3535

~35--
A Rapid Accurate Unsteady-State Klinkenberg_ Permeameter
STANLEY C. -IONES 1 MARATHON OIL CO.
MEMB-ER AIME
I
LITTLETON, COLO.
ABSTRACT
A s imp 1e, unsteady - state
appropnate theory have been
apparatus and
developed {or
measunngtbe Klinkenberg permeability, Klinkenberg
slip / actor, and Forchheimer turbulence / actor of
core plugs. The technique is fast and accurate and
basreplacednearly allsteady-state gaspenneabi[ity
determinations made in our laboratory. The theory
o{ operation, capabilities and limitations of the
apparatus are discussed. New data are presented
/ or more than 100 cores, correlating slip and
turbulence factor vs permeability.
INTRODUCTION
Permeability is usually measured with air at
mean pressures just above 1 atm. This steady-state
determination is rapid, but it can lead to serious
errors. For example, the low-pressure air
permeability of tight core often differs from its
permeability y to Iiquid or high-pressure gas by 30
to 100 percent or more. Correction factors
/lrl:al. _.L-.k
(AI UIKCIJ UQ/j ~h~ fac tors, . . . . . .
) #.Am ~!-j~q~!ac ~~n-~ ~r~
available, but still, the corrected, low-pressure
measurement can exhibit considerable error.
These errors are avoided by determining gas
penneabi!ities at two or three mean pressures such
as 25, 50 and 100 psia, and then extrapolating to
infinite pressure to obtain the equivalent liquid
or Klinkenberg permeability. This method is
genera lly reliable, but has two drawbacks it
requires tedious rate measurements with a soap
bubbier or other device, and the back-pressiited fi~~
system requires several minutes to reach steady
state. Typical throughputs are 8 to 12 cores per day.
The desire to estimate accurately the injectivity
into secondary and tertiary oil recovery prospects
and to find the deliverability of very tight gas
reservoirs has created a growing demand for reliable
Klinkenberg permeability determinations in our
laboratory. This demand made clear the need for a
more rapid, yet accurate permeameter. On the
premise that pressure measurements are made more
conveniently and accurately than rate determinations,
we developed a permeameter in which both rate and
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers
office J uly 26, 1971. Revised manuscript received April 6, 1972.
Paper (SPE 3535) was presented at the SPE 46th Annual Fall
Meeting, held in New Orleans, Oct. 3-6, 1971. @ Copyright
1972 American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engineers, Inc.
preferences given at end of PaPer.
?pressure drop across a core can be derived from
pressure - measurements alone. The resulting
unsteady-state instrument is fast and accurate.
Transient permeability techniques have been
discussed and other unsteady-state permeameters
have been built and Fc!$orted~-6 but to our knowledge
the instrument described herein is the only practical
one for routine measurement of Klinkenberg
permeability that does not require an empirical
correlation using cores of known permeability to
construct calibration curves. It is also the only one
from which Klinkenberg permeability, Klinkenberg
slip factor and Forchheimer turbulence factor can
be determined from a single run.
THEORY OF OPERATION
Fig. 1 shows the essentials of the unsteady-state
permeameter. It consists of,ti tank and pressure
transducer that can be pressurized with nitrogen. A
core holder is attached to the tank, separated by
a quick opening valve.
To perform a run, the tank
is charged with nitrogen to an initial pressure of
~~wd: ]~~ p~ig. lf the .{~i.~e ac the bQrrQrn Qf the
tank is opened, nitrogen will flow through the core
and the pressure in the tank will decline as
illustrated in the inset of Fig. 1 rapidly at first,
chcn more and more slowly. The volumetric rate of
nitrogen flow at the inlet face of the core, qo(t),
can be derived (see Appendix A) from the ideal gas
law, since the compressibility factor (deviation
factor) is unity for nitrogen at low pressure and
room temperature. The volumetric flow rate at any
position, x, downstream from the iniet face 0! the
core, at time t, is (Eq. A-30):
- Vt(l + / i f [c, g] ) dpo [t]
q [X,t] =
(P b, td + pa) ~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
where 8 and /(c, g) are correction factors that account
for variable mass flow rate with position at any
instant in time. The constant 8 is given by:
21$LA
~= ~ (2)
from Eq. 2, 8 is equal to two-thirds of the ratio of
the pore volume of the core to the volume of the
tank. Normally it is a small correction. For example,
with l-in. long, l-in. diameter, 20 percent porosity
983
core, and a 1,000-ml tank, ?3 is only 0.0017. The
function /(c,g), Eq. A-29, is a function of pressure
and position in the core. Its value varies from O at
the inlet end of the core to a maximum of 1.0 at the
outlet end if a high injection pressure is imposed.
Thus, for the above example, the maximum correction
aue to nOriLOU~L~lJ& mass ..uw
. . . . . . .
fln=r :~~~ $~~Ql@QIJc the
core at any instant is less than O. 17 percent. The
use of a smaller tank for the nitrogen reservoir
would result in a larger correction, however.
1-1.
. ,,e ~Pparcnt pe.m.eahi!ity of a porous medium to
gas changes with gas pressure, becoming lower as
the mean pressure increases. As the mean pressure
becomes increasingly high, the apparent permeability
approaches a value, ke, which has been shown to
be equal to the permeability of the porous medium
to a nonreactive liquid. 7 .
The phenomenon of variable apparent permeability
is due to slip. Kundt and Warburgs showed that,
when a gas is flowing aIong a solid wall, the layer
of gas next to the surface is in motion with respect
to the solid surface. This slip results in a lower
pressure gradient for a given rate of flow in a
capil lary tube than would be expected from
Poiseuilles formula. Klinkenberg later showed that
the same phenomenon occurs in porous plugs.7
In an unsteady-state permeability determination,
pressure in a core changes both with position (high
at the inlet face to atmospheric pressure at the
outlet face) and with time. since
F
-
Pressure
Transducer ~
1
Volve
Core Holder
,.
.. .
Core
apparent
I . &
2
m
U
a
a-
permeability is a function of pressure, it too must
change with both position and time. Klinkenbergs
relationship, expressed as a point function of both
time and position, is:
k[x, t] =
(
)
kg 1 + b/ (p[x, t] + pa) . .(3)
\
/
DARCY FLOW
Substituting Eqs. 1 and 3 into the Darcy equation
and integrating with respect to length yields:
- Vt(l + 6G[c])
()
dpo[t]
pJ tJ - i K- =
ktA
btl (
)
(j ~~ Pn[tl + 2(Pa + b) . . (4)
L> ,39
/
G (c) is the integrated form of the correction factor,
/ (c,g), that accounts for nonconstant mass flow rate.
Its value, given by Eq. A-32, lies between 0.5 and
0.6 for pressures of interest.
A plot of left-hand side of Eq. 4 vs po(t), shown
in Fig. 2, yields a straight line with slope m and
intercept i! where
k8A
m=
29, 390 LI D
. . (5)
i- -1
I
,o~
50 100 150 200 250
ELAPSEDTIME AFTER 0PENtN6 VALVE, SECONDS
984
Nitrogen Vents of
Atmospheric Pressure
FIG. 1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF UNSTEADY-STATE PERMEAMETER.
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERs JOURNAL
and
i = 2(pa+b)m . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
Klinkenberg permeability, k ~, and slip factor, 6,
can be determined from the slope and intercept,
respectively, of Fig. 2. The correction factors for
nonconstant mass velocity, 8G(c), were negligible
for the run illustrated and were omitted. Note also
that Po(t) is replaced by Fg in Fig. 2. This will be
explained below.
Evaluation of the left-hand side of Eq. 4 requires
calculation of pressure-time derivatives. These can
be found by taking slopes on the pressure falloff
curve (such as the one shown in Fig. 1), but this
procedure is neither convenient nor particularly
accurate for routine measurements. If instead we
define the variable y,
-v+
Y[PJ = @j
then Y can be evaluated from two discrete values of
pressure at the inlet core face, PI and P2, and the
corresponding times tland t2 by integrating Eq. A-8
with respect to time. The integration and subsequent
multiplication by (pg + i/m) results in:
Vt( pa + i / m)
p1(P2 + j / m)
Y[P91 = i n - -
~2-l)(m)
P2(P1
+ 1/ mJ
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
where pg is the geometric
----- ..---
mean of presw-uc~ ~1
and pz:
.
Inspection of Eq. 6 reveals that the parameter i/ m
is equal to 2(pa + b). Atrnospkk pressure! Pa> can
vary from less than 12 to more than 15 psia,
depending on location and atmospheric conditions.
The Klinkenberg slip factor, b, varies from nearIy O
for very permeable cores to more than 20 psi for
tight cores. Thus, i/ m can range from about 24 to
70 psi. Fortunately, within this range, Eq. 8 is
almost totally insensitive to the value of i/ m used,
and for computational purposes, we arbitrarily use
3 0 psi. The maximum error introduced is about 0.05
percent.
Alternatively, y can be approximated from:
t
PI
y[pg]== ln . . . . . ..(lO)
21
P2
with nearly as much accuracy as from Eq. 8.
Whether y is calculated from Eq. 8 or Eq. 10, it
is evaluated at the geometric mean pressure, pg, of
each pressure interval, and Eq. 4 becomes:
Yc z
Y(l + 6G[c]) = i + mpg . . (11)
Values of y= should be plotted against corresponding
values of pg. This type of plot is shown in Fig. 2.
Its linearity indicates that nitrogen flow through
the core obeyed Darcys law during the entire
pressure falloff. Since the correction factors for
nonconstant mass velocity, 8G(c), were small (less
than 0.001), y and y= were used interchangeably in
Fig. 2.
NON-DARCY FLOW
Darcy s law fails to describe flow behavior when
high velocities cause non-negligible kinetic energy
effects. The deviation from linearity of the y- vs - Pg
plot shown in Fig. 3 reflects the departure from
Darcy flow. The dashed line drawn on Fig. 3 shows
the limiting slope that corresponds to Darcy flow
rate-pressure drop behavior. Ttne siope of this ~ifie
is proportional to the Klinkenberg permeability, k t,
of the core, and the ratio of its intercept to slope,
4
1 I 1 I 1 1 I I
I
law Na 50-P3C
& : 12.15PM
L:.2#c m
o.2.44m
//
!( , : Z; YA. - - LJ1
1
I
1 1 1
o
I 1 1 1 1 1
lom w~ 6om 6090
qp *w
FIG. 2 UNSTEADY-STATE PERMEABILITY DETER-
MINATION FOR CORE IN DARCY FLOW.
,
46 -
t)
46 -
Can & 3/92-c-30462
,/
44 -
Pe:lwm /
L:2.42cR tt
42 - O=lw M #f
40 -
h,=2m.d t
4=1.39pn
334
:~ x
,
.-w
?- 28
,,
a 26
24 -
16
16
0 10203040 SOW rnww
FIG. 3 EXAMPLE OF NON-DARCY FLOW.
S8S
OCTOBER, 1972
i/nz, is the parameter from which the Klinkenberg
slip factor, b, is calculated.
From a practical standpoint, Fig. 3 is not useful
for finding permeability because the position of rhe
limiting slope cannot be determined accurately.
Instead, we resort to an equation suggested by
Forchheimerg that includes a kinetic energy term
and satisfactorily relates high-rate flow to pressure
gradient in core samples. The Forchheimer equation
appears in differential form as:
-@)/& s ~V/k + ~pV2 . . . . . . . (12)
Note that when ~, the turbulence factor, is O,
Eq. 12 reduces to Darcys law. With appropriate
substitutions, Eq. 12 can be rigorously integrated
as shown in Appendix B and closely approximated
by:
-AP/L =
uvm/kR+ w
V*
avg /k avg. . t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13)
where
VO(PO + P.#~ + 6G[c])
Vm=
~/~(p + n
(14)
+~p+zb)...
VII
o Jz a
s
w m W92-C-W.2A
pe=aw 7 *
L =2.42 c m
O:Mem
bhke~
Cm b
bi sl mk
L/bl : 2(&+N, psi
~:1.mm
---- __
a =S50 & r mc
,4pf
x=lOpmV~(pVm): 0.06669Y pg[pQtihl/[02(Pg+ 2~]. ~-mh--+
FIG. 4 PLOT OF FORCHHEIMER EQUATION SHOW-
ING EFFECT OF KLINKENBERG FACTOR.
386
and
= l / 2(po.+
avg.
The difference between
Pk + *Pa) M/(RT) . (16)
Vm and vaVg is subtle, but
significant. The former, vm~ = - is a .sIlp-corrected mean
velocity. The velocity, Vavg, that appears in the
kinetic energy term has no connection with shear.
-lL ------- .
l ner c l ur e, it
~~ .-l: R_m..ae*a,4 ~~ ~
r,o: =A. y- L LLL& .&u . rne at?
density, pavg, is also evaluated using the arithmetic
mean pressure.
Since V. is equal to qo/ A, it follows that
Vo=i +%p- - )
We can combine Eq. 17 with Eqs. 14 and 15,
recognizing also that the outlet end of the core is
at atmospheric pressure, so pf = O and Ap = Pg, and
combine these equations and Eq. 16 into Eq. 13 to
yield the working equation for non-Darcy flow:
l oawcp (p + i / m)
, (18)
1A.fi~5ARTu
, --------- -.
.(D. + 2pa)
~ 9
which for nitrogen at ambient temperature reduces to
+ i/m) = ,000
Ly~
kt +
p
~,
rJ2(Pg + *Pa)
(19)
Eq. 19 assumes the form of a straight line:
z
()
=1000 +a
(20)
~qx...-.....
This is the equation one would use for the graphical
determination of ke, b and a (see Fig. 4). The
intercept of a Z-VS-X plot is (l, OOO/kf), and the
siope is (a/ J k~j. Both x and z contain the parameter
i/ m. From Eq. 6 we see that i/ m contains b, the
Klinkenberg slip factor. Thus, the three curves of
Fig. 4 illustrate the dependence of non-Darcy
permeability data on b. It is too high in the uppermost
curve, causing a sharp upturn near the intercept.
The parameter b is too low in the bottom curve,
causing a downward trend at small values of x. The
middle curve, which is best approximated by a
straight line, employs the correct value of b.
Fig. 4 was constructed from the same data as
Fig. 3. Whereas Fig. 3 displayed considerable
sOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
curvature and the limiting slope was difficult to
ascertain, a Z-VS-X plot like Fig. 4 leaves little
uncertainty in the determination of the correct
values of k, b and a. Darcy-flow data can also be
plotted in this form, and since a is O, the correct
line will be horizontal (zero slope).
C;---- hn+k Y ..r+ Y enntain rhe ~fi~n~wn prarnetec
LJ... ue .., - . . . . .- - - - - - - - - - . . . .
i/ m, it is more convenient for purposes of machine
computation to cast Eq. 19 into the form:
9
= - i / m+ ye/ m+ C1yc2pg(pg+
i / m)/ (pg + 2pa) . (21)
The Plane that most closely passes through all sets
2(
..
of pg, yc,
and Yc Pg Pg
+ i/ m)/ (pg + 2pa) values is
found using least-squares techniques. The regression
finds be{t valu& of (i/ m), mand Cl. Tie right-
hand group of Eq. 21 still contains i/ m, but this
difficulty is circumvented by assuming an initial
value, calculating i/ m from the least-squares fit,
and continuing to iterate until the change in i/ m is
less than 0.1 psi. Convergence is very rapid, usually
requiring no more than two tries.
The desired constants ke, b and a are found from:
kg(md) = 658. 6 Lm/ D2 o . (22)
b(psi ) = l/2(i/m) - pa . . - . . (23)
Certain constraints are imposed on the constants
to insure physical reality:
a~o........-. . . . .. (25)
l)> o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (26)
The Forchheimer equation adequately describes
flow behavior in most, but not all rocks. Certain
rocks, especially those that have high a factors,
deviate from a linear Z-VS-X plot, as shown by Fig.
5. The curve asymptotically approaches a limiting
condition of Forchheimer flow, shown by the dashed
line, at the lower flow rates. This is analogous to
the approach to Darcy flow from Forchheimer flow
at very low flow rates.
Eq. 20 can be modified to account for non-
Forchheimer flow behavior:
z = 1000/ kt + (a/ kl )x - yx2/ (1000kE)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (27)
Eq. 27 is illustrated by Fig. 6. For purposes of
1 I I I I I I
CORENO 309.3
f ~
PO : 1L92psig
L =2.72 cm
/0
D= 254 cm
t)
8H
1
.-
/n
/
LimitingSbpeZQ/&i ~H
0
/
b = 1.54psi
g = i07 microns
y =3280 Se.microns
Intercept=fOOO/kL
I I 1 1 I 1 I
I 2 3 4 5 6 7
x, red-micron- -Darcy-
FIG. 5 CORE EXHIBITING DEVIATION FROM
FORCHHEIMER FLOW.
I I I I I 1 I
CORENo 309.3
/
PO=Il. 92 psio
L=2.72cm
D =2.54 cm
/
k~ = 41.9 md
b = t54 psi
a = f07 microns
y z 3280 SQmkrons
1 1 I 1 1 1 1
I 234! 5678
x, md-micran-l -Darcy-l
OCTOBER. 1972
FIG. 6 CORRECTED FORCHHEIMER PLOT.
387
putting the equation into linear form, the right-hand
member of Eq. 27 was transposed to the left side
before plotting Fig. 6.
If z and x are replaced by their equivalents
(compare Eqs. 19 and 20), Eq. 27 becomes the final
working equation that successfully describes
unsteady-state flow in all cores tested. If both a
and y are nonzero, flow is non-Forchheimer; if y is
zero, but a is positive, Eq. 27 describes Forchheimer
flow; and if both a and y are zero, it reduces to the
Darcy equation. The correction for slip is made for
all three types of flow behavior in Eq. 27.
APPARATUS
Fig. 7 shows the apparatus, including one-liter
insulated nitrogen storage tanks, Hassler holders,
associated calibration manometers , and valves on
the left-hand panel, a large calibration gauge for
l.- I nn --: . ..
.4,., --- an,-1 r=l t aerrnni r ~q~i p.r n.enc Ot t
Ul c Luu-pa. .Lc ul su. -ss. ... - .-.~-...-..--
the right-hand side.
Fig. 8 shows one of the nitrogen tanks and
Hassler holder and only those valves and connections
essential to the operation of the equipment. Portions
of the hookup for calibrating tank volumes and the
transducers have been deleted.
To operate in normal mode, a core is loaded
into the appropriate Hassler core holder and the
sleeve is pressurized to 250 psig. The tank is
charged with dry nitrogen to approximately 95 psig,
which is measured and indicated by a ii10-psi Kamati
Nuclear differential pressure transducer. The four
thumbwheel switches on the electronic unit are set
to 9, 8, 7 and 6, respectively. The valve between
the tank and the core holder is opened, and the
pressure in the tank declines at a rate that is a
function of the core properties. When the pressure
falls to 90 psig (corresponding to ihe ~ setting on
the first thumbwheel), digital electronic output from
the 100-psi transducer starts the first of three
crystal-controlled electronic timers. These units
display time in seconds and hundredths. When the
pre~~ure fa!!~ tQ rhe second preset value (80 psig
in this case), the first timer stops and the second
one starts. At 70 psig the second timer stops and
the third one starts. i3y ie:d~llg ...-
---
Gha ~e#S~e~~~
time from the first timer, resetting it to zero, setting
the second thumbwheel switch to 5, and turning the
recycle switch to recycle mode, the time interval
for the pressure to fall from 60 to 50 psig is
indicated on the first timer display. As many
FIG. 7 UNSTEADY-STATE KLINKENBERG PERMEAMETER.
988 sOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS Jo URNAL
pressure-time intervals as desired, down to 10 psig,
may be taken by continuing this procedure on the
three timers. If more data are required, the three-way
transducer selector valve is turned to connect the
10-psi transducer with the tank. Then, time intervals
corresponding to pressure intervals of 9 to 8, 8 to 7,
etc., down to 1 psig can be measured. The pressure
intervals to be measured are under control of the
operator.
The time required for any given pressure interval
is roughly inversely proportional to the permeability
of a core. Excessive times are required for the
pressure to rieciine iO psi (e.g., from 90 toilfl psig)
with cores having permeabilities of less than 1 md.
The time can be reduced by a factor of about 100 by
measuring 0.1 instead of 10 psi declines. This is
---- -1:-L-J L.. ---. -.:.... .L= In__m; ..~~=~,,e~r ;n
~~-~-uin~ll>ll~u LJYU~C1cZLIL,~ !.,, = IVya. ..e.,u . . ..u-. . . .
differential mode. To effect differential operation,
the shorting valve (see Fig. 8) on the 10-psi
pressure transducer is opened and the differential
valve, which normally vents the low-pressure side
of the 10-psi transducer to atmospheric pressure, is
closed. Then the three-way transducer selector
valve is turned to the 10-psi transducer position.
These manipulations expose both sides of the
10-psi transducer to the same pressure, which may
be as high as 100 psi. The transducer selector valve
is quickly turned back to the 100-psi transducer
position, then again to the 10-psi position. In this
manner, the pressures on both transducers are
equalized, and the pressure on either side of the
diaphragm of the 10-psi transducer is indicated by
the 100-psi transducer. The shorting valve is
quickly closed. As the pressure in the tank declines
(as nitrogen flows through a Iow-permeability core
specimen), the change in tank pressure from the
instant the shorting valve was closed is registered
LL ALVE ~
f 110psig )
PRESSURE
(
REGuLATOR {
as a negative differential pressure on the transducer
readout. .Actuai tank pressures at any time are
found by algebraically adding the 100-psi and 10-psi
transducer readings-. The negative differential
readings start and stop the electronic timers on
preseI.ected multipIes of 0.1 or 1.0 psi. The
differential technique pertnits accurate measurements
of permeability in the micro-Darcy range in a
reasonable length of time.
Several experimental difficulties have been
overcome in the present design of the apparatus.
Probably the most critical is maintenance of
.______ ..
constant remperzzture. The
-_..-.:a-- &ve@.e~
C~Ui l LLUUa
above assume isothermal nitrogen expansion. The
observed expansion in early versions of the
apparatus was essentially isothe&al for tight
L.. + /-11 k-~w,a~n ;=nrhtarmnl and ~&~~a~~~ fQr
COi~S, u-. .s.. w- .-.,..-.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ----
the more permeable cores. The nonisothermal
expansion caused serious pressure errors, rendering
permeability data useless. Gas temperature in the
tank dropped to -90 F (calculated from pressure
measurements) in the extreme case of free expansion
(no core in the Hassler holder). Furthermore,
recovery time to reach within a fraction of a degree
of ambient temperature required about 15 seconds.
The cooling problem was eliminated by inserting
a bundle of copper tubes into each gas reservoir.
These ~-in. diameter copper tubes, exceeding 8 in.
in length and 100 in number, provide both heat
capacity and heat transfer surface to maintain the
nitrogen temperature constant. In addition to the
copper tubes, the gas reservoirs were also packed
with several copper wire-mesh pads. The copper
packing reduced temperature loss to less than 1F
and recovery time to about O. I second for the free
expansion, and virtually eliminated nonisothermal
conditions for even the most permeable core plugs.
~ VENT VALVE
)
t
TANK
HASSLERSLEEVE I
IV/T~Eff -=! GAUGE
/IV (250 psig)
/
MSSLER HOLDER
NITROGEN DISCHARGE
TOCORE
II - - -0 +RECYCLE swmcff
K 00(3
PRESSURE
SELEC7i2RTHllMB-
WHEELSWfrCHES
k PRESSURE
\ \
00
READOUT
w PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
CARRIER-DEMODULATORS
FIG. 8 SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF UNSTEADY-STATE PERMEAMETER.
OCTOBER, 1972
389
A second thermal problem became evidenr in
measuring tight (0.01 md or less) samples small
changes in ambienr temperature caused large errors
in permeability measurements. A quick calculation
using the gas law shows that a 0.21-psi pressure
change (at 100-psig tank pressure) occurs for each
1 F temperature change. This means that to obtain
accuracy of 1 percent or better using the differential
technique and measuring O. l-psi pressure changes,
the maximum tolerable temperature change in the
nirrogen reservoir is 0.005F during the period of
the O. l-psi change. Heavy insulation comprised of
Fiberglas, aluminum foil and foam, combined with
the large heat capacity of the system has minimized
the problem of shorr-term ambient temperature
changes. Room temperature still must be reasonably
constant for low permeability cores that require
more than 60 seconds for O. I-psi declines.
Another experimental improvement was the
enlargement of the ports in rhe Hassler holder
end-caps. The original l/16-in. diameter holes were
found tQ add fIOW resistance to runs involving high
permeability cores. These small holes were eniarged
ro greater than ~-in. diameter and the error due to
Ii ___ - -: --- -- : . ..Amr ,,maac,, ,a blv =~=!!=
llUW real* Lzlrt Lc L* ,, - . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 .-
Since pressure-time data must be essentially
differentiated, high-quality pressure transducers are
required. The Kaman Nuclear transducers employed
have combined hysteresis and nonlinearity of about
0.3 percent, but the repeatability is better than 0.1
percent of full scale. The transducers were carefully
calibrated using a Heise gauge for pressures above
45 psig, mercury manometers below 45 psig, and a
manometer filled with Unity Oil for the O- to 1. O-
psi range.
Tank volumes, including the transducer internal
volumes, connecting lines, ball valve volumes and
the Hassler holder volume to the inlet face of the
core were determined to within O.O5 percent using
Boyles law technique with a carefully calibrated
reference volume, mercury manometers, and a
cathetometer.
CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS
The present permeameter will accommodate ~-in.
diameter core plugs up to 2 in. length and l-in.
diameter plugs ranging in length from % in. to 3 in.
The time required to obtain time-pressure data for
a given core depends on its size and permeability
and on the number of data points taken. Ir also
depends on the mode of operation differential ~i
normal. Differential measurements are much faster
for low permeability cores than normal mode
measurements. Table 1 shows typical time require-
ments for cores of different permeabilities, measured
with different numbers of data points and with the
two modes of operation. Run times generally range
from 1 to 45 minutes, but most reservoir-grade rocks
require from 2 to 10 minutes. Reproducibility of
measurements (precision) is less than ~ 2 percent
for differential mode operation and generally less
than t I percent for normal operation.
TABLE 1 TYPICAL TIME REQUIREMENTS FOR
UNSTEADY-STATE PERMEABILITY DETERMINATIONS
Cumulative
k ~ (red)
No. of Run Time
Data Points Mode of Operotion (minutes)
0 . 0 1 3 5 Differential 45.6
0.112 5 Differential 12.0
0.301 5 Differential 5.0
2.68 6 Normal 26.5
8.61 8 Normal 18.6
26.1 9 Normal 7.7
41.9 15 Normal 8.7
75.0 10 Normal 1.8
162.0 15 Normal 2.7
267.0 10 Normal 1.5
584.0 14 Normal 1.0
968.0 8 Normal 0.6
Accuracy depends on the number of data points
measured, and- the size and permeability if the
sample. To check accuracy we compared permea-
bilities of several ceramic, sandstone, and
carbonate core plugs that were carefully measured
on a conventional steady - state Klinkenberg
per.mearne~er, The average of the absolute deviations
(29 core plugs total) was 2.0 percenr. It is
interesting to note that the repeatability on a
core plugs was t 2 percent, whereas the repeatability
for unsteady-state determinations was f 1 percent.
Thus, the average absolute deviation of 2 percent
between the two methods is within the repeatability
of the standard method.
KLINKENBERG SLIP FACTORS
Slip facrors were determined for nearly 100 core
plugs ranging in permeability from about 0.01 to
1,000 md. These factors are plotted again st
permeability in Fig. 9. The points scatter widely,
but the general tendency is a decreasing b with
increasing permeability. The equation of the line
shown in Fig. 9 is:
b(psi ) = 6. 9 kR- 036 , . . . . . (31)
where kf is the Klinkenberg permeability in
millidarcies. According to Klinkenbergs capillary
tube analog, if a porous plug could be represented
by a bundle of capillary tubes, then the mean
0.1
u 0.1 I 10 )00 1000
k,, d
FIG. 9 CORRELATION OF KLINKENBERG FACTOR
VS PERMEABILITY.
990 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM EN CINDERS JOURNAL
diameter of the tubes (in microns) is approximately
I I/b. This corresponds to mean diameters ranging
from 0.3 to about 90 microns for the points shown in
Fig. 9.
McMahon 10 determined Klinkenberg b factors on
162 core plugs from a wide variety of reservoirs. A
least-squares fit of his data (same units as above)
yields
b(psi ) =6. 2 k- 034 - - - (32)
TURBULENCE FACTORS
The turbulence factor, a, is a potentially
interesting characteristic of reservoir rock. It IS
numerically equal to the product of ~ (reported by
Katz et al. 11) and permeability, k ~ (converted to
the appropriate units). Besides being a useful
parameter to calculate pressure drop-flow rate
behavior in high pressure gas wells where turbulence
is anticipated, 12 a, from the analysis of the
Forchheimer equation given in Appendix B, is the
characteristic length in the Reynolds number. In
pipeline calculations this characteristic length is
the internal diameter of the pipe. By analogy a
would be some sort of mean pore diameter.
Unfortunately, the velocities used to calculate a in
the Forchheimer equation are superficial velocities.
If a were multiplied by the effective porosity of the
rock, it would probably be somewhat more
representative of the characteristic pore diameter.
E.. ..l-. n... n..= mncr PnrPc ~~~
L. ULL1l=LI1l ULL, as=-- v - - -
nQc cornblerely , -.
homogeneous. Therefore, the mass velocity through
one portion of the core may be different from that in
other portions. ~fle would eX~c~t kifiet~c ~,l~,~y
-.. . . . ..
effects to become evident first in those portions
carrying the higher velocity flow. Thus, a may in
part be a measure of core heterogeneity (increasing
a with increasing heterogeneity).
The variation of a with permeability is shown in
Fig. 10. The solid points are calculated from data
of Cornell and Katz, 13 the open circles are natural
reservoir rocks from the present work and the
triangles represent Coors ceramic plugs, also
measured in the present study. As may be expected
from the foregoing discussion, the points scatter
widely. In general, a decreases with increasing
permeability. This is opposite to the expected trend
if pore diameter were the controlling factor. The
lines drawn in Fig. 10, which encompass all the
data on the natural reservoir rocks, have slopes of
1/3. The ceramic plugs shown by the triangles
have high porosities (about 45 percent) compared to
the reservoir cores (5 to 25 percent) and are much
more homogeneous. Correspondingly, their as are
significantly lower than those of the reservoir rocks.
Too few of the secondary turbulence factors for
non-Forchheimer flow, y were determined to make a
------ . . . .. . .
meaningful correlation. However, for the values
determined, y is roughly proportional to az.
SINGLE-POINT PERMEABILITY DETERMINATION
A high degree of accuracy is not necessary for
all permeability determinations. Where accuracies
of t 20 percent are acceptable, a rapid single-point
determination may be run with the present apparatus
and permeability determined from the correlation
shown in Fig. 11. To use the correlation, the core
length and diameter are measured. Then, the time
required for the pressure to fall from 50 to 40 psi is
measured, and the value of the group L Vt/(D2L3t) is
-,-.1,.,.1*J 1 7 ;n e ll. r
La . Lu . a . c u . L . I. e a . . y ,
~~e Kl:m t r , a r i h , =, o m a r m -n h ; liw
. ~. -. . -~. . -. ~ ys . u . -. . . . . . , ,
k ~, is read from the graph. The two dashed lines
drawn in Fig. 11 represent t 20 percent deviations
from the soiici iine.
CONCLUSIONS
A reliable instrument has been developed for the
rapid measurement of core plug Klinkenberg
I 10 100 kooo
kL, m d
FIG. 1 0 CORRELATION OF TURBULENCE FACTOR,
a. WITH PERMEABILITY.
LVt/l D2fltw.@l, c m2-$ec -1
FIG. 1 1 CORRELATION FOR SINGLE POINT DETER-
MINATION OF k ~.
OCTOBER, 1972 991
permeabilities ranging from about 0.001 to 1,000 md.
The unsteady-state technique also determines one
or two turbulence factors for cores that depart from
Darcy flow behavior. The permeameter is absoIute
in the sense that no calibration curves are required,
.-. -.-J.. -e..
and it
~.ao,-l., . C* ,-
ICpLuuULCa a.sauy C.La.%
merrnr=nhilitv
yL . . ..-.. u....J
determinations to within about ? 2 percent.
~.
A=
b=
B=
c=
c=
c1 =
d=
D=
/ (cjg) =
fl(c,g,a) =
g=
G(c) =
GI(8, c) =
h=
~=
k=
kf =
L=
m=
M=
~=
N=
pa =
pg =
pf =
pm =
p. =
q =
p2 =
Ap =
p (x, t) =
P=
S9 2
NOMENCLATURE
ratio of intercept to slope, i/m, psi
cross-sectional area of core, sq cm
Klinkenberg slip factor, psi
dimensionless group defined by Eq. B-10
dimensionless number, defined by Eq.
A-22
dimensionless number, defined by Eq.
B-8
constant in Eq. 21 (= 0.03734 aL/ kPD4)
differential operator used in derivatives
core diameter, cm
function defined by Eq. A-29
function defined by Eq. A-34
dimensionless length, defined by Eq.
~.~9
dimensionless function, defined by Eq.
A-32
dimensionless function, defined by Eq.
A-38
corrected dimensionless length, defined
by Eq. A-35
intercept of a y-vs-pg plot, ml/see
apparent permeability, md
. . . . .
Klinkenberg, or liquid permeability,
m.d
core length, cm
sloPe of a y-vs-pg plot, for core in Darcy
flow, ml-sec-l-psig-l
molecular weight, gm/gm-mole
number of gram moles of nitrogen in tank
at time t
Reynolds number, defined by Eq. B-12
atmospheric pressure, psia
geometric mean of pressures PI and P2,
psig
pressure at outlet face of core, psig
arithmetic mean pressure in core, psia
pressure in nitrogen reservoir (same as
pressure at inlet face of core), psig
:- -:---- - .- :. -* ,ima f.
pr~~~-u~e Ill 111LLug~u .cS~i VO.. c.. .-... - .1,
psig
pressure in nitrogen reservoir at time tz,
psig
pressure drop across core, psi
pressure ii] the COi~
:~,a:
var:e. s With.
both distance and time, psig
dimensionless pressure, defined by Eq.
B-9
Pf =
q(x, t) =
f?o(t) =
R.
t=
tl =
t2 =
At =
T=
avg =
Vm =
Uo =
Vt =
x=
x=
y=
y= =
z=
z.
~=
p=
y=
8=
~=
p=
Pavg =
p. =
4=
dimensionless pressure at outlet end of
core
volumetric flow rate that varies with
both distance and time, mI/sec
volumetric flow rate at inlet face of core,
mi/sec
constant (= 82.05 tn!-atm/gm- gas la%
mol-K)
time, seconds
time when pressure in tank is PI, seconds
time when pressure in tank is p2, seconds
time difference (t2-tl), seconds
absolute temperature, K
average velocity in core based on
arithmetic mean pressure in core, cm/
sec
slip corrected mean velocity in core,
cm/sec
velocity at inlet face of core, cm/sec
volume of tank (nitrogen reservoir), ml
distance in core (= O at inlet end and L
at outiet end), cm
dimensionless distance, defined by Eq.
B-n
volumetric rate function, defined by Eq.
7, ml/see
volumetric rate function, corrected for
nonconstant mass veIocity, ml/see
function used to describe non-Darcy flow
(Eq. 20), darcy-l
dimensionless function, defined by Eq.
1-, .
D-l>
*ll*hl~l~pce factor {= @k:), microns . ....-.- --- ---
turbulence factor used in Forchheimer
equation, ft- 1
turbulence factor, sq microns
correction factor for unsteady-state flow,
defined by Eq. A-28
dimensionless number, defined by Eq.
A-37
nitrogen viscosity (= 0.0177 cp at 23C)
average gas density in core bas~d on
arithmetic mean pressure in core, gm/
ml
gas density at inlet face of core, gin/ml
porosity
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
-1% ~,,e ~Gthcr ,.m,~f,,lly ~c ~c c =]duc s the contribu-
~La.k.-.. .-O - .
tions of W. J. Kunzman, W. O. Roszelle and R. A.
Steffa, and wishes to thank the Marathon OiI Co. for
permission to publish this paper.
1 .
2 .
REFERENCES
Ar on ofa k y, J . S. : J . Appl. Pbys. (1 9 5 4 ) Vol. 2 5 , 4 8 .
Wallick , G. C. a n d Ar on ofs k y, J . S. : Effe c t of Gaa
Slip on Un s t e a dy Flow of Ga s t h r ou gh Por ou s Media:
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 0 .
1 1 .
1 2 .
1 3 .
Expe r i m e n t a l Ve r ific a t ion , Trams., AIME ( 1 9 5 4 ) Vol.
2 0 1 , 3 2 2 -3 2 4 .
Ch a m pli n , J e r r y B. F. : Ra pid De t e r m in a t ion of
Pe r m e a bilit y y in Por ou s Rock , RI 6 0 9 8 , USBM ( 1 9 6 2 ).
Mor r is , W. L. : a s s i gn or , Ph i lli ps Pe t r ole u m Co. ,
, ~por t a ble Permeameter, ~?u. s. patent No. 2 , 6 3 3 , 0 1 5 ,
Ma r c h 3 1 , 1 9 5 3 .
Ar on ofs k y, J . S. , et al.: assignor, Socony Mobil CM,
%le t h od of Meaau r in g Ch a r a c t e r is t ic s of Por ou s
Ma t e r ia l, U. S. Pa t e n t No. 2 , 8 6 7 , 1 1 6 , J a n . 6 , 1 9 5 9 .
Hou pe u r t , A. , De lc la u d, C. , Cu r u t c h e t , J . a n d Albe r t ,
P. :
, , Me ~u r e s de pe r m e a bilit y,
Revue de Ll nsti tut
du Petrol e et Annal es des Combusti bl es Li qui des
(J u n e , 1 9 5 1 ) Vol. VI, No. 6 , 1 8 0 -1 9 0 . [
Kli n k e n be r g, L. J . :
~, Tbe Pe r m e a bilit y of POr Ou s
Media t o Liqu ids a n d Ga s e s , Dri l l . and Prod. Prac.,
API ( 1 9 4 1 ) 2 0 0 .
Ku n dt , A. a n d Wa r bu r g, E. : Poggendorfs Ann. Pbysi k
(1875) Vols. 1 5 5 , 3 3 7 , a n d 5 2 5 .
For c h h e i m e r , Ph . : Zei fz, Ver deutscb. fng. (1901)
Vol. 45, 1782.
Mc Ma h on , J . J . : An In ve s t iga t ion of Air Pe r m e a bil-
it iea of Por ou s Media, MS t h e s i s , Th e Pe n n s ylva n i a
St a t e U. , Un ive r s it y Par k (1 9 4 9 ).
Ka t z, D. L. , et al .: Handbook o/ Natural Gas Engi -
neeri ng, Mr ? Gr aw-Hill Book Co. , In c . , Ne w Yor k ( 1 9 5 9 ).
Te k , M. R. , Coa t s , K. H. a n d Ka t z, D. L, : Th e
Effe c t of Tu r bu le n c e on Flow of Na t u r a l Ga s Th r ou gh
Por ou s Re s e r voi r s , J . Pet. Tech (J u ly, 1 9 6 2 ) 7 9 9 -
8 0 6 .
Cor n e ll, D. a n d Ka t z, D. L. : Flow of Ga s e s Th r ou gh
Con s oli da t e d Por ou s Media,
~~ / r i d. En g. Cbe m . (1 9 5 3 )
Vol. 4 5 , 2 1 4 5 .
APPENDIX A
DERIVATION OF UNSTEADY-STATE
EQUATIONS FOR DARCY FLOW
The volumetric isothermal flow rate of nitrogen,
which behaves as an ideal gas, from a storage tank
at pressure P. is:
qo[tl = *J
()
dn
- m =
()
-MVt dpo
- r
(A-1)
But density is given by:
MpJ t]
Po[t]= ~T . . . . . . . . . . (A- z)
Therefore,
()
qo[t]po[t] - Vt dpo
q[ xstl = ~ = ~ j - ~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. (A-4)
Substituting Eq. A-4 and Klinkenbergs relationship,
Eq. 3, into the Darcy equation for one-dimensional
flow yields:
- Vtpo [t] - kl A(l + b/ p[x, t]) ~prx, tl
~- = I J
ax
. . . (A-5)
If Eq. A-5 is integrated with respect to length and
divided by %(P( - PO), it becomes
2vt u Po [t]L
ktA (po- pl )
= Pg + p. + 2b. . (AA)
Pressures in all equations above have been absolute
pressures, expressed in atmospheres and permea-
bility in darcies. If we now switch to gauge pressure
(psig),and express permeability in millidarcies, Eq.
A-6 becomes (since PI = O psig):
- Vtpo [ t] kEA
~ = 2(XI OX140696PL( Po[ tl +
2pa + 2b) . . . . . (A- 7)
Eq. A-7 is the equation of a straight line with
intercept i and slope m:
- Vtpo [t]
. ~- = i + rnpo[t] , . . . . (A-8)
o
where m and i are given by Eqs. 5 and 6,
respectively. Eq. A-8 can
integrated with respect to time
t
P1(P2 + i / m) =
m n
P2(P1 + I / m)
be rearranged --2
to give:
m(t2- tl ) .
all u
A-9)
Eq. A-9 could be used to compute m (hence kc), but
the left-hand side con rains the parameter, (i/m).
Therefore, unless this parameter is known, Eq. A-9
is not useful. Note, however, by combining Eqs. A-8
and A-9 that
()
-Vtpo [t]
- Vt dpo
- - - = m(po[t] + i / m)
Qtl=mr ~ . . . . . .
(A-3)
o
0 \-- /
Assume for the moment that at any instant in time
the mass velocity throughout the length of the core
~~ ~QKKstant, (This i s n ot r igor ou s ly t r u e , a n d will
be treated below. ) As nitrogen fIows through a core,
it expands, such that
= Vt(Po[tl + i / m)
(t2- w m)
. . . . . . . .
P1(P2 + i / m)
I n
P#P~
+ i / m)
. . . . . . . (A-1o)
ma OCTOBER, 1972
The right-hand side of Eq. A-10 still contains the
parameter i/ m, but for some value of PO that lies
betweerl pl
. ..A +, Ah c-r . r , = ~~~~ ~h ~ ~i gh c -h a n d
allu y~, we U-. -kvk
side of A-10 is almost totally insensitive. to the
value of i/ m used. Experimentally determined i/ m
values range from about 24 to 70 psi. Within this
range, a PO that is equal to the geometric mean of
PI and P2,
Po=Pg=~Pl P2 . . . . . (A- 11)
will cause less than O. 1 percent error if 30 psi is
arbitrarily used instead of the true value of ilm.
Now we can calculate the left-hand side of Eq. A-8
using finite increments of pressure and time, rather
than having to evaluate derivatives,
- Vtp [t] vt(~~ + 30j
YI Pgl = * =
30(t2- tl )
Pl (P2 + 30)
i n. - +
P2(P1
30)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
and Eq. A-8 becomes
Y[PJ
=i+rnpo[t] . . . . .
J
,
A-12)
A-13)
This is the equation (but uncorrected for nonconstant
mass veIocity) used for unsteady-state Darcy flow.
It appears in graphical form in Fig. 2.
CORRECTION FOR NONCONSTANT
MASS-VELOCITY
In the above derivation, we assumed a constant
mass velocity: or equivalently that
~so, . . . . . . . . . ..(A-l4)
ax
but the continuity equation for one-dimensional flow
requires that
~=-$$, . . . . . . .. (A-15)
ax
~Ed .;n,-e ~re.~,J 1e (hpnpp
~e n ~~~y) ~S c h a n gin g =. . . _& , . --. ---,
wi t h t im e , we h a ve vi ola t e d t h e c on t in u it y e qu a t ion .
To e s t im a t e t h e e r r or i n t r odu c e d, we fi r s t a ppr oxi m a t e
t h e de n s i t y c h a n ge wi t h t im e (e qu iva le n t t o t h e
pr e s s u r e s u r fa c e ) a s s u m i n g s t e a dy-s t a t e flow, i n s e r t
t h e a ppr oxim a t ion in t o Eq. A-15, then iteratively
improve the approximation.
Returning to absolute pressures, we integrate Eq.
A-5 between the limits of L and x and the corre-
sponding pressures of pf and p to give
- 2Vtvp o[t](L- x)
kEA{D-D )
= ~k + $) + zb .( A-16)
i
Elimination of 2Vt pp~(t)/(kf A) between Eqs. A-16
and A-6 results in:
(L-X) (PO-Pi) (PO + Pg + 2b) =
L(p.-pg)(p + Pg + 2b) . . . (A- 17)
In terms of gauge pressures, recalling that ilm =
2 (pa + b) and that pe = O psig, Eq. A-17 becomes:
p(p + i / m) =
PO(PO+ i / m)(l - x/ L) .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-18)
For brevity of notation, let
g: (l - x/ L). . . . . . . . . . . (A- l gj
and
a% i / m= 2(pa + b) . . . . . . (A-2 0 )
Taking the partial derivative of Eq. A-18 with
respect to time yields:
aJ =gwc+l
at J t] ~~~ A- 21)
where
a2
c
. (A-22)
SDopo+ a......
and
p o[t] = dpo/ dt. . . . . . . . . (A- 23)
Returning now to the continuity equation, since p

Mp/ (RT) and g = 1 x/L, then

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-24)
Eq. A-24 can be integrated with respect to length,
g, from the inlet end (g = 1) to an arbitrary position
in the core:
241LF!P&[t]
Povo - pv =
3RT
[(c + 1)(1- 2C)
904
+ (zC-Cj)~(C + 1)(C + 9)] . (A-25)
SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM EXGINEERS JO URYAL
But
povo = - MVtP& [ t] / ( ART) - - 0 ~A- 26j
pv = Povo(l + df[c,g]) (A-27)
where
6
= *+LA/(3Vt) . . . . . . . . (A-28)
and
f [c, g]= (c+ 1)(1-2C) + (2c-g)
~(C+l) (C+@ . . . (A-29)
Eq. A-27 represents a considerable improvement
over the initial assumption of constant mass velocity
(i.e., pv= povo). We can now improve Eq. A-4:
()
-Vt(l +af [c, g]) dpo
q[x, t] =
p[x, tj K
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-3o)
prior to substitution into ;he Darcy equation. Upon
integration with respect to length, the latter becomes
- Vtp o[t](l + 6G[c])
. Yc=
poLtJ
= i + mpo[t]
. . . . . . . . (A-31)
where
c
G[c] =
1
[(c + 1)(1- 2C) + (zC-g)
o
G#( C+l)(C+ g)] dg= 1/ 5 (c+l )
. (8c2- 4c + 3) - 8/ 5 (C + 1)1/2 C52
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-32)
Eq. A-31 is analogous to Eq. A-8, but does not
assume constant mass velocity. G(c), given by Eq.
A-32, is a function of tank pressure, po(t),and i/m,
since c (Eq. A-22) is a function of these variables.
Values of G(c) range from 0.6 at infinite pressure,
to 0.5 at PO = O psig.
We may now repeat the procedure outlined in Eqs.
A-17 through A-27, this time using the corrected
:C S.,-.--=. P
equatiorls, tO See 11 ylu~==.= -~~.;cr~e~.
The equation analogous to Eq. A-27 is:
(Pv)[x,tl = (Povoj[tl(l + ~f1ic,9,0
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(A-33)
where
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-34)
g + 61[c,g]
h[($, c,g] z
(A-35)
1
+6G~c]....
9
I[c, g] =
-1
[(c + 1)(1- 2C) + (2c- f 3)
0
V(C+ 1)(c+ g)] dg = (C+ 1)(1 -zc)g
+ 2/ 5(c + 1)1 2 [(c + g)3 2(4c- g)
- 4c5/ 2] . . . . . . . . . (A- 36)
and
= PO(PO+ a)
ah
e
Zpn+a ~. (A-37)
Normally ~ is small compared to h. The largest
change in b with changes in PO occurs about midway
in a core, at g = 0.5. With i/ m = 30, g = 0.5, and 8
. .
= 0.05 (this is aii order of IIIiagIIi LUUC ,aL5c i .Lla., in
----: . . .4 -1----- ~..l.. ,,
the present equipment), [ reaches its maximum
value of 0.000427 at about p. = 10 psig. Under the
same condition, b = 0.505419, so c at its maximum
is only 0.084 percent of h. As 8 becomes smaller
(larger tank volume), c becomes even smaller and b
approaches g. Finally, we must find how these
changes affect yc (see Eq. A-31) to see if the whole
procedure is converging. If we define a new function
then Eq. A-3 I becomes
OCTOBER, 1972
99.5
-lfof)o[t](l + 6G, [c,13])
Yc =
=
po[tJ
i+mpo[t]. . . . . . .. (A-39)
Numerical integration of Eq. A-38, for c = O and 8
= 0.05, yields a value for G1(O, 0.05) of 0.60133,
compared with 0.60000 for G(o) from Eq. A-32. Thus,
the entire correction factor, 1 + 8G1(c,8), is 1.03007
compared with 1.03000 for 1 + W (c), when c = O
and 8 = 0.05. Since these conditions (values of c
and 8) are probably the most severe one would
expect to encounter, we consider the correction to
have converged satisfactorily, and corrected y
vaiues can be computed from Eq. A-~i using G(c)
values from Eq. A-32, well within experimental
accuracy.
APPENDIX B
INTEGRATION OF THE
FORCHHEIMER EQUATION
The Forchheimer equation for one-dimensional
flow in differential form is
- dp
~+ @v* . . . . . . . . .
- - l K=r
.(B-1)
but
k=kE(l + b/ p) . . . . . . . . . . (W
P = MP/ (RT)
a= BkR . .
and for steady-state
v = vopo/p
Therefore,
. . . . . . . . . . . . (B-3)
. . . . . . . . . . .
. (B-4)
flow
. . . . . . . . . . .
. (B-5)
-* - ~opovo
aMpvo*pg
pkg(l + b/ p) +
kkRTp~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.(B-6)
or in dimensionless form,
-+)......-)
1
-C$=P+B
where
kkpo
c=
, . . . . . . . . . . ..
,.(B-8)
LBV.
P= P/PO, . . . . . . . . . . . ..(B-9)
B= b/ po, . . . . . . . . .
X=x/ L , .
a n d
avopoM
N=
pRT =
Integrating Eq. B-7,
. . . . . . . .
avop o
.. ..
P
. . . (B-1O)
. . . (B-II)
. . . (B-12)
I
1
(P2 + BP)
=
~+pdP
Pfi
. .
we obtain
P.
. . . . . . . . . . . (B-13)
(N+ 1)/ C = (l - PE)
[ (
1/ 2(1 + pt) + (B- Z) 1 - &
k
) 1
,l~P~:~ . . . . . . . . .. (B-14)
where
Z= NB/(N+l) . . . . . . . ..(B-l5J
A*1 -... - :- A- .-L ------ ..-A:--- ---_L .-- 1...-
Ill PPSSSUK!S 111 Ul~ dDOVC CqUii LI Ul l S Ltl C kUJ 3ULULC.
Note that N is a Reynolds number and that a is the
characteristic length in this number.
With Darcy flow, Z(Eq. B-15) is zero. Z approaches
the value of B for high flow rate, turbulent
conditions. As B approaches zero, i.e., the effect
of slip becomes negligible, the right-hand side of
Eq. B-14 becomes independent of the Reynolds
number.
Eq. B-14 is not convenient to use with experimental
data to determine kf, b and a because these
constants are not separable. The approximation
2(1- PI )
i n ~~Z.
(B-16)
k
+PE+2Z . . . .
S96 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM EN CINDERS J OURNAL
coupled with some algebraic manipulation on Eq.
This integrated form of the slip-corrected Forchheimer
B-14 yields
equation approximates the more rigorous form, Eq.
B-14, to within 0.02 percent or less for most
Po- Pk
I J vopo
realistic combinations of the variables. As b, the
L =1/ 2kt(Po + PE + 2b~
Klinkenberg slip factor, approaches zero, the
approximation becomes exact. Eq. B-17 is equivalent
22
to Eq. 13 in t h e t e xt , , e xc e pt t h a t t h e ve loc it ie s in
aM(pf i+ PO)vn pn
/ ml ?\
thel atter equation have been corrected for the
+ l / 21LRT(i o J P; F
. (D-ll)
unsteady-state case.
***
OCTOBER, 1972
997