious flights is retrie1ed 2y pushing the B/T s$itch
during the 17 seconds the E"3 P*)/3,& "0T P,&A -3( message is
displayed9 Pre1ious flight data is retrie1a2le for up to si= flights9 "or the
messaEges that identify the G#, and BP#, as failed8 a he=adecimal code
num2er is displayed9
Pressing the periodic test is normally performed at scheduled aircraft
maintenance checks9
Pushing and releasing the P*/3+/# #es# s$itch starts the maintenance
B/T* test8 $hich is a limited end.to.end test of the G#, and BP#,9 The
results of the test are stored in the -)M9 (hen the test is complete and
stored in the -)M8 the contents of the -)M for that flight are displayed9
- 40-
The -)M contents are the maintenance test results plus any faults
detected for the last flight9 "or the messages that identify the G#, or
BP#, has failed8 a he=adecimal code num2er is displayed9 The P*/3+/#
test s$itch can retrie1e pre1ious flight data in the same manner as the B/T
s$itch9
The *&*T s$itch clears the BP#, and G#, memories each time it is
pushed9 This action makes pre1ious memory entries inaccessi2le9 *ach
time the s$itch is pushed8 the display $ill state that the BP#,8 left8 right
and !P, G#, memories $ere cleared $hen the po$er system name
appears9
"light +eck /ndications
The follo$ing is a description of the indications that are a1aila2le on the
flight deck of a modern aircraft . in this case 2ased on a Boeing aircraft9
3lder aircraft $ill ha1e electro.mechanical gauges gi1ing indications of
fre'uency8 current and 1oltage of each generator9 There $ill also 2e gauges
for the indication or T, output8 temperature etc9
Generator load is displayed on the */#!& *0*#/AH+ maintenance page
for scale 1alues 2et$een 0/097 and 197 ;1900 . 50O)!<9 !lso displayed on
this page is the e=ternal po$er load9 "or each main po$er source the
1oltage and fre'uency is displayed9 The single phase output of the static
in1ertor is also displayed9
Before $e look at a system8 the re'uirements for paralleling t$o ac
generators must 2e considered9
Before t$o ac generators can 2e connected together onto a common 2us
the follo$ing conditions must apply:
-%1 -
a< They must ha1e the same output 1oltage9
2< They must 2e operating at the same fre'uency ;speed<9
c< They must 2e in.phase $ith each other9
d< The EPhase otationE of multi.phase machines must 2e the same9
"igure 72 sho$s t$o single.phase ac generators a2out to 2e linked
together 2y the closing of the contactor9 ;The same principles $ill apply to
multi.phase machines<9 /f any of a8 2 or c8 a2o1e8 are not 2eing complied
$ith8 the result $ill 2e a 1oltage appearing across the contactor contacts9
/n each case ;or in any com2ination of cases< the 1oltage $ill appear as an
ac 1oltage at a fre'uency that is kno$n as the E2eatE fre'uency9
This 2eat fre'uency $ill increase or decrease depending on ho$ far EoutE
the generators are $ith each other9 /f a lamp is connected across each set
of contacts8 as sho$n8 then the lamps $ill go on and off at a rate
determined 2y the 2eat fre'uency9 !s the generators drift into phase $ith
each other8 for instance8 the lamps $ill dim and then glo$ 2rightly as the
generators drift apart again9 The correct time to close the contactor is
$hen the lamps are out9 This method of telling $hen conditions are right
for paralleling is kno$n as the 0amps +ark Method9 There is also a
0amps Bright Method ;cross.connection of the lamps< 2ut it is the 0amps
+ark Method $hich is the 2asis of all aircraft paralleling systems $hether
manual8 semi.automatic or automatic9
!ny attempt to parallel ac generators8 $ithout meeting the conditions
stated a2o1e8 results in a large circulating current 2et$een the generators
as the contactor closes9 This circulating current $ill pull the t$o rotors
Einto lineE and paralleling $ill occur8 2ut there is a 1ery real possi2ility of
loss of po$er and damage 2eing done to generators and dri1es9
- 42-
This system has a 2uilt.in safeguard $hich pre1ents paralleling if the
fre'uencies of the t$o generators are far apart9 /f that is the case8 the lamps
$ill 2e going on and off at such a rate that it $ill not 2e possi2le to close the
contactor during a dark period9 ;/n fact8 the lamp $ill pro2a2ly 2e on all the
time as the time.off period is so short that the lamp has no time to cool and
loose is luminescence<9
The same thing applies if the generators are at the same speed 2ut are a long
$ay out of phase $ith each other9 /t is only $hen they are 1ery close
together that the lamp $ill 2e going on and off at a rate that is slo$ enough
for manual paralleling to 2e put into effect9
The operator must 2e $ary if the lamp is continuously 3- or continuously
3""9 /n such a case8 it is only necessary to s$itch 3- ;or 3""< a hea1y load
on either of the generators9 This $ill 2e sufficient to alter the #&+,
momentarily and cause the lamp;s< to start flashing on and off9
!nother $ay is to adGust the *ngineerEs "re'uency #ontrol if pro1ided8 2ut
this $ill su2se'uently ha1e to 2e returned to its original setting9
! Practical Method of Manually Paralleling % Phase Generators
(ith reference to figure 7%8 assuming that -o 2 generator is connected to the
&ynchronising Bus ;&ynch Bus<9 -o 1 generator is connected to itEs o$n load
2us 2ut is isolated from the &ynch 2us2ars 2y itEs tripped Bus Tie Breaker
;BTB<9
SYNCH BUS
-43 -
(hen -o 1 is selected for paralleling8 the t$o lamps $ill each recei1e supplies
from identical phases ;! and #< of the t$o generators9 !t the correct moment
;lamps dark< the BTB is closed and the t$o generators are paralleled9 /t is
su2se'uently possi2le to select and parallel -os % and 4 generators as
re'uired9
! Method of !utomatic Paralleling of Generators
/n this system the engineer is relie1ed of the task of closing the G#B $hen
the conditions are right9 Ae still decides $hether or not generators are to 2e
paralleled 2ut the actual operation is automatic9 This de1ice $ill close the
G#B $hen:
;a< The "re'uency +ifference ;Beat "re'uency< is less than %.7 AB9
;2< The phase 1oltage difference is less than 10)9
;c< The Eout of phaseE angle difference is less than 50>9
(ith reference to figure 748 assume that -o 2 generator is connected to the
&ynch Bus and the -o 1 generator has 2een selected for paralleling $ith it9
Transformer Tl is connected 2et$een the # lines of the t$o generators and
therefore recei1ing the modulated $a1eform8 or 2eat fre'uency8 that e=ists
2et$een them9
The output of the transformer is half.$a1e rectified 2y diode +l and applied
to #l and l9 #l $ill charge to the modulated $a1e and8 as the output dies
a$ay8 $ill discharge 1ia l9
The # time constant of this circuit allo$s #l to discharge completely if the
2eat fre'uency is less than 4 AB8 2ut not if it is a2o1e that9
- 44-
!t 2eat fre'uencies a2o1e 4 AB there is sufficient 2ase/emitter 1oltage to
cause Cl to conduct and its collector is at almost EearthE potential9 The Bener
diode Pl is not QBroken do$nE and transistor C2 is not conducting9
/f the 2eat fre'uency drops to 4 AB or less8 the capacitor #1 $ill discharge
completely and so reduce the 1oltage across l and the Base/*mitter of Cl9
Cl $ill no$ cease to conduct and itEs collector 1oltage $ill rise9
This $ill 2reak do$n Pl and s$itch on C29 The operation of relay 01 $ill
no$ close and the G#B and the t$o generators $ill 2e paralleled9
P!!00*0*+ &H&T*M
"igure 77 sho$s an /+G used in a paralleled system9
The /+G has a 1aria2le speed input from the engine gear2o= and through a
net$ork of hydro.mechanical components the #&+ portion of the /+G dri1es
the generator at 128000 rpm9 !s $ith the pre1ious /+G $e looked at8 the
speed is determined 2y the go1ernor $hich is a spring 2iased fly$eight type
unit9 The significant difference 2et$een the go1ernor in an /+G used in a
paralleled system to one in a non.paralleled system is the magnetic trim
s1stem9
-45 -
The go1ernor recei1es an oil pressure supply from the charge pump and
senses output speed of the planetary differential9 The fly$eight arms are
made of alnico8 2elo$ these arms is a coil $hich has an electrical supply
from a load controller9 This supply influences the position of the go1ernor
for eal 0oad sharing9
The nominal charge pressure is 270psi as regulated 2y the charge relief
1al1e9 /f the oil pressure falls 2elo$ 140psi8 the charge pressure s$itch
closes the +/)* light in the /+G disco))ec# s$itch to come on9
-46 -
The disconnect system is as pre1iously descri2ed8 and resetting is only
allo$ed on the ground $ith the engine shut do$n9
"igure 74 sho$s the paralleled electrical po$er system of a four.engined
aircraft9
-ote the Ground Aandling 2us ;GA<8 the Ground &er1ice 2us ;G&M feeding
similar ser1ices as descri2ed in the non.paralleled system9 *ach main ac
2us feeds the dc 2us 1ia T,s9 The G& 2us feeds the Battery #hargers
;B/#< for main ;M-< and !P, 2atteries9 &tand2y ac po$er is a1aila2le
through a static in1ertor9 The system sho$n sho$s t$o !P,Es and t$o
e=ternal po$er sources8 many aircraft no$ only ha1e one !P, fitted9
"igure 7F sho$s the ac generation layout9
!ssuming the !P, 1 is running and the !u=iliary Po$er Breaker ;!PB< is
made the &plit &ystem Breaker ;&&B< $ill close and $ith the Bus Tie
Breakers closed the !P, can feed all the !# 2usses ;!#18 28 % R 4<9 The
Generator #ircuit Breakers ;G#BEs< $ill 2e openI the !PB cannot close
unless all G#BEs are open9 /f the second !P, $as fitted then the &&B $ill
open to pre1ent paralleling of !P,Es9
- 47-
! similar se'uence $ould occur if ground po$er $as 2eing used instead of
!P, po$er8 this time the e=ternal po$er contactor ;SP#< $ould 2e closed and
1ia the BTBEs feed all ac 2usses9 3nce again the SP# $ill not close unless all
G#BEs are open9 /f the second e=ternal po$er is s$itched in the &&B $ill
open9
/f engine -o 1 is started8 assuming the 1oltage8 fre'uency and phase rotation
of its generators output is 3O8 then selecting closure of the G#B $ill trip the
!PB8 $hen that has tripped the G#B $ill close8 connecting -o 1 generator to
the synch 2us and hence to all load 2usses9 0imited loading usually applies9
&tarting -o 2 engine $ill allo$ its G#B to close to parallel the t$o generators
providing the auto.parallel senses that conditions are correct9 &imilar action
takes place $hen starting engines % and 4I there is an auto.parallel circuit
either side of the &&B9
&o $hen all engines are running all G#BEs8 BTBEs and &&B are closed and all
the generators are paralleled9
&hould a fault condition occur such as a generator failure then its G#B $ill
trip lea1ing the other three generators to po$er the four load 2usses9 *1en if
three generators failed one generator can feed all four load 2usses 2ut some
load shedding $ill need to take place9
/f a generator $ill not load share8 the BTB $ill trip allo$ing the generator to
po$er its o$n 2us in isolation from the others9 /f the load 2us shorted then
the G#B and BTB $ill trip isolating po$er from the shorted area9
/f there is a short on the synch 2us t$o BTBEs and &&B $ill trip8 remo1ing
po$er from the shorted area $ithout loss of 2usses9
/n this system then:
a*
2<
!ttempting to s$itch any of the F po$er sources onto the 2us
system $ill not 2e effecti1e unless its 1oltage8 fre'uency and
phase rotation is correct9
!ttempting to parallel different types of po$er $ill result in the
e=isting po$er tripping off !efore the selected po$er 2reaker
closes9
The t$o main units in the system are once again the G#, $hich contains8
1oltage regulator ;action similar to that pre1iously descri2ed<8 reacti1e load
di1ision circuit8 generator control relay ;G#<8 G#B #ontrol8 BTB #ontrol8
essential relay control8 auto.parallel circuits for generators and fault
protection circuits9
-48 -
The other unit is the Bus Po$er #ontrol ,nit ;BP#,< or Bus #ontrol ,nit
;*#,< $hich contains SP# control8 !PB control8 &&B control8 ground handling
and ground ser1ice relays8 &&B !uto Parallel8 e=ternal po$er fault protection
and a galley po$er trip signal9
"rom the diagram note the essential ac 2us $hich feeds radio and flight
instrument systems is normally fed from -o 4 generator8 2ut a flight deck
s$itch can select any of the other three generators9
0oad &haring
!s the generators are paralleled then load sharing must take place9 ;/t $ould
2e con1enient at this point to do some re1ision ;#!! L! module %< on ac
po$er circuits<9
P3(* /- !# #/#,/T&
a< /n a purely resisti1e circuit8 !00 of the current does $ork and
P3(* is produced9
2< /n a purely inducti1e circuit8 the current does no $ork and -3
P3(* is produced9
c< /n a purely capaciti1e circuit8 the current does no $ork and -3
P3(* is produced9
! practical circuit $ill contain resistance8 inductance and capacitance8 and if
$e take the e=ample of an ac generator supplying aircraft systems ;mainly
inductance and resistance< then the current $ill lag in the supply 1oltage9
The phasor diagram sho$s the current lagging the supply 1oltage 2y phase
angle 09 "rom our pre1ious theory8 po$er is only produced in an ac circuit
$hen current and voltage are in phase &o $e need to split the current / into
its t$o components as sho$n9
310 3
The component Ein phaseE $ith the 1oltage also kno$n as the !#T/)* or
*!0 component and the component at 50> to the 1oltage kno$n as the
C,!+!T,* or *!#T/)* component9
/t is 1ery important to realise that only one current ;/< flo$s in the circuit and
this is the current that is measured 2y an ammeter in the circuit9
The po$er in a purely resisti1e ac circuit is found 2y multiplying together the
rms 1oltage and current9 /t follo$s then that in a resisti1e reacti1e circuit8
po$er dissipated can 2e found 2y multiplying together the 1oltage and the
co"ponent of current in phase $ith it9
This then gi1es us the actual po$er 2eing used 2y the system9
The component of the current that does no $ork in the system still flo$s
through the system ca2les and produces po$er $hich as $e kno$ cancels
o1er one cycle so no net po$er is produced9
The unit of reacti1e po$er is )30T !MP& *!#T/)* ;)!<9
/f the supply 1oltage is multiplied 2y the current ;/< this $ill gi1e us the
!PP!*-T P3(* 2eing dissipated8 $e kno$ that this is apparently
a1aila2le 2ut 2ecause current and 1oltage are not in phase then that is not
the true po$er a1aila2le from the system9
!PP!*-T P3(* ? ) = / )30T !MP& ;)!< 3 O)!
- 50-
Po$er "actor
!s $e ha1e seen $e can $ork out the apparent po$er of a system in O)!9
(hat $e need to kno$ is ho$ much of this a1aila2le po$er is producing
actual $ork done in a circuit8 ie producing True Po$er9 &o the ratio of
T,* P3(*
!PP!*-T P3(*
/s called the po$er factor ;pf<9
*=ample
/f 40O)! generator produces a po$er output of %0k( then the po$er factor
is:
pf ? %0 ? 0947
40
&o in this case the factor of po$er 2eing used is 0947 and the generator is
producing 0947 of its output as True Po$er8 ie producing po$er in the
system9 &o o21iously the higher the po$er factor the 2etter9 !ircraft
generation systems are typically 0947 . 095 pf9 ! pf of 1 ;unity< $ould mean
that all of the po$er produced is 2eing used as true po$er and the circuit
must 2e purely resisti1e9
pf ? T,* P3(* ;TP<
!PP!*-T P3(* ;!P<
&o another formula for po$er factor is that it e'uals the cosine of the phase
angle9
/f $e look 2ack at the triangle related to impedance
then the cosine 0 ?
P
&o another formula for po$er factor is
pf? /P
. 71 .
&ummary
The true po$er is produced $hen current and 1oltage are in phase9
!#T/)/TH
! 200) 40O)! ac generator has an output current of 100 amps at a phase
angle of %0> lagging9 "ind the:
;a< True po$er
;2< eacti1e po$er
;c< Po$er factor
&o $hen a load is s$itched onto an ac generator it consists of t$o
components *!0 and *!#T/)*8 so to ensure that each generator shares
these t$o components e'ually two load sharing circuits are re'uired9 The
principle is descri2ed using figures 60 and 618 using t$o generators in
parallel to make it easier to understand9 ! sensing current transformer is
mounted on one phase line of the generator8 this 2eing the primary and the
secondary 2eing connected across a sensing resistor9 *ach current
transformer is connected together 2y a load sensing loop9
#onsider the case of t$o generators sharing the total load e'ually8 ie each
carrying 60 amps9 To understand the operation of the loop8 it is necessary
to EstopE the action at one moment in time9 !t this moment the output of
each current transformer ;#T< is trying to:
a< Push a current around the outside of the loop8 through the
secondary $inding of the other #T9
2< Push a current through its o$n sensing resistor9
c< Push a current through the other sensing resistor ;it is in
parallel $ith it<9
- 52-
/f the t$o generators are sharing the load e'ually assuming each #T output
is 097! then the sensing loop current which is alwa#s the average ofC$
secondar# currents in this case is also 097!9 !s 2oth of the #T outputs are
trying to dri1e currents through their opposite sensing resistors as $ell as
their o$n8 then -3 #,*-T "03(& /- TA* &*-&/-G *&/&T3& as they
cancel each other out9
- 53 -
/f the load 2ecomes un2alanced such that generator 1 takes 50 amps and
generator 2 takes %0 amps then the sensing loop current remains the same
0927 T 947
2 ? 097!9 But the current flo$ through the sensing resistors is no
longer e'ual and opposite and it is the +/""**-#* current 2et$een the #T
and the sensing loop current $hich flo$s through the sensing resistors9 -ote
they are in opposite directions8 so one signal $ill signal the system to
decrease its loading8 ie generator 1 and the other signal $ill signal its system
to increase loading8 until they 2alance again9
"igure 62 sho$s a *!#T/)* 03!+ &A!/-G circuit of four generators in
parallel9 The sensing resistor is in the reacti1e load di1ision circuit8 $hich is
in the G#,9
The total reacti1e load on the aircraft is 210 amps and there is une'ual load
sharing9 The a1erage current in the sensing loop is 2T4T6T6 ?7927 amps
4
The difference current 2et$een loop and #T output goes through the sensing
resistor so in G#,1 7927 . 2 ? %927 amps8 in G#,2 7927 . 4 . 1947 amps in
the re1erse sense8 G#,%/4 6 . 7927 ? 947 amps in the re1erse sense9
&o signals from the sensing resistor are fed to the 1oltage regulator $hich
$ill decrease the generator e=citation to decrease the reacti1e loading of /+G
1 and increase the e=citation to /+G 28 % and 4 to increase the reacti1e
loading in proportion to sensing current9
3 413
! 1ery similar action takes place in the eal 0oad sharing circuit ;figure 6%<9
The sensing resistor this time is in the 03!+ #3-T300* and its signal is
fed to the magnetic trim coil on the speed go1ernor on the #&+,9 Mo1ement
of the go1ernor piston $ill modify the hydraulic fluid fed to the dri1e to
increase the dri1e tor'ue of any generator carrying too little real load and
decrease the dri1e tor'ue of any generator carrying too much real load9 &o
in the e=ample the signal $ill 2e to decrease the dri1e tor'ue of /+G 1 and
increase the dri1e tor'ue of /+G 28 % and 49
&o remem2er8
*!0 03!+ &A!/-G #3-T30 M3+/"/*& G*-*!T3
+/)* T3C,*
-ote9 /n 2oth systems the current transformers are shorted out $hen the
rele1ant generator is not load sharing 2y contacts of the G#B or BTB9 This
ensures that the #T does not o1erheat $ith possi2le 2urnout9
. 77.
&o remem2er8
*!#T/)* 03!+ &A!/-G #3-T30 M3+/"/*&
G*-*!T3 *S#/T!T/3-
"!,0T P3T*#T/3-
Most of the fault protection circuits are the same as those in a non.
paralleled system9 Ao$e1er there are t$o protection circuits that you $ill
only find in a paralleled system8 3)* *S#/T!T/3- and ,-+*
*S#/T!T/3-9 /f in a paralleled system one generator is taking more reacti1e
load than the other generators8 then it $ill ha1e increased e=citation $ith
respect to the others9 The reacti1e load sharing ##T should 2alance up the
loads8 if it does not8 then the fault could 2e in the reacti1e load sharing
circuit8 or the generators 1oltage regulator9
- 56 -
The o1er e=citation circuit $ill sense this $hen the e=citation reaches a
certain le1el and trip the BTB8 if the fault $as on the load sharing circuit
then8 the generator $ill feed its o$n 2us2ar in isolation9 /f the fault $as in
the 1oltage regulator then as soon as the BTB trips that o1er e=citation
2ecomes an o1er 1oltage fault and the 3# is tripped and then the G#B is
tripped to take the generator off line9
! similar action $ill take place $ith the under e=citation of one generator to
a set le1el8 and again trip the BTB8 if the fault is an under.1oltage fault then
the generator $ill 2e tripped off.line9
"igure 64 sho$s the control panel of a four.engined aircraft $ith a paralleled
generation system9
The layout goes from engine ;#&+< to G#B ;load 2us<8 BTB and synchronising
2us2ar9 -ote the k( ;eal 0oad</k)! ;eacti1e 0oad< meters8 Gust to the
right of the meters is a s$itch marked k)!&9 The meters normally read
k( 2ut pressing the s$itch and they $ill read k)!8 hence the aircre$ can
monitor real and reacti1e load sharing9 /n the 2ottom right hand corner there
is a fre'uency meter and ac 1oltmeter8 Gust 2elo$ is a select panel $hich you
can select rele1ant system display9 "rom this panel G*- T*&T can 2e
selected and PMG 1oltage $ill appear on the 1oltmeter9
3n later aircraft $ith #T displays8 the electrical po$er page can 2e 2rought
up on the */#!& or *#!M system8 $hich sho$s a coloured simplified layout
of the system9
The electrical po$er maintenance page can also 2e 2rought up to sho$ ac
1oltages and fre'uency8 and also the loading on each generator indicated as
a percentage of the ma=imum9
- 57-
B/T* circuitry is pro1ided in the Bus #ontrol ,nits ;B#,Es< and G#,Es to
identify an electrical po$er system failure9
!n e=ample ;Boeing< of one test is using the #entral Maintenance #omputer
;#M#< and the #ontrol +isplay ,nit ;#+,<9
Ground tests are selected from the #M# menu on the #+,9 &election of
electrical system ground tests are made 2y pressing the line select key ne=t
to 24 *0*#T/#!09
/f inhi2ited is displayed a2o1e the electrical po$er generating system *PG&
;B#, 1 R 2<8 the ground test ena2le page $ill appear telling you the
conditions that must 2e met 2efore the test can 2e completed9
3 463
By pressing the line select key ne=t to the system to 2e tested the test is
acti1ated $hich takes 10 seconds9 (hen the test is completed P!&& or "!/0
appears9 /f the system failed pressing the line select key ne=t to "!/0 causes
the ground test messages to appear9 The follo$ing information appears on
the page:
"ailed unit and cause
#M# message num2er and !T! $iring diagram num2er
*'uipment num2er of the failed unit
*/#!& alert message
"light +eck *ffect
. 75.
)!/!B0* &P**+ #3-&T!-T "*C,*-#H ;)&#"< G*-*!T3
(ith this type of generator8 the #&+, has 2een remo1ed and as the name
implies8 the 1aria2le rpm engine input produces an initial Efre'uency $ildE
supply $ithin the generator $hich is con1erted electronically to a constant
fre'uency output9 The 2enefits include: $eight sa1ingI reduction in direct
operating costsI less maintenanceI impro1ed relia2ility8 and less stock
re'uired ;less num2er of parts compared to the /+G system<9 The )&#"
generator $as designed as a one for one replacement for the /+G and does not
re'uire any changes to the aircraft $iring or plum2ing9
The )&#" generator system produces constant fre'uency8 % phase 117) ac
po$er9 The unit is installed on the front side of the engine accessory gear2o=
$ith the input flange mating $ith the gear2o= mounting pad and is installed
$ith a Cuick.!ttach.+etach ;C!+< adapter kit9 Typical mass is a2out 14012s
;6%97 kg<9 The unit is made up of eight &hop eplacea2le ,nits ;&,Es<:
speed increaser8 generator8 in1erter8 ac filter8 dc filter8 #T/*M/ ;#urrent
Transformer and *lectromagnetic /nterference< module8 generator con1erter
control unit ;G##,<8 and a heat e=changer9
The generator consists of an input Jspeed increaserJ gear2o=8 a spindle8 a
stator assem2ly8 a rotor assem2ly8 and a pump for circulating the oil9 The
speed increaser pro1ides a 2956:1 speed ratio 2et$een the engine gear2o=
input shaft and the high.speed generator rotor8 $hich operates at speeds
2et$een 1%8407 and 268120rpm9
- 60 -
! short spindle 2et$een the generator.input spline and the speed increaser
gear2o= shaft has a shear section $hich pro1ides protection to the accessory
gear2o= in the e1ent of a generator mechanical failure9
The stator assem2ly consists of three armatures: the main ac stator8 the
e=citer stator8 and the permanent magnet generator ;PMG< stator9 The rotor
assem2ly consists of a shaft8 permanent magnet rotor8 e=citer armature8
rotating rectifier8 and main dc field9 The oil pump is mounted $ithin the
generator frame and is dri1en 2y a gear on the generator shaft9 The oil
pump dri1e gear ratio keeps the ma=imum speed of the pump 2elo$ 128000
rpm9 The pump contains rotor.type elements that dra$ oil out of the sump
in the in1erter po$er module9
There are 6 ac terminals at the top of the generator9 Tl8 T28 and T% are the
po$er terminalsI T48 T7 and T6 are the neutral terminals9
Tl and T4 are for phase ! and the leads are colour.coded red9 T2
and T7 are for phase # and the leads are colour.coded 2lue9 T% and
T6 are for phase B and the leads are colour.coded yello$9
The main connector is on the top of the generator and contains circuits for
lo$ oil pressure indication and 2uilt.in.test ;B/T< po$er8 oil temperature
indication8 disconnect8 B/T serial data port and alternate +P#T9
There are 2 dc terminals8 ! and "8 for the 1oltage regulator leads from the
G#, ;P6<9
- +1 -
3peration is as follo$s ;refer to figure 41<:
1< The generator con1erts shaft energy at 1aria2le speeds to three phase
electrical po$er at 117)9 The output fre'uency of the generator
depends on the engine speedI it 1aries from 1%40 to 2747 AB9
2< The dc filter rectifies the generator output to 240) dc9 The dc filter
uses large capacitors to remo1e the ripple from the dc link 1oltage9
%< The in1erter uses si= large transistors to con1ert the dc link 1oltage to
a three phase8 Pulse (idth Modulated ;P(M< $a1eform9 /nside the
in1erter is the neutral forming transformer9 This adds a neutral lead
to the three.$ire output of the transistors9 The neutral forming
transformer permits the transistors to e'ually share a load that is not
2alanced9
4< The ac filter uses capacitors to change the P(M $a1eform from the
in1erter to a three phase sinusoid at 117) 400 AB9
7< The #urrent Transformer/*lectro Magnetic /nterference ;#T/*M/< filter
monitors the output current of the )&#"9 /t also remo1es un$anted
signals from the )&#" output9
6M The generator/con1erter control unit ;G##,< uses a microprocessor to
operate9 /t gets po$er from the PMG in the generator housing9 The
G##, has t$o important functions:
a< The G##, controls the generator and the in1erter9
1< The 1oltage regulator in the G##, sends a signal to the
field of the generator to control the generator output
1oltage9
2< The G##, also controls the output transistors in the
in1erter9 /t makes them come on and go off at the correct
times to make the output 1oltage $a1eform9
2< The G##, also monitors the operation of the )&#"9
1< The G##, monitors the dc link 1oltage from the dc filter9
/t uses this signal to control the generator output 1oltage9
2< The G##, monitors the generator output 1oltage9 /t uses
this signal as feed2ack for the 1oltage regulator9
%< The G##, monitors the operation of the internal circuitry
of the )&#"9 The G##, looks for failures and stores
failure data for use during B/T testing9
4< The G##, monitors the output of the )&#" through the
#T/*M/ filter9 This information helps the G##, find
failures that are e=ternal to the )&#"9
.62 .
B/T
! B/T feature is included in the )&#" unit8 $hich is designed for t$o le1els of
interrogation: flight.line maintenance and shop maintenance9 Three possi2le
reasons for performing a B/T check are on ac system malfunction $ith
illumination of a fault light8 lo$ residual 1oltage ;7.10 1oltsM8 or a scheduled
maintenance check9 "light.line B/T is done using a t$o.thro$8 centre off
s$itch on the con1erter module $ith B/T fault data displayed 2y t$o red
0*+Es located adGacent to the s$itch9 +# po$er for the B/T is through the
Jlo$ oil pressureJ light and re'uires the J0/GAT&J s$itch in the EBTE
position9 3ne 0*+ is la2elled J)&#" "ault +etectedJ and illuminates $ith the
s$itch in the /-+/#!T* position if B/T has detected a fault $ithin the unit
;this information $ould ha1e 2een stored 2y setting a latch relay<9
This indicator identifies a failed unit and is considered a Jgo/no.goJ indicator9
The second 0*+ is la2elled J!ircraft 3pen Phase +etectedJ and illuminates8
again $ith the s$itch in the /-+/#!T*E position8 if an open phase fault $as
detected during the pre1ious flight cycle9 The /-+/#!T*E position is also
used to electrically reset the unit if it had 2een disconnected 1ia the
disconnect s$itch9 The opposite s$itch position is la2elled T!MP T*&TE and
$hen the s$itch is in this position ;normally done first<8 the 0*+Es should
illuminate9 /f they do not8 a failed indicator is likely9

- 63 -
The second le1el of B/T is intended for the shop technician performed on a
remo1ed unit9 This le1el uses information stored in non.1olatile memory for
the pre1ious 20 flight cycles ;defined 2y engine run cycle.PMG speed<9
elati1e system performance parameters and protection trips/faults are
stored9 The information is accessed 1ia an &2%2 serial data port ;pins 148
1F8 15 on the main connector< 2y any J/BM compati2leJ personal computer9
This le1el of B/T8 used in conGunction $ith common 9shop test e'uipment8 $ill
identify a failed &, or su2.&, $ith a minimum accuracy of 57U $ithout
using a rotating dri1e.stand9 ! trou2le.shooting program for the computer
$ill 2e supplied to supplement the component maintenance manual for this
test9
- 64-