PAPER-I

PRE SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION

Physical and Motor Deelo!"ent
in
Early Childhood
Body Growth in Early Childhood
changes in body size and proportions Skeletal Growth Asynchronies in
Physical Growth
Brain Developmental in Early Childhood
Lateralization and Handedness Other Advances in Brain Development
Factors Affecting growth and health in Early Childhood
Hereditary and Hormonal in!l"ences #motional $ell % Being &"trition
'n!ections Disease (hildhood 'n)"ries
Motor Development in Early Childhood
Gross *otor Development +ine motor Development +actors that A!!ect #arly
(hildhood *otor Skills
BODY GRO!" #$ EAR%Y C"#%D"OOD
(hanges in Body Size and Proportions
!he rapid increase in &ody si'e that too( place in infancy tapers off into a slower
pattern of growth d)ring early childhood* On the average+ , to - inches in height and
a&o)t . po)nds in weight are added each year+ with &oys contin)ing to &e slightly
larger than girls /Mott+ 0ames and 1perhac+ 23345* At the same time+ the 6&a&y fat7
that &egan to decline in toddler hood drops off f)rther * !he child grad)ally &ecomes
thinner+ altho)gh girls retain some what more &ody fat+ and &oys are slightly more
m)sc)lar* As the torso lengthens and widens+ internal organs t)c( neatly inside+ and
the spine straightens* By age .+ the top 8heavy+ &owlegged+ pot&ellied toddler has
&ecome a more streamlined+ flat9 t)mmied+ longer 8 legged child with &ody
proportions similar to that of ad)lts 3!anner+23:;&4* Conse<)ently+ post)re and
&alance improve 8 changes that s)pport the gains in motor coordination*
#ndivid)al differences in &ody si'e that e=isted in infancy are even more apparent
d)ring early childhood*
1
S#eletal $ro%th
!he s(eletal changes that we disc)ssed in Chapter . contin)e thro)gho)t early child
hood* Between ages , and >+ appro=imately ?. new epiphyses or growth centers in
which cartilage hardens into &one+ emerge in vario)s parts of the s(eleton* Others
will appear in middle childhood* Fig)re;*,+ which shows @9 rays of a girlAs hand at
three ages+ ill)strates changes in the epiphyses over time* $otice how+ at age , B+
wide gaps e=ist &etween the wrist &ones and at the ends of the finger and arms
&ones* By age . B+ these have filled in considera&ly * At age 2? B /hen this girl
reached her ad)lt si'e5+ the wrist and long &ones are completely f)sed * @9 rays li(e
these permit doctors to estimate childrenAs skeletal age is helpf)l in diagnosing
growth disorders*
C"ACR!ER;D C"Y1#CA% DEEE%OCME$! #$ EAR%Y C"#%D"OOD
Carents and children are especially aware of another aspect of s(eletal growthD
mat)ration of the teeth* By the end of the pre school years+ children start to lose their
primary or 6 &a&y7 teeth* !he age at which they do so varies from child to child and
is heavily infl)enced &y genetic factors* Girls+ who are ahead of &oys in physical
development+ lose their primary teeth sooner*
Even tho)gh preschoolers will event)ally lose their primary teeth+ care of them is
important+ since diseased &a&y teeth can affect the health of permanent teeth*
Consistent &r)shing + avoidance of s)gary foods+ and reg)lar dental visits prevent
tooth cavities*
Asynchronies in Physical Growth
From what yo) have learned so far in this chapter + can yo) come )p with single
overall description of early physical growthF #f yo) fo)nd yo)rself answering 6no7 to
this <)estion+ yo) are correct+ physical growth is an asynchrono)s process* Different
&ody systems have their own )ni<)e+ caref)lly timed patterns of mat)ration* !he
&eneral &ro%th c're refers to change in overall &ody si'e / as meas)red &y height
and weight5* #t ta(es its name from the fact that o)ter dimensions of the &ody as well
as a variety of internal organs follow the same pattern9rapid growth d)ring infancy+
slower gains in early and middle childhood+ and rapid growth again d)ring
adolescence* Yet there are important e=ceptions to this trend* !he development of
the genitals shows a slight rise from &irth to age ?+ followed &y a period of little
change thro)gho)t middle childhood+ after which growth is especially rapid d)ring
adolescence* #n contrast+ the lymph tiss)e /small cl)sters of glands fo)nd thro)gho)t
the &ody5 grows at an asto)nding pace in infancy and childhood+ reaching a pea( G)st
&efore adolescence+ at which point it declines* !he lymph system plays central role in
the &odyAs a&ility to fight infection and also assists in the a&sorption of n)trients from
foods/1hields+ 23:,5* Rapid early growth of lymph tiss)e helps ens)re childrenAs
health and s)rvival*
!here is another growth trend in which yo) are familiarD D)ring the first few years+
the &rain grows faster than any other part of the &ody*
2
$eneral $ro%th c're
C)rve that represents over all changes in &ody si'e 8 rapid growth d)ring infancy+
slower gains in early and middle childhood+ and rapid growth once more d)ring
adolescence*
FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND HEALTH IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
Hereitary an Hor!onal In"l#ences
!he impact of heredity on physical growth is evident thro)gho)t childhood*
ChildrenAs physical si'e and rate of growth &y controlling the &odyAs prod)ction of
hormones* !he most important hormones for h)man growth are released &y the
!it'itary &land+ which is located G)st &elow the front of the &rain*
!wo pit)itary hormones are especially infl)ential* !he first is &ro%th hor"one /G"5+
the only pit)itary secretion prod)ced contin)o)sly thro)gho)t life* #f affects the
development of all &ody tiss)es+ e=cept the central nervo)s system and genitals*
hile G" does not seem to play a role in prenatal growth+ it is necessary for physical
development from &irth on* Children who lac( it reach an average mat)re height of
only ? feet+ ? inches+ altho)gh they are normal in physical proportions and healthy in
all other respects* hen treated with inGections of G"+ s)ch children show catch9)p
growth and then &egin to grow at a normal rate* Reaching their genetically e=pected
height depends on starting treatment early+ &efore the epiphyses of the s(eleton are
very mat)re /DAErcole H Inderwood+ 23;>5*
A second pit)itary hormone affecting childrenAs growth is thyroid sti"'latin&
hor"one (TSH5* #t stim)lates the thyroid gland /located in the nec(5 to release
thyro,in+ which is necessary for normal development of the nerve cells of the &rain*
#nfants &orn with a deficiency of thyro=in m)st receive it at once+ or they will &e
mentally retarded* At later ages+ children with too little thyro=in show slow physical
mat)ration* "owever+ the central nervo)s system is no longer affected+ since the
most rapid period of &rain development is complete* ith prompt treatment+ s)ch
children catch )p in &ody growth and event)ally reach normal ad)lt si'e /!anner5
Pit'itary &land
A gland located at the &ase of the &rain that releases hormones affecting physical
growth *
3
$ro%th hor"one ($H)
A pit)itary hormones that affects the development of almost all &ody tiss)es+ e=cept
the central nervo)s system and genitals*
Thyroid sti"'latin& hor"ones (TSH)
A pit)itary hormone that stim)lates the release of thyro=in from the thyroid gland*
!hyro=in is necessary for normal &rain development and &ody growth*
N#trition
At the &eginning of early childhood+ there is often a dramatic change in the <)antity
and variety of foods that children will eat* Many children who+ as toddles+ tried
anything and everything+ &ecome pic(y eaters /Celchat H Cliner+ 23;>5* One father
wistf)lly recalled his sonAs eager sampling of the c)isine at a Chinese resta)rant
d)ring toddler hood* 6"e ate rice+ chic(en chow mein+ egg rolls+ and more* $ow at
age -+ the only thing heAll try is the ice cream7
!he decline in the yo)ng childAs appetite is normal* #t occ)rs &eca)se growth has
slowed* And preschoolersA wariness of new foods may have adaptive val)e* Yo)ng
children are still learning which items are safe to eat and which are not* By stic(ing to
familiar foods+ they are less li(ely to swallow dangero)s s)&stances when ad)lts are
not aro)nd to protect them /Ro'in+ 23345*
Beca)se caloric inta(e is red)ced+ preschoolers need a high9<)ality diet* !hey
re<)ire the same foods that ma(e )p a healthy ad)lt dietJonly smaller amo)nts* Mil(
and mil( prod)cts+ meat or meat alternatives /s)ch as eggs+ dried peas or &eans+ and
pean)t &)tter5+ vegeta&les+ and fr)its+ and &reads and cereals sho)ld &e incl)ded
/Kendric(+ Ka)fmann+ H Messenger+ 23325* Altho)gh fats+ oils+ and salt are also
needed+ they sho)ld &e (ept to a minim)m &eca)se of their lin( to high &lood
press)re and heart disease in ad)lthood* Foods high in s)gar sho)ld also &e
avoided* #n addition to ca)sing tooth decay+ s)gary cereals+ coo(ies+ ca(es soft
drin(s+ and candy are high9energy items with little n)tritional val)e that red)ce yo)ng
childrenAs appetite for healthy foods*
!he emotional climate at mealtimes has a powerf)l impact on childrenAs eating
ha&its* For many parents+ feeding preschoolers is a maGor so)rce of an=iety+ and
meals &ecome )npleasant and stressf)l* At times+ food &ecomes a &ri&e* Carents
coa= their children &y saying+ 6Finish yo)r vegeta&les+ and yo) can have an e=tra
coo(ie*7 Infort)nately+ trying to reinforce eating of healthy foods with treats ca)ses
children to li(e the healthy foods less and the treats more /Birth+ 23;:+Birch et al*+
23;:5* !here are many ways that parents+ teachers+ and caregivers can promote
healthy+ varied eating in yo)ng children*
!AB%E 9 Changes in Gross Motor 1(ills D)ring Early Childhood
4
A&e *al#in& and
R'nnin&
+'"!in& Ho!!in& Thro%in& and
Catchin&
Peddl
in&
and
Steer
in&
,9-
year
s
al(s more
rhythmicallyL
widely
spaced feet
narrowL
opposite
arm9leg
swing
appears*
")rried wal(
changes to
tr)e r)n*
0)mps
down from
step*
0)mps
several
inches off
floor with
&oth feet+
no arm
action*
"ops 2 to -
times on
same foot
with stiff
)pper &ody
and non
hopping leg
held still*
!hrows &all with
forearm
e=tension only L
feet remain
stationery*
Awaits thrown
&ail with rigid
arms
o)tstretched
C)sh
es
riding
toy
with
feetL
does
little
steeri
ng*
-9?
year
s
al(s )p stairs+
alternating feet*
al(s
downstairs+
leading with
one foot* al(s
straight line*
0)mps off
floor with
co9
coordinate
d arm
action*
Broad
G)mps
a&o)t 2
foot
"ops ? to >
times on
same foot+
fle=ing
)pper &ody
and
swinging
non9hopping
leg*
!hrows &all with
slight &ody
rotation &)t little
or no transfer of
weight with feet*
Fle=es el&ows in
preparation for
catching L traps
&all against
chest*
Ceddl
es
and
steers
tricycl
e*
?9.
year
s
al(s
downstairs+
alternating feet+
al(s circ)lar
line* al(s
aw(wardly on
&alance &eam*
R)ns more
smoothly*
Gallops and
s(ips with one
foot*
#mproved
)pward
and
forward
G)mps*
!ravels
greater
distance*
"ops : to 4
times on
same foot*
#mproved
speed of
hopping*
!hrows &all with
increased &ody
rotation and
some transfer of
weight forward*
Catches &all with
hands L if
)ns)ccessf)l+
may still trap &all
against chest*
Rides
tricycl
e
rapidl
y+
steers
smoot
hly*
.9>
year
s
al(s sec)rely
on &alance
&eam*
#ncreased
speed of r)n*
Gallops more
smoothly* !r)e
s(ipping
appears*
0)mps off
floor a&o)t
2 foot*
Broad
G)mps -
feet*
"ops .4
feet on
same foot in
24 seconds*
"ops with
rhythmical
alternation
/, hops on
one foot and
, on the
"as mat)re
throwing and
catching pattern*
Moves arm more
and steps
forward d)ring
throw* Awaits
thrown &all with
rela=ed post)re+
adG)sting &ody to
Rides
&icycl
e with
trainin
g
wheel
s*
5
other5 path and si'e of
&all*
1o)rces D Cratty+ 23;> L Getchell H Ro&erton+ 23;3+ $ew&org+ 1toc( H ne(+ 23;? D
Ro&erton+ 23;?*
!AB%E Changes in Fine Motor 1(ills D)ring Early Childhood
A&e Dressin& ,eedin& Other
,9-
years
C)ts on and removes
simple items of
clothing* Mips and
)n'ips large 'ippers*
Ises spoon
effectively*
Opens door &y t)rning
(no&* 1trings large
&eads*
-9?
years
Fastens and
)nfastens large
&)ttons*
1erves self food
witho)t assistance*
Ises scissors to c)t
paper* Copies vertical
line and circle*
?9.
years
Dresses and
)ndresses witho)t
assistance*
Ises for( effectively* C)ts with scissors
following line* Copies
triangle+ cross+ and
some letters*
.9>
years
Ises (nife to c)t soft
food*
!ies single over hand
(not L aro)nd age >+
ties shoes* Draws
person with si= parts*
Copies some
n)merals and simple
words*
!he preschool years 8 from age , to age . 8 are mar(ed &y significant physical
growth and development* !his chapter profiles the e=traordinary motor
advancements that occ)r d)ring this period* Creschoolers are more coordinated+
show s)rprising strength and speed+ and display tireless energy*
UNIVERSAL $RO*TH PRINCIPLES
1ome patterns of physical and motor development are )niversal* Children of all
c)lt)res grow physically in certain similar ways d)ring the preschool years*
Physical $ro%th Patterns
First and foremost + all children of this age do grow* Act)ally+ growth rate slows
d)ring this developmental time period in contrast to the asto)nding pace of physical
development d)ring infancy* !he preschool years are a time of slow &)t steady
6
increase in height+ weight+ and m)scle tone* A loo( at a -9year old and a . 8year 8old
will reveal the significant physical development that occ)rs in early childhood*
Creschoolers &odies grow faster than their heads* !he h)ge9headed appearance of
infancy and toddler hood disappears* !heir torsos grow longer+ catching )p to
internal organs which are+ even in late infancy+ close to ad)lt si'e* !heir stomach
m)scles also develop* !hese changes give preschoolers a flatter stomach L the
endearing pot9&elly of infancy grad)ally fades* A prono)nced physical change that
occ)rs d)ring the preschool years is arm and leg growth+ altho)gh preschoolers
remain short9legged in contrast to ad)lts*
!hese growth patterns lead to shift in the center o! gravity+ the point at which &ody
weight is evenly distri&)ted* Ba&ies centers of gravity are high in the &ody+
somewhere in the area of the chest* !his ma(es them very top9heavy+ and th)s more
aw(ward on their feet and )na&le to ma(e s)dden movements witho)t toppling over
/%owrey+ 23;>5* A preschoolerAs center of gravity is nearer the &elly &)tton* !his
lower weight distri&)tion allows children of this age to perform actions that were
impossi&le only a year or two &efore*
Chysical changes in the preschool years are evident in weight increases D A typical
preschooler weighs -2 percent more at the end of this period than at its &eginning* /#t
is interesting to note+ however+ that in infancy weight increases -44 percent5
-rain $ro%th
One of the most significant )niversal physical changes in the preschool years cannot
&e directly o&served D !he &rain grows larger and more comple= at this age* At &irth+
the &rain is a&o)t ,. percent of ad)lt weight D at age ,+ it is .4 percent* By the end of
the preschool period+ a childAs &rain will &e 34 percent of its ad)lt weight /!anner+
23:;5* !his ne)rological growth is not the res)lt of an increase in the n)m&er of &rain
cells /Epstein+ 23;45 L e=isting cells &ecome significantly more ela&orate*
!he &rain is comprised of appro=imately ,44 &illion &rain cells+ called ne)rons+ which
are designed to send and retrieve information across organs or m)scles*
Each ne)ron is made )p of a cell &ody which is s)rro)nded &y dendrites+ elongated
tiss)es which receive messages* A very long thread of tiss)e+ the a=on e=tends o)t
from the cell &ody toward other nerve cells* !he p)rpose of the a=on is to send
messages* "ere is a simplified description of how a message is passed along &y
cells in a preschoolerAs nervo)s system D A signal is sent from the &rain to the
preschoolerAs m)scles commanding her hand to paint an a&sol)tely e=<)isite pict)re
of her family* One &rain cell transmits the signal to the ne=t+ and that cell from the
&rain to the m)scles needed for painting*
!he message in one cell is transmitted to another via chemical secretions called
ne)rotransmitters+ which travel o)t of the a=on of the cell and pass into the dendrites
of the ne=t* !he place where the a=on and the dendrite meet is called a synapse*
"elping the signal travel efficiently from one cell to another is myelin+ a fatty sheath
that s)rro)nds the a=on and ens)res that the signal travels efficiently+ <)ic(ly+ and
acc)rately o)t of one cell and into another /!anner+ 23:;5+ A very important
7
developmental process d)ring the preschool years is myelini'ation+ the formation of
myelin aro)nd the a=ons of the nerve cells*
As myelin is formed+ signals &ecome more efficient* !he child in the e=ample a&ove
will &e m)ch more acc)rate in ma(ing a &r)sh stro(e than a yo)ng &a&y+ who having
less myelin+ is only a&le to swipe at things in a hit9or9miss fashion* Myelini'ation is
&elieved to &e responsi&le for the rapid increases in vis)al and a)ditory a&ility d)ring
the preschool years* 1(ill at foc)sing on and scanning o&Gects and at identifying the
directions of so)nds increase as myelin forms aro)nd the cells responsi&le for these
actions /E)rpillot+ 23>;5*
!he a&ove e=planation is+ of co)rse+ very simplified version of what act)ally occ)rs in
the ne)ral transmission of messages* Many different nerve cells all over the &ody are
in action as a child performs a movement* !he n)m&er of dendrites and synapses
that form in nerve cells /not the n)m&er of cells themselves5 leads to improved &rain
f)nctioning in the early years* 1)ch increases in &rain comple=ity enhance cognition
and lang)age+ as descri&ed in earlier chapters* An important idea for the p)rposes of
this chapter is that these advancements significantly improve motor a&ilities* As
preschoolers ac<)ire dendrites and form myelin+ they &ecome more agile and
powerf)l in their physical activities*
-rain laterali.ation and Handedness
!he &rain is organi'ed into regions+ each of which is responsi&le for specific f)nctions
/$owa(ows(i+ 23;:5* 1ensory regions send and receive information regarding the
sense organs* Motor regions reg)late movement* Association regions are
responsi&le for comple= tho)ght processes D these are the slowest areas of the &rain
to form d)ring the early years /1)omi+ 23;,5*
!he &rain is also organi'ed into right and left hemispheres* #n right9handed
individ)als+ the left hemisphere governs analytical thin(ing and lang)age and the right
hemisphere governs spatial perception+ facial recognition+ and perception of so)nds*
!he left hemisphere controls the right vis)al field and the right controls the left vis)al
field /%enne&erg+ 23>:5* !his specili'ation of left and right sides of the &rain has
&een referred to as &rain laterali'ation*
!hese speciali'ed f)nctions of the &rain hemispheres are f)lly esta&lished d)ring the
preschool years /Bryden H 1a=&y+23;. L 1a=&y H Bryden+ 23;?5* One clearly
o&serva&le indicator of this is left9or right9handedness* By age ? or . + it is easy to
tell whether children are right9 or left9handed L they show o&vio)s preferences for
)sing one hand over the other in drawing or ma(ing p)''les+ or they prefer hopping
on a specific foot* %eft9or right 8handedness is related to the speciali'ation of &rain
hemispheres*
#ndivid)als who are left9handed constit)te appro=imately 22 percent of the pop)lation
/!an+23;.5* !he &rain hemisphere f)nctions of left9handed people are atypical in that
lang)age is more li(ely to original in the right hemisphere and emotions and spatial
perception in the left hemisphere* !his does not mean that left9handed children will
have learning pro&lems or motor diffic)lties+ as was originally ass)red /"allahan H
Ka)fman+ 23::5* %eft9handed preschoolers f)nction no differently than their right9
8
handed peers /!an+23;.5* !here is no reason+ then to insist that preschoolers )se
their right handsJa common practice many years ago* #n fact+ since left9or right9
handedness is related to &rain physiology+ s)ch a practice co)ld &e e=tremely
fr)strating+ and perhaps even emotionally damaging+ for yo)ng children*
A small n)m&er of children show no consistent hand preference d)ring the preschool
years* !hese children sometimes e=hi&it poor motor f)nctioning* 1)ch children often
have diffic)lty with gross motor activities+ which involve )se of the large m)scles+ and
with fine motor activities+ which involve )se of the small m)scles /!an+ 23;.5*
$ross Motor Deelo!"ent
Act)ally+ motor development is characteri'ed &y a grad)al refinement in a&ilitiesD
steps toward mastery of a partic)lar s(ill are many+ altho)gh each step is often
impercepti&le* Altho)gh a child might demonstrate s)dden acc)racy in throwing+ for
e=ample+ this s(ill act)ally was ac<)ired in small steps* !he process &egan in
infancy+ with primitive swiping and grasping* #n toddler hood+ the child may have
&eg)n throwing )nderhanded* #n the early preschool years+ the child may have
&eg)n to throw over9handed+ &)t with aw(ward &ody movements /i*e*+ stepping
forward with the same foot as the throwing arm5* From the earliest days of life+ the
child may have practiced the timing of the release of o&Gects* #n infancy+ the child had
to overcome refle=ive grasping* #n toddler hood+ the child learned to control when to
let go of an o&Gect to &e thrown /Cratty+ 23;>5* #t was only after many of these small+
)nnoticed advancements that the childAs throwing competence &ecame s)ddenly
apparent to ad)lts*
Locomotion skills+ s)ch as wal(ing or r)nning+ progress in the same way* Altho)gh
parents or teachers may s)ddenly notice that preschoolers are diffic)lt to (eep )p
with the speed+ &alance+ and coordination of movements yo)ng children now e=hi&it
too( some time to develop* #n toddler hood and early preschool years+ their steps
were )ns)re* !he st)m&led often+ tipped over when changing directions or stopping
s)ddenly and rarely moved directly in a straight line* !hey did not engage in tr)e
r)nningL their feet wo)ld not leave the gro)nd at the same time when they wo)ld lope
along the floor /Cratty+ 23;>5* Grad)ally+ children &ecome more competent in their
locomotion* By age -+ they can wal( in a straighter line+ and at r they can wal( a
circ)lar path* !hey &ecome &etter at clim&ing )p and down stairsL aro)nd age ?+ they
alternate steps for the first time* !hey are now a&le to leap+ gallop+ and hop* !heir
r)nning &ecomes faster and more coordinated /Cratty+ 23;>5* Off they go+ with their
parents chasing &ehind and wondering* 6hen did they learn to move so <)ic(lyF7
$o%e!ent Consistency an Constancy Distinctions can &e made &etween two
diverse movement a&ilitiesD movement consistency and movement
constancy/Keogh+24::5* *ovement consistency refers to ac<)isition of &asic
movement s(ills s)ch as r)nning or catching* *ovement constancy refers to an
a&ility to adapt these movements to meet varying environmental challenges /e*g*+
&eing a&le to catch &alls of different si'es or &eing a&le to r)n )phill and down as well
as on flat s)rfaces5* Both are critical for everyday life in all c)lt)res*

Social Coorination o" $o%e!ents $ot only m)st children learn to coordinate the
movements of their own &odies+ they m)st adapt movements in relation to other
persons /Keogh+ 23::5* A child may &e a&le to change directions <)ic(ly while
9
r)nning+ for e=ample+ &)t may not &e a&le coordinate this &ehavior in anticipation of
another childAs movements in a game of tag* #n almost every c)lt)re+ games and play
activities involve coordinating oneAs physical activities with those of others*
Reaction ti!e -eaction time is important in many childhood pastimes* !raditional
American games s)ch as m)sical chairs+ 6 red light+ green light7+ or slap Gac(*7
Re<)ire <)ic( motoric reactions to stim)li* Reaction time is comprised to two
components D movement time+ which is the time &etween the &eginning and end of a
movement+ and decision time. which is the time &etween the presentation of a stim)li
and when movement &egins/1)rwillo+23:25* Cractice at <)ic( movement is not all
that is re<)ired for developing reaction time+ thenL children m)st have e=periences in
which they see or hear a stim)l)s and then <)ic(ly G)dge how to react* #n the same of
m)sical chairs+ for e=ample+ children not only need to sit <)ic(ly+ they m)st perceive
the cessation of the m)sic and decide instantaneo)sly where they will sit* As children
develop from toddler hood into the early elementary years+ their reaction time
diminishes significantly /Connolly+23:45*
Fine $otor De%elo&!ent +ine motor development refers to the a&ility to coordinate
smaller m)scles in the arms+ hands+ and fingers+ Remar(a&le advances in the
development of fine motor s(ills occ)r d)ring the preschool years*
Altho)gh children may str)ggle a &it with self9help s(ills+ s)ch as &)ttoning+ 'ipping+ or
eating with )tensils+ these are mastered+ for the most part+ &y age ? or .* 1ome
children+ li(e the yo)ng preschooler in the story a&ove+ show s)rprising command
over small m)sclesD they are a&le to tie their shoes or remove ela&orate clothing
independently* A great deal of variation in fine motor competence will e=its among
children in a typical child care or preschool setting* 1ome will re<)ire m)ch
assistance+ others little*
Fine motor a&ilities are s)pported &y advancements in perception* Creschoolers can
se+ hear+ to)ch+ taste+ and smell as well as ad)lts can /1iegler+ 23;>5* F)rther+ they
are m)ch &etter at interpreting what they perceive than they were d)ring infancy* For
e=ample+ ? year9olds have &een fo)nd to &e <)ite sophisticated in noticing details in
pict)res+ and ma(ing acc)rate interpretations a&o)t what they see /0ones+ 1wift H
0ohnson+ 23;;5* !hey scan vis)al stim)li m)ch more completely than infants+ fi=ating
less on G)st one feat)re of a pict)re or o&Gect /Davidoff+ 23:.5* !hey &eing to
coordinate these newly ac<)ired percept)al a&ilities with &ody movements* A ?9year9
old can now s(illf)lly )se vision to g)ide hands in drawing* A .9year9old can t)rn the
pages of a small &oo( while loo(ing at pict)res and print* !his a&ility to integrate
movements and perception has &een called percept"al/motor development
!he child who G)st started drawing people may have &eg)n to refine artistic s(ills very
early in life* Reaching and grasping o&Gects in infancy may have &een the first step in
ac<)iring this control* Developing a 6pincer grasp7+ in which tiny o&Gects are pic(ed )p
with the th)m& and forefinger+ may also have &een critical to these writing and
drawing movements* Grad)al refinement in holding the drawing or writing implement
li(ely too( place+ with the child first gripping a crayon or mar(er in a fist and holding
the drawing arm )p a&ove the s)rface of the drawing arm on the ta&le+ noticing that
this adG)stment led to greater control* E=perimentation with writing or drawing grip
may have ta(en place as the child so)ght to gain additional control /1chic(edan'+
1chic(edan'+ H Forsyth+ 23;,5* By the time ad)lts noticed this remar(a&le mastery
10
over the crayon+ the child may have &een in the process of ac<)iring drawing
competence for may years*
Stat're
CreschoolersA height and weight vary significantly+ even within single c)lt)ral gro)ps*
A st)dy of children within the Inited 1tates+ for e=ample+ showed that height among
?9and .9year olds ranged from )nder 34 centimeters to over 22. centimeters /%owrey+
23;>5* !he weight of these same children was even more varia&le+ with a range of -4
to .4 po)nds* #t is important to point o)t that all children st)dies were developing in
healthy+ typical ways* A childAs simply &eing small in the preschool years is not a
ca)se for concern*
Actiity Leel
Anyone who has spent time tin a preschool or child care center is aware of individ)al
differences in childrenAs activity levels* 1ome preschoolers are <)iet+ others are
e=tremely active* Activity level generally increases d)ring the first tow years of life
and then+ for most children+ decreases significantly thro)gh age . /Eaton H Y)+ 23;35*
$ot all children &ecome less active in the preschool years+ however /Gold smith+
23;:5* A good deal of evidence s)ggests that needs and preferences for movement
are &iologically inherited* For e=ample+ st)dies have shown that identical twins have
very similar activity levels+ whereas non9identical twins do not /1a)dino H Eaton+
23;35* Boys have &een fo)nd to &e consistently more active than girls+ s)ggesting
that high activity level is a se=9lin(ed genetic trait /Eaton H Y)+23;35*

CULTURE AND MOTOR PLA/
Creschoolers of all c)lt)res ac<)ire the same motor a&ilities+ &)t differ a great deal in
how they play* 1ome may )se (ic(ing+ s(ills to play a game with a &all+ others may
)se these s(ills to (ic( roc(s into the coo(ing fire* 1ome may refine (ic(ing to enact
pretend martial arts &attles+ others might s(illf)lly (ic( a can along the sidewal( all the
way &ac( home from the grocery* #n this section+ e=amples of preschool motor play
across c)lt)res are provided* 1imilarities and differences in the playf)l )se of
physical a&ilities are highlighted*
R'nnin& and *al#in&
R)nning and wal(ing are &ehaviors which are o&served in children of all c)lt)res as
they engage in free play /Rideno)r+ 23:;5*
#t is impossi&le to (eep children from r)nning* Even teachers in 6sit <)iet and listen7
classrooms learn this <)ic(ly* 1imply letting children move )ninhi&ited a&o)t the
classroom or on the playgro)nd well res)lt in m)ch r)nning practice*
Open 8ended chasing is a common r)nning game played on preschool playgro)nds*
Distinct from organi'ed games of tag with clearly defined r)les+ chasing involves wild+
chaotic r)nning a&o)t as one or several children chase after others* 1ometimes the
chasers and chasees reverse roles witho)t warning*
11
#n this chasing game+ children ac<)ire r)nning consistencyJthat is+ &asic r)nning
s(ill* "owever+ they also show r)nning constancy as they vary their r)nning
movements to meet all (inds of circ)mstances and in response to the actions of
peers* For e=ample+ they m)st anticipate the direction and speed with which the giant
p)rs)es them and vary their own speed accordingly* !hey r)n over or )nder
o&stacles and )p and down a hill on the playgro)nd* Chasing contrasts sharply with a
rely race or organi'ed r)nning game* !here are no winners or losers in this chasing
gameL in fact+ it may &e prefera&le to &e ca)ght &y the giant now and then*
Cli"0in& and +'"!in& Do%n
Clim&ing competence re<)ires large motor development as well as a positive
disposition toward ta(ing ris(s /Gallah)e+ 23;,5* For e=ample+ when clim&ing a net
ladder+ not only m)st children have strength and coordination+ they m)st overcome
the an=iety of &eing )p so high* Ad)lts often reass)re children who are fearf)l /e*g*+
7#Am right here if yo) need help7 or 6!he ladder is very safe* Yo) wonAt get h)rt
clim&ing )p there7*5 hen ad)lts ac(nowledge childrenAs ris(9ta(ing /e*g*+ 6Oh+ myN
loo( how high )p yo) areN Yo) are way over my headN "ow did yo) clim& so far )pN5+
they instill confidence and a desire for more advent)ro)s play /Gallah)e+ 23;,5*
Once children have clim&ed )p on something+ they generally G)mp down* 0)mping is
a comple= action that develops grad)ally in stages /Cratty+ 23;>5* Yo)ng
preschoolers step off from s)rfaces rather than G)mp down from them* As they get
older+ they &egin to act)ally leap+ landing first on one foot and then the other* #n
these early G)mps+ children aw(wardly throw their arms &ac( and fail to lean forward
for &alance /1chic(edan'+ 1chic(edan'+ H Forsyth+ 23;,5* !he conse<)ence is
often a lopsided landing L children in the early preschool years )s)ally leap from the
lower platforms of the clim&er or &ottom r)ngs of a ladder )ntil their G)mping a&ilities
improve* Girls and &oys differ in their G)mping s(ill D girls are more precise in their
G)mps while &oys can leap higher /Cratty+ 23;>5
-alancin&
As mentioned earlier+ as preschool children grow taller+ their center of gravity
&ecomes lower+ providing them with greater &alance in motor activities /%owrey+
23;>5* Balance is re<)ired for many games* Children often engage in play in which
they deli&erately ca)se themselves to &ecome off9&alance /Aldis+ 23:.5L e=amples
are spinning aro)nd and aro)nd and then trying to wal(+ or sliding down a partic)larly
slippery slide then trying to regain &alance at the &ottom* %ow &alance &eams and
other e<)ipment are )sef)l for &alance play*
Ro'&h-and-T'"0le Play
Children of all c)lt)res engage in wild+ silly ro)gh9ho)sing that loo(s+ form o)tward
appearances+ li(e fighting or aggressive &ehavior* !his form of play is for&idden in
many American schools and ho)seholds+ o)t of concern that it might lead to o)t9of 8
control &ehavior or real fighting* A growing &ody of research s)ggests that ro)gh9and
8t)m&le play+ which incl)des wrestling+ play9fighting+ rolling aro)nd+ or chasing peers
Jall accompanied &y screams+ la)ghter+ and noise9ma(ingJis )sef)l for motor
12
development and social learning /Cellegrini H Cerlm)tter+ 23;;5* 1)ch play li(ely
relieves tension+ e=ercises many different m)scles sim)ltaneo)sly+ leads to close
physical contact with peers+ and is generally great f)n* Ro)gh9and 8t)m&le play with
n)rt)ring ad)lts may contri&)te to greater competence in peer interactions
/MacDonal( H Car(e+ 23;?5* Contrary to what wo)ld &e e=pected+ this form of play
does not lead to aggression+ nor does in res)lt in )nr)ly or )ncontrolla&le &ehavior
/Cellegrini H Cerlm)tter+ 23;;5*
Ro)gh9and t)m&le play may &e the ideal conte=t for ac<)iring motor a&ilities in early
childhood* Children who are less active might &e enticed into activity &y s)ch open9
ended+ h)mor9filled interchanges* Children who do not care for organi'ed games or
who prefer ma(e9&elieve activities might &e attracted to the competition free+ highly
sym&olic feat)res of ro)gh9and t)m&le play* #t is arg)ed here that wrestling+ r)nning
and sho)ting on the playgro)nd are appropriate and powerf)l ways to practice motor
s(ills* Eery few activities that an ad)lt co)ld invent wo)ld lead to the same levels of
e=ercise /Myers+23;.5*
,INE MOTOR PLA/ 1 THE E2AMPLE O, DRA*IN$
Children of all c)lt)res engage in <)iet games that involve )se of the small m)scles*
!he types of games vary according to the availa&le toys and c)lt)ral traditions*
Ma(ing p)''les+ molding clay+ c)tting and stac(ing o&Gects+ or &)ilding with &loc(s are
common fine motor activities in most c)lt)res* Drawing is perhaps the most )niversal
form of fine motor play*
Dra%in& Deelo!"ent
ChildrenAs drawing ill)strates fine motor development in the preschool years*
#mprovements in drawing a&ility d)ring this period show the rapid increase in the
control of small m)scles*
Most theorists have descri&ed stages of drawing development thro)gh which children
progress+ &eginning with scri&&le stages and advancing to more representational
drawing levels*
#n toddler hood and the early preschool years+ children often scri&&le* As children
develop+ their scri&&les &ecome more controlled+ often containing more circ)lar
stro(es and discrete shapes* !hey achieve even greater control when they learn to
hold the drawing implement in their fingers instead of gripping it in their fist+ and to
place their arms down on the ta&le as they draw* !heir scri&&les &ecome smaller and
more discrete* Event)ally children name their scri&&les or tell stories a&o)t
Sta&e A!!ro3i"ate
A&e
Descri!tion
13
1cri&&ling 1tage 2. months to
- to ? years
%arge 'ig'agging lines give way to
more controlled and circ)lar
mar(ings later in this stage*
Event)ally discrete shapes appear*
Children &egin to name their
scri&&les as they approach the ne=t
stage*
Creschematic 1tage - or ? years to
> or : years
Early representations are drawn*
For the first time ad)lts can
recogni'e what children have
created* $ames of drawings stay
the same over time* Early
drawings are comprised of heads
with &asic feat)res* Over time+
arms+ hands+ legs+ arms+ and
detailed facial feat)res emerge*
1chematic 1tage > or : years to
3 or 24 years
hole scenes which incl)de
ho)ses+ trees+ a s)n+ as well as
people are created* Fig)res 6float
in space7 and are o)t of proportion
early in this stage* %ater+ fig)res
may &e anchored to a gro)nd line
with a shading of &l)e at the top of
the page representing the s(y*
them* Even in the early preschool years+ then children e=hi&it an awareness that art
can &e )sed to sym&olically represent the real world* Children m)st advance thro)gh
scri&&le stages &efore they are a&le to prod)ce more representational wor(* Even
after they have moved on to more ela&orate drawing+ older preschool children will
revisit scri&&ling for enGoyment or comfort*
#n the later preschool years+ children often &egin to create simple representations of
the people and things that are important to them* "eads predominate in their
drawings d)ring this period* As children progress+ they draw stic( arms and legs
which at first protr)de from the heads of their fig)res and later are attached to &odies
drawn &elow the heads* Other representational fig)res emerge in childrenAs drawing
as they develop into the early primary grades* !rees+ ho)ses+ animals+ clo)ds+ or the
s)n may appear+ altho)gh these are often drawn o)t of proportion to one another or
may &e shown floating thro)gh space* #n the elementary years+ ela&orate scenes are
created which reflect a greater degree of correspondence to the real world* At this
stage+ the fig)res often are anchored to a gro)nd line+ and a patch of &l)e s(y may &e
added a&ove*
An interesting feat)re of childrenAs drawing is repetitive practice* Once children &egin
ma(ing small+ circ)lar scri&&les+ they draw these over and over again on paper*
Once they &egin to draw heads+ they fill pages with themL teachers &egin to worry
a&o)t the s)pplies &)dget as children go thro)gh reams of paper+ drawing identical
heads on each sheet* !his repetitive practice may &e an effort to gain mastery over
newly ac<)ired a&ilities*
14
!he a&ility to represent life on paper re<)ires more than s(ill at controlling a mar(er or
crayon or &eing a&le to see the o&Gect one is drawing* Drawing also has a cognitive
component* Ciaget /Ciaget H #nhelder+ 23>-5 has arg)ed that children are more li(ely
to draw what they (now than what they see* For e=ample+ children draw transparent
ho)ses with visi&le people* 1)ch a drawing represents not what they act)ally see
when they loo( at a ho)se+ &)t what they (now occ)rs inside D family mem&ers
sleeping+ eating+ and playing inside a ho)se* Ciaget demonstrated that children have
diffic)lty copying reality onto paper &eca)se they do not f)lly )nderstand space* #n
well9(nown e=periments in which he as(ed preschoolers to copy shapes+ it wasnAt
)ntil age . that most children co)ld acc)rately copy s)ch diffic)lt forms as triangles*
Drawing development involves+ then + a comple= coordination of percept)al+ motor+
and cognitive s(ills*
$ENDER AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Gender differences in motor development d)ring the preschool years have &een
o&served* Boys have &een fo)nd to lose &a&y fat and ac<)ire m)scle tone more
<)ic(ly than girls+ and they tend to &e larger and stronger thro)gho)t the early years
/!anner+ 23:;5* Girls are more competent at fine motor activities* !his may &e
&eca)se some areas of the &rainJthose responsi&le for percept)al9motor a&ilitiesJ
are more f)lly developed in females d)ring this period /!anner+ 23:;5* Boys are
generally fo)nd to &e more activeL they engage in more ro)gh9and 8t)m&le play than
girls /Eaton H Enns+ 23;>L Eaton O Keats+23;,5* Boys tend to ta(e more ris(s and to
&e more advent)resome in play /1ander H "arper+23:>5*
VARIATIONS IN MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
1ome individ)als face challenging conditions that affect motor growth* !hese may
stem form environmental or genetic ca)ses* #nterventions in home or school settings
can assist s)ch children in developing physical competence*

Chysically Challenging Conditions
A n)m&er of challenging conditions infl)ence motor development in the preschool
years* Cere&ral palsy+ a disorder which can &e ca)sed &y o=ygen deprivation &efore
or d)ring &irth+ affects motor coordination and m)scle strength* Yo)ng children with
cere&ral palsy vary greatly in the e=tent of impairment L some are <)ite competent in
motor s(ills and can ac<)ire typical play and self9help a&ilities as descri&ed a&ove*
Others s)ffer severe m)ltiple handicaps+ incl)ding vis)al and hearing impairments L
these children may re<)ire significant s)pport in play or daily life needs* Down
1yndrome+ another challenging condition which can infl)ence motor development+
can ca)se delays in gross motor+ fine motor+ and lang)age a&ilities in preschoolers*
1ome preschoolers show general motor delay that has no specific ca)se+ often
accompanied &y delays in lang)age or cognition /!allal+ 23;:5* !his condition is
s)spected to &e d)e to minimal &rain damage+ perhaps occ)rring in fetal development
or d)ring the &irth process+ which is impercepti&le to physicians in neonatal tests
/!allal+23;:5* Eis)al and hearing impairment often affect motor a&ility*
15
SU$$ESTED ACTIVITIES
2* O&serve two preschool children of
different ages /e*g*+ a -9year9old and
a .9year 8old &)t of the same gender
as they play in a "ead start or child
care center* !a(e notes on their
physical characteristics and motor
activities* %ater+ write a report which
compares the two children+ g)ided &y
the following <)estions D
a* "ow do the two children differ in
stat)re and &ody proportionsF
Are their facial feat)res differentF
hat other physical differences
did yo) noteF hat can yo)
concl)de a&o)t change in
physical appearance in the
preschool yearsF
&* "ow wo)ld yo) characteri'e
differences in motor competenceF
hat specific motor a&ilities did
yo) o&serve in the two childrenF
hat similarities and differences
did yo) see in their r)nning +
G)mping+ clim&ing +throwing+ or
&alancingF
c* "ow wo)ld yo) descri&e the
activity levels of the two childrenF
Did yo) o&serve differences
&etween the two in this areaF
d* Descri&e any ro)gh9and 8t)m&le
play that yo) o&served* Did the
two children differ in the amo)nt
or the <)ality of this type of playF
-*O&serve a child with special needs
/e*g*+ a child with Down syndrome+
mental retardation+ hearing impairments5*
!a(e notes on the childAs play activities*
rite a report on yo)r o&servations
g)ided &y the following <)estions*
,* O&serve a preschool &oy and girl of
appro=imately the same age as they
engage in motor play in a child care
center or preschool* !a(e notes on their
motor activities* rite a report comparing
their play+ g)ided &y the following
<)estionsD
a* hat types of play did yo)
o&serve+ which were common to
&oth children /e*g*+ clim&ing
games+ throwing+ r)nning5F
&* hat difference did yo) o&serve
in the two childrenAs play
preferencesF
c* Did yo) o&serve differences in
activity level or ro)gh9and 8t)m&le
playF
d* Did yo) see motor activities that
appeared to &e infl)enced &y
genderF
Generally+ to what degree do yo)
thin( that gender e=plains
differences in motor play of the
two childrenF
?4 As( a preschool+ (indergarten+ or child
care teacher to collect childrenAs
drawings for yo)* /Children are often
eager to draw for ad)lts+ and teachers
are )s)ally pleased to gather drawing
samples for st)dy5* As( that the ages of
the children &e written on the &ac(*
%oo( over the drawings and write an
analysis of them &ased on the following
<)estionsD
16